development of aquaculture in kerala - an outline

61
Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline 65 65 3 DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE 3.1 Aquaculture: a conceptual framework 3.2 Development of Aquaculture in Kerala 3.3 Conclusion Aquaculture is an important segment of food producing sector and all over the world it has recorded the fastest growth rate in the field of food production during the last four decades. The average annual growth rate of global aquaculture production was 6.6 per cent during1970 - 2008. The share of aquaculture production in global fish production was 46 per cent in the year 2008 (FAO 2010). It is projected that by 2020 the relative shares of capture and culture fisheries in the world fish production will be reversed, with aquaculture contributing about 2/3 rd of total world fish production (Msangi, Siwa., et al, 2005) 3.1 Aquaculture: a conceptual framework 3.1.1 Definition The term aquaculture is defined in different ways. One of the simple definitions of the term is the “rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi controlled conditions” (Stickney Robert R., 2005). In this definition the word aquatic refers to a variety of water environment including freshwater, brackish water and marine. Aquatic organisms include a variety of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates that can be used as Contents

Upload: lamkhanh

Post on 01-Jan-2017

215 views

Category:

Documents


2 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

65 65

3

DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

3.1 Aquaculture: a conceptual framework

3.2 Development of Aquaculture in Kerala

3.3 Conclusion

Aquaculture is an important segment of food producing sector and all

over the world it has recorded the fastest growth rate in the field of food

production during the last four decades. The average annual growth rate of

global aquaculture production was 6.6 per cent during1970 - 2008. The

share of aquaculture production in global fish production was 46 per cent in

the year 2008 (FAO 2010). It is projected that by 2020 the relative shares of

capture and culture fisheries in the world fish production will be reversed,

with aquaculture contributing about 2/3rd of total world fish production

(Msangi, Siwa., et al, 2005)

3.1 Aquaculture: a conceptual framework 3.1.1 Definition

The term aquaculture is defined in different ways. One of the simple

definitions of the term is the “rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled

or semi controlled conditions” (Stickney Robert R., 2005). In this

definition the word aquatic refers to a variety of water environment

including freshwater, brackish water and marine. Aquatic organisms

include a variety of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates that can be used as

Cont

ents

Page 2: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

6666

human food. The production of living matter from aquatic medium is

fundamental to all aquaculture activities; aquaculture is based on the

manipulation of the natural or artificial aquatic environment for the

production of the species, which are useful to man and therefore covers all

aspects of the production of living matter in water (Barnabe Gilbert (ed),

1994 & Pillay T V R., 2001) also defined aquaculture in a very wide sense

to include farming of all aquatic animals and plants in fresh, brackish and

marine environments.

Most of the standard definitions of aquaculture emphasised rearing of

aquatic organisms under controlled or semi controlled environment to

enhance production and to ensure adequate supply of desired species in

optimum size at appropriate times for human consumption. But it is pointed

out that many traditional practices of management of wild stocks of fishes

involved similar enhancement techniques. Therefore the FAO included

ownership right also as a criterion to distinguish aquaculture from capture

fisheries. According to the FAO definition “aquaculture is the farming of

aquatic organisms including fishes, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic

plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in rearing process to

enhance production, such as stocking, fertilising, feeding, habitat

manipulation and protection from predators. Farming also implies

individual or corporate ownership of stock being cultivated” (quoted from

Ackerfors Hans, et al, 1994). Aquatic organisms that are harvested by an

individual or corporate body, who owned them throughout their rearing

period fall within the domain of aquaculture, while aquatic organisms that

are exploitable by the public as a common property resource with or

without licence requirements, are considered to be the subject of capture

fisheries. Though FAO has incorporated ‘ownership right’ in the definition

Page 3: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

67 67

of aquaculture for statistical reporting purposes (Ackerfors Hans, et al,

1994), it assumes special significance in the analysis of socio economic

aspects of development of aquaculture. Commercial aquaculture all around

the world is driven by the accelerating demand for fish and prospects of

profit making. It usually requires high capital inputs, technological know-

how and ownership or access to land and water or coastal space. Therefore

the flow of social and economic externalities of aquaculture is closely

related to the ownership of capital and property right on land.

3.1.2 Aquaculture and capture fisheries

Aquaculture is different from capture fisheries in many respects.

Capture fisheries involve hunting and gathering of fishes and other aquatic

organisms from water bodies mostly of the nature of common property

resources. The production process involves search for resources, hunting,

gathering and utilisation of the catch. The search for wild stock requires

vessels and harvesting is done with the help of fishing gears of different

types. Capture fisheries operate in marine and inland water bodies and

range from large commercial concerns to small artisanal fisheries. Quantity

and species composition of the harvest is determined by the environmental

and technological factors, the former being beyond the control of the fish

hunter. Returns from the industry depend on the quantity and species

composition of the catch and the market price. Usually fish species more

preferred in domestic and international markets command attractive prices.

With less control over the environmental factors that determine the quantity

and quality of the catch capture fisheries is characterised by production-

oriented marketing.

Page 4: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

6868

On the other hand aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms

like fish, crustaceans, oysters, mussels, seaweed etc using methods that

increase the yield above the level naturally found in environment. The

aquatic organisms are raised in enclosed grow-out systems like ponds, pen,

raft, cages etc owned/hired and controlled by the farmer. Access to land or

water is crucial in the organisation of production under aquaculture.

Cultured species are chosen on considerations like yield, marketability,

price etc. They are stocked in concentrations higher than what is found in

natural environment. The natural food processing system is changed to a

more productive, artificial or manipulated eco system in which, inputs of

energy (feed/manure) are used to increase yield per area. Harvesting is

done either on attainment of optimum size or in times of favourable market

conditions. Since production is confined to an enclosed area, harvesting

involves less effort by man and machine.

The basic elements of production in aquaculture are access to

land/water, external inputs like seed, feed, manure etc and technology.

Depending on the method of farming and technology, the use of these

inputs change in proportion. Under aquaculture, emphasis shifts from

hunting to farming. The production base changes from wild water bodies to

grow-out systems with private property rights for the farmer. Quantity and

species composition of production is the choice of the farmer, which, in

turn is, mostly, market oriented.

To sum up production process in aquaculture is determined by

biological, technological, economic and environmental factors. The farmer

using capital and technology can control many aspects of the production

process. Environmental conditions can be manipulated to a large extent and

harvesting can be timed to ensure continuous supply of fresh product. This is

Page 5: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

69 69

in contrast to capture fisheries, which are controlled only through harvesting

regulations, if at all.

3.1.3 Grow-out systems

Aquaculture involves farming of fishes and other aquatic organisms

in a variety of water environments. Different grow-out systems were

devised to provide the necessary controlled or semi controlled water base

for culture that suits the constraints imposed by biological, technological,

social, economic and environmental factors. Commonly used grow-out

systems are briefly explained below.

3.1.3.1 Ponds

Land based ponds- inland freshwater and brackish water ponds-

constitute the main grow-out system of present day aquaculture. In ponds

water management is done with feeder and drainage canals. In tidal fed coastal

ponds water management is facilitated by water control structures like slice

gates and monks, which regulate inflow and out flow of water from the pond

to adjacent natural water bodies. In more intensive systems water management

is done with the help of devices like pump sets, aerators etc. Ponds are

relatively less expensive, but the aquatic environment in ponds is subjected to

many external factors like soil and water quality, environment pollution etc,

over which the farmer has less control. So land based ponds are considered to

be less suitable for intensive aquaculture.

3.1.3.2 Tanks

Tanks are made of different materials like concrete, fibreglass, marine

plywood, metals and other land based materials, which have no toxic effect.

Aquatic environment of tanks can be protected from external influences and

that renders the farmer more control over production. Tanks are grow-out

Page 6: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

7070

systems suitable for intensive farming. The farmer has to make arrangements

for water supply, its aeration and re circulation, the cost of which may be

prohibitive.

3.1.3.3 Raceways

Raceways are designed to provide a flow-through system to enable

rearing of much denser population of animals. The system requires an

abundant flow of good quality well oxygenated water to provide respiratory

requirements of cultured animals and to flush out wastes. Raceways are

made of reinforced concrete or cement blocks. Earthen raceways are lined

with plastic material to prevent the loss of water through seepage.

Raceways are smaller in size and occupy much less space than ponds.

3.1.3.4 Cages

Another culture practice is holding or rearing of fish in cages. This is

a traditional practice in some Asian countries and is believed to have

originated in Kampuchea and later spread to Indonesia and Thailand and

other countries (Pillai TVR, 2000). Fishes are held in cages kept in water

bodies and fed till they attain marketable size. Cages usually consists of a

floating unit, framework and a flexible mesh-net under it.

3.1.3.5 Pens

Pens and enclosures are another grow-out system used in aquaculture.

Pens and enclosures are formed by damming a bay, cove, fjord or arm of the

sea, estuary or river. Barriers are constructed across narrow sections to form

the enclosure. Barriers hold sliding screens consisting of vertical aluminium or

galvanized metal bars to allow the free flow of water while holding the fish

stock. Another type of pen is formed by net barriers to partition off areas of an

open water body.

Page 7: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

71 71

3.1.3.6 Rafts

Rafts are generally made of bamboo poles or metal rods with buoys at

the top for floating in water. They are used in the culture of oysters,

mussels and seaweeds in open seas.

3.1.4 Classification of aquaculture systems

Aquaculture practices can be classified on the basis of a number of

criteria like species cultured, environment of culture, geographical location

etc.

3.1.4.1 Classification on the basis of species cultured

A wide variety of finfish, shellfish and other aquatic organisms are

cultured throughout the world. The species composition of culture depends

on environmental, biological and economic suitability of cultured items. On

the basis of species selected for culture, aquaculture is classified into

monoculture and poly culture / composite culture. Under monoculture a

single species is cultured in the grow-out system under varying intensities.

In poly culture or composite culture a judicious mix of different species is

made so that cultured animals utilize the full potential of the water column.

3.1.4.2 Classification on the basis of environment

On the basis of aquatic environment, aquaculture can be classified

into fresh water (with very low concentration of dissolved salt) and

brackish water (saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as sea water, like

water in estuaries) aquaculture. Culture of aquatic animals and plants in

open seas, using grow-out systems like cages, pens, rafts etc, is called Mari

culture. The species grown and culture practices differ under these systems

because of the differences in aquatic environment and technology involved.

Page 8: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

7272

3.1.4.3 Classification on the basis of geographical area

On the basis of geographical area of culture, aquaculture practices are

grouped into inland aquaculture and coastal aquaculture. Inland aquaculture

refers to culture of fish and prawns based on freshwater bodies like ponds,

tanks, canals, lakes, rivers, reservoirs etc. Coastal aquaculture means land

based and water based brackish and marine aquaculture practices. The

Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005, enacted by the Parliament of

India defined coastal aquaculture as “culturing, under controlled conditions

in ponds, pens, enclosures or otherwise, in coastal areas, of shrimp, prawn,

fish or any other aquatic life in saline or Brackish water; but does not

include freshwater aquaculture” (Coastal Aquaculture Authority, 2006).

3.1.4.4 Classification on the basis of intensity of culture

From an economic point of view the most significant criterion is

intensity; i.e., the classification into extensive, semi-intensive and intensive

forms of culture (Asche, Frank., and Fahmida, Khatun., 2006). The term

intensity refers to combination of two variables: the amount of biological

material harvested per unit area of culture system and the degree of

manipulation of natural process (Pillai, T.V.R., 2001). Capital intensity of the

production process is positively related to the degree of intensity of culture

system. Measures of intensity include stocking density, production by area,

feeding regimes, input costs, while the most interesting feature is the degree of

control over the production process. In fact there is a continuum of operation

modes ranging from very high degree of control in intensive aquaculture to

basically no control in traditional extensive systems of culture.

In intensive system of aquaculture, aquatic organisms are reared in

grow-out systems like land based ponds, tanks, pens, raceways etc in which

the eco system is manipulated, using capital and technology, and managed to

Page 9: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

73 73

entail a high degree of control over the growth of bio mass. Intensive

aquaculture systems are characterized by high inputs of energy (balanced high

energy feed/ manure/ water quality), selective stocking of seeds exclusively

procured from hatcheries, high-density stocking, short-term food chains with

low energy losses and high yield per unit area.

The eco system under intensive culture is highly manipulated, not

natural. It serves only one ecological function, consumption – to gain

maximum body weight per unit of food intake. All other ecological functions

such as decomposition of wastes, exchange of gases,, and production of

oxygen are accomplished artificially, by mechanical aeration and flushing. As

a result the possibility of environmental degradation and pollution is higher

under intensive system of aquaculture. In other words intensive systems of

aquaculture attempt to reap maximum internal economies, while giving rise to

many externalities that may prove to be counter productive.

Under the extensive system of aquaculture, intensity of culture practices

is very low. It involves very low degree of control over the environment,

nutrition and yield. Stocking is not selective. Very often fishes from the wild

are stocked and it may contain both desired and undesired species and are

allowed to grow to marketable size. The proportion of high-energy input used

is very low or nil and output per unit of area is very low. The traditional

practices of aquaculture are operated on an extensive basis as farmers do very

little to control growth of biomass.

Under extensive system of culture the eco system is very similar to

the natural one and the degree of manipulation is very low. As capital and

technology employed are of very low levels, output under extensive system

depends on the natural productivity of water bodies and area of land used

Page 10: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

7474

for culture. However, as the eco system is better placed to serve its natural

functions, the possibility of environmental degradation and pollution is

very low under extensive systems aquaculture. In other words, extensive

systems of aquaculture are more sustainable in nature.

The semi-intensive systems of aquaculture are production modes that lie

between intensive and extensive systems of culture. They are characterized by

some degree of environment manipulation that entails a higher degree of

control over production than in extensive systems of culture. Semi-intensive

systems are characterized by selective stocking of species with hatchery seeds

at comparatively higher densities, supplementary feeding, and water quality

management. The yield per unit of area will also be higher than under

extensive systems.

3.1.4.5 Integrated aquaculture

Integrated aquaculture is yet another culture practice that gained

wider acceptance among farmers on grounds of higher productivity, larger

income and sustainability. Integrated farming involves a sequential linkage

between two or more farming activities. In integrated fish farming, fish

becomes the major commodity. Integrated fish farming can be of two types

(Pillai, N.G.K., and Katiha, P.K., 2004):

a) Systems with no by-product utilization from one to other sub

system, but with optimum utilization of farming space and time.

E.g., Paddy cum fish culture and

b) Systems, where by-product, i.e., waste from one sub system is

being utilized for sustenance of the other. E.g., Fish cum pig/

poultry / duck / cattle farming.

Page 11: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

75 75

3.2 Development of Aquaculture in Kerala

Kerala occupies a very prominent position among the states in India,

particularly with regard to the development of brackish water aquaculture in

the country. The state has 3rd position in the country with regard to area under

shrimp culture and production of cultured shrimp. Table 3.1 give details of

shrimp culture in major cultured shrimp producing states in the country.

Table 3.1: State wise details of Shrimp Production in India

Sl. No State

Area Developed

(ha)

2009 - 10 Productivity (MT/ha/yr)

Area Utilized

(ha)

Production (MT)

1 West Bengal 51659.00 47488.00 33685.00 0.71

2 Orissa 13843.00 4769.00 6149.00 1.29

3 Andhra Pradesh 58145.20 33754.00 39537.00 1.17

4 Tamil Nadu 6109.33 2381.49 2702.38 1.13

5 Kerala 15099.39 9544.84 7096.00 0.74

6 Karnataka 3708.84 1484.00 1581.00 1.07

7 Goa 867.00 272.00 319.00 1.17

8 Maharashtra 1329.56 650.86 1243.79 1.91

9 Gujarat 2214.48 1915.79 3605.72 1.88

Total 1,52,975.80 1,02,259.98 95,918.89 0.94

Source: Annual Report 2010-11, MPEDA, Kochi

In the case of freshwater prawn culture the state has 3rd rank with

regard to area under culture and 4th rank with regard to production among

the states in India. Table 3.2 gives state wise details freshwater prawn

culture in the country.

Page 12: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

7676

Table 3.2: State wise Freshwater Prawn Production in India

Sl. No State

Area Developed

(ha)

2009 - 10 Productivity (MT/ha/yr)

Area Utilized

(ha)

Production (MT)

1 West Bengal 4825.00 3325.00 1725.00 0.52

2 Orissa 3786.00 447.61 1724.07 3.85

3 Andhra Pradesh 10913.00 2823.00 1759.14 0.62

4 Tamil Nadu 465.60 161.98 111.97 0.69

5 Kerala 2594.17 1378.83 398.74 0.29

6 Karnataka 285.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 22989.26 8153.00 6567.92 0.81

Source: Annual Report 2010-11, MPEDA, Kochi

Development of aquaculture in an area depends on natural resource

endowment and availability of external inputs and technology. In regions

where extensive system of aquaculture is widely practiced availability of

natural resources is the key determinant.

3.2.1 Resource endowment

Kerala occupies foremost position among the maritime states of the

country with regard to fishery resources. The state has a coastline of 590

km (10% of the coast line of the country), which provide habitats to many

species of fishes, invertebrates, plants, algae and other aquatic organisms.

In addition the state is endowed with rich resources of fresh and brackish

water bodies suitable for aquaculture.

3.2.1.1 Fresh water resources

The state has a total fresh water area of 1,58,358 ha consisting of

reservoirs, private ponds, tanks, rivers etc (Kerala Fisheries at a Glance

2007). The state has 41 west flowing rivers and 3 east flowing rivers,

Page 13: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

77 77

together contributing nearly 54 % of freshwater resources of the state.

Reservoirs account for 27 % and ponds and tanks contributing 17 % of the

area under freshwater. Details of freshwater resources suitable for

development of aquaculture in the state are given in Table 3.3. Out of the

total area of 1,58,358 ha , 32,000 ha is readily available for freshwater

aquaculture, but actual utilization is less than 1/3rd of the potential (Director

of Fisheries, GOK, 2007).

Table 3.3: Freshwater Resources of Kerala

Sl No. Item Number Area (ha)

1 Private ponds 35763 21986

2 Panchayat ponds 6848 1487

3 Quarry ponds 879 341

4 Holy ponds 2689 480

5 Village ponds and other water holds 185 496

6 Irrigation tanks 852 2835

7 Public sector freshwater fish farms 13 85

8 Freshwater springs 7 …

9 Freshwater lakes 9 1620

10 Water falls 11 …

11 Rivers 44 85000

12 Reservoirs 53 42890

13 Check dams 80 259

14 Bund/Barrier/Anicut/Shutter water holds 70 879

Total 158358

Source: Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala 2005, Dept. of Fisheries.

3.2.1.2 Brackish water resources

A very important geographic feature of the state that contributes to its

brackish water resource potential is the existence of a large number of

Page 14: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

7878

backwaters bordering the coastline, into which open many rivers flowing

west from Western Ghats. The chain of backwaters is separated from the

Arabian Sea by a narrow strip of land, composed of sand and black clay or

silt. Very often backwaters and sea come close that only the sand beach

separates them. There are also frequent communications between sea and

backwaters, either through perennial openings, which allow free admixture

of salt and freshwater or through periodical openings, which allow flow of

water from one to another only during certain seasons of the year. In

several places the sand bank that separates sea and backwater is so shallow

as to allow the water flow from the former to the latter during high tide.

Owing to these factors and ‘brine percolation’ through the coastline the

backwaters contributes to the formation of brackish water zones extending

over a wide area in association with low lying lands, paddy fields and the

network canals. According to conventional estimates the total brackish

water area of Kerala is 2,42,600 ha. Due to various reasons the area available

for brackish water aquaculture is only 65,000 ha (Director of Fisheries,

GOK, 2007), details of which are given in Table No: 3.4

Table 3.4: Brackish Water Resources of Kerala

Sl No Item Number Area (ha)

1 Backwaters 53 46129

2 Prawn filtration fields 234 12873

3 Public sector brackish water fish farms 12 227

4 Estuaries 84 …

5 Mangrove area … 1924

Total brackish water area … 65213

Source: Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala 2005, Dept. of Fisheries.

Page 15: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

79 79

Ernakulam district alone accounts for nearly one fourth of the

brackish water area in the state. District wise distribution of brackish water

resources in the state is presented in Table No: 3.5. The low lying paddy

fields, known as ‘pokkali’ fields in central Kerala and ‘kaipad’ fields in

northern Kerala, constitute the major part of wetland resources used for

traditional seasonal shrimp filtration.

Table 3.5: District wise details of Brackish Water Area in Kerala (including Backwaters and Canals)

Sl. No Name of District Area (ha) Percentage

1 Kasaragod 3248.25 4.98

2 Kannur 5944.10 9.11

3 Kozhikode 4162.44 6.38

4 Malappuram 1796.26 2.75

5 Thrissur 4271.94 6.55

6 Ernakulam 6212.71 24.86

7 Kottayam 4326.74 6.63

8 Alapuzha 5222.92 3.34

9 Kollam 8603.62 13.39

10 Thiruvananthapuram 1423.98 2.18

Total 65212.96 100.00

Source: Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala 2005, Dept. of Fisheries, GOK.

3.2.2 History of Aquaculture in Kerala

Scientific aquaculture in the state is hardly three decades old, but on

traditional lines it has a long history. Paddy fields and low lying areas in

flood plains and those connected to estuaries and estuarine creeks became

the cradle of aquaculture, where, inundation caused by monsoon rain or

tidal waters brought natural seeds of finfish and shellfish, which

automatically got trapped after the water receded. This eventually gave rise

Page 16: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

8080

to the practice of ‘trapping and holding’ till the attainment of optimum size.

This marked the beginning of aquaculture in the state and other parts of

India. The ‘trapping and holding’ method was in vogue in the ‘Pokkali’

paddy fields of Kerala, the ‘Bheris’ of West Bengal, the ‘Gheris’ of Orissa,

‘Khar’ lands of Karnataka and ‘Khazam’ lands of Goa. (Pillai SM,

et. al.,2002).

The traditional practice of shrimp filtration, locally known as

‘chemmeen kettu’ or ‘chemmeen vattu’ in central parts of Kerala and

‘chemmeen kandi’ in northern Kerala, is widespread in the coastal wetlands

of the state. The industry is more than a century old. First descriptive

account of the traditional prawn culture in Kerala was given by Panikkar

(1937). As per his account, “ the industry first flourished in the backwaters

adjoining Parur taluk. Owing to an increasing demand for prawns and to

high prices prawns began to fetch, the industry rapidly spread to the

adjoining taluks of Sherthalay and Vaikom and several places in the Cochin

state. This became more or less a regular occupation of fishermen

inhabiting the banks of the Vembanad Lake and several industrial

establishments sprang up for the collection and preservation of prawns for

the market”. The activity was sustained mainly on export of dried prawn

kernels to markets in Rangoon, Singapore, Colombo, Hong Kong and

Mauritius. The traditional practice of shrimp culture is still practiced,

except for some minor modifications, in various parts of the state. Under

the traditional system shrimp filtration is practiced as a rotational crop in

paddy fields, during the period November – April, when paddy cultivation

is impossible due to increased salinity of water and soil.

Aquaculture on modern, scientific lines in the state is of recent origin.

While fresh water aquaculture of fin fishes still remains largely

Page 17: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

81 81

unorganized and stagnant, aquaculture of prawns (fresh water) and shrimps

(brackish water) has made rapid progress in the recent past. Attempts to

commercialize the activity prompted the farmers to introduce scientific

methods of selective stocking at relatively higher densities, supplementary

feeding, protection from predators and diseases, water management etc.

However, the degree of intensity attained in culture practices in the state is

very low, as reflected in the fact that farms in state belong to ‘traditional’ or

‘improved traditional’ and ‘modified extensive’ category, employing

extensive methods of farming.

3.2.3 Freshwater Aquaculture 3.2.3.1 Culture Practices

Fresh water aquaculture in the state is mainly carried out in land

based water bodies (ponds, tanks, paddy fields, and other water

impoundments, reservoirs etc). Most commonly cultured species are three

Indian major carps viz., Catla, Rohu, and Mrigal. In addition, commercial

aquaculture of fish/prawn like exotic Carps (viz., Common carp, Grass

carp, Silver carp), Murrells, Tilapia, and Freshwater prawn, etc is also

becoming popular in the state.

Poly culture of Indian carps or Indian and exotic carps together

(composite culture) is more common than monoculture. The species mix of

3-6 carps including three Indian major carps and three exotic carps is very

popular. Selection of cultured species depends on ecological conditions of

different water bodies and market demand for the fish / prawn. Standard

package of practices for carp poly culture include elimination of predator

fishes and weeds by use of certain chemicals or plant derivatives, stocking of

Indian major carps and exotic carps at densities 4,000-10,000 fingerlings /ha,

pond fertilization with application of organic manures like cattle dung or

Page 18: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

8282

poultry droppings and inorganic fertilizers and provision of supplementary

feed and water quality management (Pillai, N.G.K., and Katiha, P.K., 2004).

Under intensive farming stocking at higher densities is supported with more

scientific fertilization of ponds, balanced nutritional supplementary feeding,

aeration of water, fish heath management etc.

In Kerala freshwater prawn culture on commercial scale has become

more popular in recent years. Giant freshwater prawn (scampi) is a native

species of the rivers of central Kerala and is one of the most suitable

species for culture in fresh and low saline waters. Rapid growth, large size,

greater disease resistance and very high demand in both domestic and

international markets have made giant fresh water prawn a prime species

for freshwater aquaculture in the state. In Kerala scampi culture, in terms of

area coverage and production are concentrated in Kottayam, Alapuzha, and

Thrissur districts. Monoculture of freshwater prawn and its poly culture

with carps are common.

Integrated fish farming with paddy and livestock is also emerging as

a sustainable and economically viable culture practice. Integration of prawn

/ fish culture with paddy is more common. Farmers integrate prawn / fish

culture to paddy cultivation as a follow up crop. Usually extensive method

of cultivation is followed. In some cases, supplementary feeding is also

done on a limited scale to enhance production.

In Kuttanad, an area spread over Alapuzha, Kottayam and

Pathanamthitta districts, prawn / fish culture is done on a rotational basis,

after a crop of paddy, mostly from March to October. Both monoculture

and poly culture are practiced. Three types of grow-out systems are used in

Kuttanad: homestead ponds, coconut plantations, and polders (paddy fields

Page 19: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

83 83

in Kuttanad are mostly reclaimed from backwaters), with the polders being

the most important one. According to Kurup, B.M., and Ranjeet, K.,

(2002), production of freshwater prawn ranged from 95 to 1300 Kg / ha in

monoculture, while poly culture yielded 70 to 500 Kg / ha of freshwater

prawn and 200 to 1200 Kg / ha of fish. Freshwater prawn culture is

practiced in Koal lands in Thrissur district. Scampi cultivation is done after

a paddy crop, during March to October, under extensive method. Farmers

practice poly culture in which scampi is combined with carps. As per the

estimate by Sebastian, C.D., (2006), production level of scampi ranged

between 150-250 Kg / ha and that of fish varied from 125 to 200 Kg / ha.

Another important form of freshwater aquaculture in the State is

reservoir based freshwater aquaculture. Fish culture in reservoirs in the

state was started in early 1980s, when the Department of fisheries formed

fishery co-operative societies of SC/ST people living around the reservoir

area, with fishing rights in reservoirs. However, fishing activities in

reservoirs in the state intensified only after the launching of the Indo-

German Reservoir Fisheries Development Project (IGRFDP) in 1992. Out

of the 53 reservoirs, only 10 are used for fish culture in the state. The

freshwater species cultured are carps and freshwater prawn.

Ornamental fish culture is another emerging field of aquaculture, with

vast export potential, in the state. According to a survey conducted by the

Department of Fisheries in 2001, there are 163 ornamental fish trade units

in the state (Velayudhan, T.D., 2005). At present Kerala exports only wild

caught ornamental fishes to international markets. Indiscriminate collection

of fish from the wild may adversely affect biodiversity. A more sustainable

alternative is captive breeding of exotic and native fishes.

Page 20: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

8484

3.2.3.2 Production

In Kerala capture fisheries still continues to be major source of inland

fish production. Though endowed with vast resource potential, freshwater

aquaculture in the state has recorded a very slow progress till very recent

times. However, aquaculture has emerged as an important contributor to

inland fish production after mid 1980s. As freshwater aquaculture still

remains a highly unorganized activity (Director of Fisheries, 2007)

secondary data is not available with regard to area under culture, culture

practices, total and species-wise production etc.

In the absence of segregated data on production under freshwater

aquaculture, an analysis of its impact on inland fish production is

difficult. However, an analysis of trend in inland fish landings and

changes in species composition clearly indicates that development of

aquaculture has contributed significantly to inland fish production in the

state.

0102030405060708090

1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007

Year

Qua

ntity

('00

0' T

ons)

QUANTITY ('000' TONS)

Fig. 3.1: Inland Fish landings in Kerala from 1980 to 2007 (000’ MT)

Page 21: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

85 85

The graph of inland fish landings in Kerala, from 1980 to 2007, show

that there was a near stagnation in production prior to 1986, moderate

growth in the period 1986 to 1997 and accelerated growth since then. The

phase of moderate growth coincided with the introduction of freshwater

aquaculture in the state and the accelerated growth in third phase is

definitely the result of the successful implementation of Janakeeya Matsya

Krishi (Peoples’ Campaign for Aquaculture) programme during the 9th

State Five-year Plan (1997-2002). Given the fact that capture fisheries,

world over, has reached a plateau of resource utilization and experienced a

near stagnation in production (FAO, 2002), accelerated growth in inland

fish production of the state can be attributed to the impact of development

of freshwater aquaculture.

The inference drawn above is further supported by the data on

production of four major species of carps that are commonly cultured in the

state.

Table 3.6: Production of Four cultured Species of Freshwater Fishes (Qty-Tonnes)

Species 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2001-02 2004-05

Catla 2 48 383 734 6624 6700

Rohu 3 89 425 642 5904 6710

Mrigal 1 45 345 598 5065 4779

Common carps 8 123 612 1056 7546 6666

Total 14 305 1765 3030 25139 24855

Percent of inland fish production

0.05 1.07 4.86 6.11 32.21 32.51

Source: Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala

Page 22: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

8686

The share of the four carp species, Catla, Rohu, Mrigal and common

carps, which are the main stay freshwater aquaculture in the state, in total

inland fish landings in the state, was les than 1 % prior to mid 1980s,

gradually increased to 6 % in mid 1990s, just prior to the introduction of

the JMK programme and then accelerated to 32.5 % in 2004-05. In the

context of near stagnation, if not deceleration, prior to 1986 in production

from inland capture fisheries, it is highly reasonable to assume that the high

rate of growth in inland fish production during and after the 9th Five-year

plan is the successful outcome of freshwater aquaculture in the state.

Scampi (freshwater prawn) culture is a very important component of

freshwater aquaculture in Kerala. Scampi culture is relatively a new

enterprise in freshwater aquaculture in the state, and has vast potential-

environmental, ecological and economic- for speedy development. Area

under scampi culture has increased from 770 ha in 2001-02 to 2477 ha in

2008-09 and then declined to 1379 ha in 2009-10. Production has increased

from 220 metric tonnes in 2001-02 to 540 metric tonnes. 2007-08 and

declined to 399 metric tonnes in 2009-10. Production of fresh water prawn

in the state is affected by variations in area under culture and productivity.

Table. 3.7: Details of Giant Freshwater Prawn Culture in Kerala During 2001-02 – 2009-10

Details

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

2006

-07

2007

-08

2008

-09

2009

-10

Area (ha) 770 830 886 911 1251 1211 2172 2477 1379

Production (MT) 220 200 238 268 364 88 540 513 399

Productivity (Kg/ha) 286 241 269 294 291 73 249 207 289

Source: MPEDA, Kochi

Page 23: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

87 87

Table 3.8: District wise Details of Giant Freshwater Prawn Culture in Kerala – 2006-07

Sl. No. Districts Area(ha) Production (MT)

Productivity (Kg / Ha)

1 Kollam 10.00 2.00 200.00

2 Alapuzha 30.00 4.00 133.33

3 Kottayam 21.16 6.86 324.20

4 Thrissur 1111.47 51.5 4.63

5 Palakad 37.00 22.16 598.92

Total 1209.63 86.52 71.53

Source: MPEDA, Kochi

The aquaculture of giant freshwater prawn is mainly concentrated in

the Kole lands in Thrissur, which accounted for 92% of area under

culture and nearly 60% of production in the year 2006-07. However,

production per hectare of culture was the highest in Palakad and lowest

in Thrissur.

Even though Kerala has the 3rd position among the states in India in

scampi production, the state is far behind Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal

- the states that rank first and second respectively, with regard to production

and productivity.

Reservoir fisheries in Kerala continue to be in a very backward

position with regard to production and productivity. The average

productivity per hectare is very low, ranging from 2.9Kg/ha in

Malampuzha reservoir to 74.9Kg/ha in Chulliar dam, in the year 2004-05.

Details of production and productivity in reservoirs in Kerala is given

Table No: 3.9

Page 24: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

8888

Table 3.9: Details of Fish Production from Reservoirs, During 2003-04 and 2004-05

Sl No

Name of Reservoir

2003-04 2004-05

Area (ha)

Catch (Kg)

Catch/ha* (Kg)

Area (ha)

Catch (Kg)

Catch/ha* (Kg)

1 Pothundy 363 4860.9 13.4 363 5234.45 14.4 2 Mangalam 393 15902 40.5 393 14523.90 37.0 3 Walayar 25 458.35 18 259 3351 12.9 4 Kanjirapuzha 512 2434.1 48 512 2965.5 58 5 Chulliyar 159 4288 26.9 159 11916.90 74.9 6 Meenkara 259 27533.21 106.3 259 26126.56 100.9 7 Malampuzha 2313 343.15 0.15 2313 6754.12 2.9 8 Peechi NA 4108.35 - - 6369.60 5.04

Source: Inland Fisheries Statistics of Kerala 2005, Department of Fisheries * Estimates based on data on production and area under cultivation.

However, it is reported that recorded catches from reservoirs in Kerala

are necessarily an under estimation for several reasons. Some catch (up to 30

%) is side channeled (to private markets at higher prices) by fishermen with

harvesting rights. It is estimated that the actual quantity harvested may be up to

seven times officially recorded (Peters, D.M., and Feustel, C., 1997).

3.2.4 Brackish water Aquaculture

The aquaculture scenario in the state is dominated by shrimp culture.

The backwaters of the state are endowed with a wide variety of shrimps

that can be cultured to enhance production on a commercial scale. Among

the cultured species, the most important are tiger prawn (Kara) and White

Prawn (Naran), which are of very high demand both in domestic and

international markets. Other commercially important species of shrimps are

Green Tiger Shrimp (Kuzhikara), Brown Shrimp (Thelli), Indian Prawn

(Choodan), Yellow Shrimp (Kazhanthan) etc.

Page 25: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

89 89

Brackish water finfish culture is also practiced in the state either as

monoculture or as poly culture with shrimp. Important species of brackish

water fin fishes cultured in the state are Milk Fish (Poomeen), Mullet

(Thirutha) and Pearl Spot (Karimeen). On a limited scale Mussels farming,

Oyster farming and Mud Crab fattening are also practiced in the state.

However, as the non-shrimp component of the output being negligible, the

brackish water aquaculture in the state is identified with shrimp culture.

Brackish water shrimp farming in the state is concentrated in Ernakulam

and Alapuzha districts, which together account for nearly 85 per cent of area

under culture. District wise details of shrimp culture are shown in table 3.10.

Ernakulam district ranks first in aquaculture production of shrimp in the state.

Four districts; Ernakulam, Alapuzha, Thrissur and Kollam, together account

for nearly 99 % of total culture shrimp production in Kerala.

Table 3.10: District wise details of Shrimp Aquaculture Production in Kerala - 2004-05 & 2006-07

District 2004-05* 2006-07**

Area (Ha)

Production (MT) Percent Area

(Ha) Production

(MT) Percent

Kollam 170.00 168.12 2.29 200.00 125.00 2.53

Alapuzha 1319.47 1064.83 14.54 2074.81 1089.42 21.99

Ernakulam 10975.61 5093.71 69.51 6569.59 2853.23 57.59

Kottayam 26.59 13.65 0.19 32.00 28.50 0.58

Thrissur 655.09 480.27 6.56 1408.75 703.08 14.19

Malapuram - - - 1.20 1.14 0.02

Kozhikode 53.42 43.42 0.59 34.84 22.53 0.45

Kannur 761.18 424.45 5.79 154.92 126.98 2.57

Kasargod 29.17 38.8 0.53 5.35 4.09 0.08

Total 13990.53 7327.25 100.00 10481.26 4953.97 100.00

Source: * Director of Fisheries, Government of Kerala (2007)

Page 26: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

9090

Even though Kerala has 3rd position in India with regard to cultured

shrimp production in India, her contribution to total production in the

country was only 7.4 per cent. Productivity (yield/ha/year) of shrimp

farming in the state is also less than the national average (MPEDA, Annual

Report 2010-11).

Low level of production and productivity of shrimp culture in Kerala

can be attributed to the non-utilization of available resources and

dominance of traditional methods of shrimp culture. In the state still only

around 21 % of the available brackish water area are brought under shrimp

cultivation and 79 % of the available resources remain unutilized. Table

No: 3.11 give details of brackish water resource utilization in the state.

Table 3.11: District wise Brackish Water Area Utilization in Kerala (2000-01)

Sl No Name of District BW Area available

(ha)

Area already

used (ha)

Unused area (ha)

Percent of unused area

(ha) 1 Thiruvananthapuram 1424 3 1421 99.8 2 Kollam 8604 113 8491 98.7 3 Alapuzha 15223 783 14440 94.8 4 Ernakulam 16213 11016 5197 32.1 5 Kottayam 4327 27 4300 99.4 6 Thrissur 4272 1149 3123 73.1 7 Malapuram 1796 5 1791 99.7 8 Kozhikode 4162 27 4135 99.4 9 Kannur 5944 502 5442 91.6 10 Kasargod 3248 21 3237 99.4 Total 65213 13646 51567 79.1

Source: MPEDA, Kochi

With regard to the utilization brackish water potential, Ernakulam

district stands first, with nearly 68 % of available area is brought under

Page 27: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

91 91

cultivation. In all districts except Ernakulam and Thrissur, more than 90 %

of available potential remains unutilized.

Another main reason for low production and productivity is the

predominance of traditional methods of culture. In Kerala in nearly 70

% of area under shrimp farming, traditional prawn filtration / improved

traditional method is practiced. And the rest 30 % are under modified

extensive method of farming.

Table 3.12: Details of Shrimp Culture Practices in Kerala (2006-07)

Traditional Area (ha) Improved Traditional Area (ha) Total (ha)

7259.07 3222.38 10481.45

69.26 30.74 100.00 Source: MPEDA, Kochi

3.2.4.1 Culture Practices

Two systems of shrimp culture are prevalent in the state. Different

terminologies are used to denote them. While MPEDA classified them as

extensive and modified extensive systems, the Coastal Aquaculture Authority

used to refer to them as traditional/improved traditional and scientific extensive

systems of shrimp culture. Even though traditional (extensive) farms dominate

the scenario, modified / scientific extensive farming is also prevalent in the state.

3.2.4.1.a. Traditional / Extensive Shrimp Farming.

Alagarswami. K, 1995, characterized the traditional / Extensive system

of shrimp farming as “ fully tidal-fed; salinity variations according to

monsoon; seed resources of mixed species from adjoining creeks and canals by

auto stocking; dependent on natural food; water intake and drainage managed

through sluice gates depending on local tidal effect; no feeding; periodic

harvesting during full and new moon periods; collection at sluice gates by

Page 28: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

9292

traps and bag nets; seasonal fields alternating paddy (monsoon) crop with

shrimp/fish crop (inter-monsoon)”. In Kerala the traditional system of shrimp

farming or shrimp filtration is practiced mainly in paddy fields in low-lying

coastal areas. Two types of shrimp farming systems are traditionally practiced

in Kerala: Seasonal shrimp farming in the coastal agricultural wetlands

(Pokkali paddy fields in central Kerala and Kaipad lands in northern Kerala) in

rotation with rice cultivation and Perennial farming of shrimp/fish in low-lying

areas adjacent to backwaters and canals, which are not suitable for paddy

cultivation. In vernacular, the former is known as ‘Chemmeen kettu /

Chemmeen vattu / Chemmeen kandi (in north Malabar) and the latter is known

as ‘Varshakettu’. Perennial and seasonal fields are largely concentrated in

central part of Kerala, with Ernakulam district having the maximum area.

Other districts, where shrimp culture is practiced on a significant scale are

Kollam, Kottayam, Alapuzha, Thrissur, Malapuram, Kannur and Kasargod. Of

the total area under traditional system of shrimp farming, nearly 84 % are

seasonal paddy fields. Details are given in Table 3.13.

Table 3.13: Area under Traditional Shrimp farming in Kerala

District Perennial fields (ha) Seasonal fields (ha) Total (ha)

Kollam 24.0 - 24.0

Kottayam - 13.6 13.6

Ernakulam 941.9 9655.1 10597.0

Alapuzha - 450.6 450.6

Thrissur 156.0 - 156.0

Malapuram 27.7 307.7 335.4

Kannur 900.0 500.0 1400.0

Kasargod - 10.0 10.0

Total 2049.6 10937.0 12986.6

Source: Pillai SM., et., al 2002

Page 29: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

93 93

Seasonal shrimp filtration is done in low-lying paddy fields,

commonly known as ‘pokkali’ fields, named after the popular, salt resistant

variety of paddy cultivated in these fields. These fields are connected to

Arabian Sea through backwaters and canals. In these fields paddy is cultivated

during the monsoon period, July to October, when salinity of water is very

low. However, farming operations will begin by the middle of April. Paddy

cultivation is a highly labour intensive process and is the main source of

employment and livelihood for coastal rural population consisting of a large

proportion of agricultural workers and traditional fishermen mostly belonging

to backward communities. Purushan K.S, (2004), has estimated that 207 man-

days of labour per hectare are required for paddy cultivation during monsoon

period. Traditionally purely organic farming was practiced in paddy

cultivation. As the land was highly fertile and the plant was salt and disease

resistant, there was no need of using chemical fertilizer, pesticides etc.

After the harvest paddy, pokkali fields are used for shrimp/fish farming.

Fishing operations begin in November, soon after the North – East Monsoon,

by which time water in backwaters begins to be brackish in nature. Shrimp

farming is done by landowners themselves or, as in most cases, by ‘leasers’,

who bid the right to do shrimp farming in pokkali fields during November-

April. Auction of pokkali fields are organized by ‘Karshaka Samajams,

associations formed by owners of land. Government of Kerala has introduced

a licensing system to regulate shrimp filtration in paddy fields in 1974. As per

the system licenses are issued, for a period of five months from November to

the middle of April, to leasers for shrimp farming in paddy fields. The number

of licenses issued for seasonal shrimp farming in the state has fallen from 1208

in 1980-81 to 398 in 2003-04, while area of culture increased from 5651.50 ha

to 7908.92 ha during the same period. It clearly indicates the transition of

Page 30: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

9494

shrimp farming from a small-scale activity to a large-scale enterprise. Out of

the 398 licenses issued in 2003-04, 384 were in Ernakulam district. As per the

land use policy of the Government of Kerala, seasonal fields cannot be

converted into permanent shrimp farms. Paddy cultivation has to be carried out

in these fields during monsoon season.

Immediately after the auction, preparation of paddy fields for shrimp

filtration begins. Preparation works involve repair and re fixation of sluice

gates1, removal of weeds, plugging holes and tunnels in bunds, digging canals

criss-crossing the field and a channel leading to the harvest pit near the sluice

gate etc.

Shrimp/fish stocking is done with the help of tidal effect of water.

Juvenile shrimp/fish are allowed to enter the field through the sluice gates

during spring tide. In order to attract juveniles, a small hurricane lamp is

hung at the inner mouth of the sluice gate. Sluice gates play a very important

role in traditional shrimp farming. They facilitate regular water flow in and

out of the field through the filtration process. During high tides the mouth of

the sluice gates are fitted with nets of larger mesh size, so that juvenile

shrimp/fish and larvae can enter the field. During low tides, the net with big

mesh size is replaced by one with smaller mesh size, so that juveniles do not

escape from the field. Also the sluice gates are fitted in such a way that it

permits maximum stocking of juveniles and prevents escape of shrimp/fish

from the field. Thus the stocking is automatic and continuous, effected with

the help of tidal flow of water. The sluice gates provide the means of water

exchange during the grow-out period.

1 Sluice gate is a rectangular box like structure with wooden planks at the mouth to

regulate the flow of water. By placing one plank above the other in the middle groove in the sluice, desired level of water is maintained.

Page 31: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

95 95

Juveniles of shrimp/fish stocked in the field feed on the abundant live

food available in these naturally productive systems. Paddy fields contain a

lot of organic matter left after the paddy harvest and plenty of organic and

inorganic matter brought down by November floods. So growth of shrimp

in these fields is very fast.

The juveniles are allowed to grow for at least one month. Harvesting

begins by the end of December or beginning of January. Usually harvesting is

done during a period of eight days, in every fortnight,, four days before and four

days after the full moon and new moon. The harvesting period is locally known

as ‘thakkom’. Menon, M.K., (1954), has pointed out that originally the practice

was to hold shrimp/fish for 2-3 months in the field and harvested in one attempt.

Over time the system was modified and attained the present practice of

continuous stocking and repeated harvest.

Different methods are used for harvesting in traditional fields. The

most important method is sluice net operation. Before the harvesting begins

maximum water is let in to the field during high tide. A conical net is fitted

to the mouth of the sluice gate. Lights are provided in the inner mouth of

the sluice to attract shrimp/fish to sluice gate. During low tide sluice gate is

opened by removing wooden planks. As the water flows out shrimp/fish is

collected at the bag portion of the cod end of the conical net and are

periodically removed. Once the out flow of water becomes feeble, the

sluice gate is closed and harvesting is stopped. Harvesting is usually done

in the night.

During the last thakkom in the lease period, owners/leasers use cast

netting and gill netting for fishing. After the sluice gate operation one cast

net is used for harvesting shrimp and a gill net to harvest fishes that

Page 32: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

9696

remain in the field. Nets are operated by labourers already employed in

the farm and are paid one fifth of the catch as wage. In order to collect the

shrimp/fish left in the field even after net operations, farmers/leasers

employ women in the neighbour hood for hand picking. The wage paid to

them is also one fifth of the catch. Net operations and hand picking are

done in the night. In addition to the methods described above, in perennial

fields a native technique of fishing using two canoes, called ‘paachu

vanchi’ is employed for shrimp/fish harvest.

The lease period expires by April 14th. The field remains a common pool

for the next two months, during which any one can fish from these fields. The

practice is known as ‘kalaki pidutham’ (gleaning rights). During this period,

agricultural workers, mainly women of the backward community and traditional

fishermen do fishing in these fields. This open access to fishing continues till

works of paddy cultivation starts.

The ‘kalaki pidutham’ is a traditional institution that has been in

existence for decades. This is a social and reciprocal arrangement of the

land owing classes to acknowledge the services of agricultural workers

(Ranga MR., 2006). This arrangement served the lively hood, income and

food security for the fishing communities and agricultural workers.

Thomson, (2004) has estimated that the income generated from ‘kalaki

pidutham’ is sufficient enough to sustain livelihoods of rural agricultural

workers and fishermen.

Estimated average annual production of shrimp/fish in seasonal

fields is 903 Kg/ha in seasonal fields and 839 Kg/ha in perennial fields.

The catch mainly consists of Brown shrimp (50 %), Indian white shrimp

(42 %) and Indian prawn (1 %). The fish component of the catch is

marginal. (Pillai, SM., 2002).

Page 33: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

97 97

The traditional rice-shrimp rotation system of farming in the coastal

wetlands of Kerala is a classic example of eco-friendly system of shrimp

farming. Its sustainability is proven beyond any doubt by its existence for over

a century. The traditional system of shrimp filtration did not undergo much

change over the years, except for the introduction of some additional stocking

and supplementary feeding.

3.2.4.1.b. Scientific Extensive/Modified Extensive System

Scientific Extensive/Modified Extensive System is a modified form of

traditional system of shrimp culture, which involves adoption of scientific

culture practices. The Supreme Court in its orders given on 11-12-1996,

permitted farmers operating traditional and improved traditional systems of

shrimp aquaculture to “adopt improved technology for increased production,

productivity and return with prior approval of the Authority” (Aquaculture

Authority, 2001). Farmers adopt scientific methods of farming like, scientific

farm designing with culture area reduced to manageable limits, pond

preparation, supplementary fertilization and feeding, health management of

shrimps, water quality management etc. In 2006-07 area under modified

extensive system of culture was 3222.38 ha, which constituted nearly 30 % of

area under shrimp culture in the state.

3.2.4.2 Production

The state has witnessed a steady progress in shrimp culture from

1990-91 onwards till mid 90s. Over this period growth in production was

the result of increase in both area under culture and productivity. Since mid

90s, till the early years of the twenty first century area under culture

remained more or less unchanged, with only minor variations, but

production declined continuously. The decline in production over this

phase can be explained in terms of sharp fall in productivity during this

Page 34: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

9898

period. After 2001 aquaculture production of shrimp declined further,

caused mainly by the decline in area under cultivation, while productivity

has shown signs of improvement. Table 3.14 and Fig 3.2 show clearly the

trends in area under culture and production.

Table 3.14: Area under Culture and Production of Shrimp in Kerala During the Period 1990-91 to 2009-10

Year Area Under

Culture (‘000’ ha)

Estimated Production

(‘000’Tonnes)

Productivity (Kg / ha)

1990-91 13.00 8.93 686.9

1991-92 13.15 9.50 722.4

1992-93 13.40 9.75 727.6

1993-94 13.86 11.50 829.7

1994-95 14.10 12.00 851.1

1995-96 14.66 9.00 613.9

1996-97 14.66 8.23 561.4

1997-98 14.60 7.29 499.3

1998-99 13.18 7.66 581.2

1999-2000 13.76 6.70 486.9

2000-01 13.99 7.33 523.9

2001-02 14.70 5.54 376.9

2002-03 13.68 7.57 553.4

2003-04 14.03 6.46 460.4

2004-05 10.80 7.51 695.4

2005-06 13.87 6.88 496.0

2006-07 10.48 4.95 472.3

2007-08 7.60 5.90 776.9

2008-09 8.29 4.31 519.8

2009-10 9.54 7.10 743.4

Source: MPEDA, Kochi.

Page 35: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

99 99

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1990-91

199 1-92

1992-93

1 993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98

1 998-99

1999-2000

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2 003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2 008-09

2009-10

Year

Are

a &

Pro

duct

ion Area Under

Culture ('000' ha)

Production(‘000’Tonnes)

Fig 3.2: Area under Shrimp Culture and Production of Shrimp in

Kerala during the period 1990-91 to 2009-10

3.2.4.3 Factors behind the Growth of Shrimp Farming In Kerala

Growth path of shrimp farming in Kerala is characterized by two

phases: an expansion phase till 1995-96 and a stagnation phase thereafter.

Many factors- economic, technological and institutional- have influenced

the pattern of development of shrimp aquaculture in Kerala.

3.2.4.3.a) Expansion phase

The expansion phase in the development of shrimp farming in Kerala

can be explained in terms of the following factors:

i) Economic factors

The fist and foremost among the economic factors that determined

the course of shrimp farming in Kerala is price for shrimp. Shrimp

farming in Kerala is an export-oriented activity and most of the

produce is exported to countries like Japan, USA, countries in

European Union etc. (It was so in the past also, catering to the

demand from the Far East. (Panikar, 1937). Very high demand for

Page 36: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

100100

shrimp in international and domestic markets and the consequent

increase in price level is the major factor that induced farmers to

take up shrimp culture on a large scale in early 90s and to remain

in production, even after facing huge losses caused by the outbreak

of viral diseases during late 90s. In international markets price of

shrimp began to fall, as a result of excess supply, after reaching the

highest level in late 1980s, at more than US $10/ Kg and then fell

consistently to about US $ 5 / Kg in 2003. (Asche, Frank., 2006).

However, the exporters from India continued to realize increase in

average unit value of shrimp till 2000, owing mainly to the

depreciation of Indian rupee against major currencies. (RBI, 2007:

Average exchange rate of Indian rupee against US $ was only Rs

12.3460 in the year 1985 and continuously depreciated to Rs

48.5993 in 2002). Unit value realized for cultured shrimp in

international markets increased from Rs 365.97/Kg to Rs

561.19/Kg in 2000 and remained very high with significant

fluctuations, till 2002 (Table 3.15) Very high price realized in

international markets induced farmers to bring more area under

shrimp culture and area under culture remained more or less stable

till 2002. However, total shrimp production through aquaculture

recorded continuous decline after 1994-95, primarily due to the

wide spread out break of viral diseases and consequent decline in

productivity.

Page 37: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

101 101

Table 3.15: Average Unit Value Realization of Frozen Shrimps, 1985-2005

Year (Average Unit Value (Rs/Kg, FOB)

Bock Frozen Shrimp Cultured Shrimp

1985 63.46 -

1986 72.78 -

1987 77.59 -

1988 82.36 -

1989 80.11 -

1990 106.23 -

1991 123.03 -

1992 148.73 -

1993 184.16 365.97

1994 242.01 383.19

1995 235.10 412.71

1996 224.89 409.90

1997 260.89 488.24

1998 280.07 515.06

1999 288.65 463.62

2000 350.73 561.19

2001 272.53 434.46

2002 268.28 444.99

2003 286.16 419.09

2004 250.89 379.48

2005 232.21 356.48

Source: Statistics of Marine Products Exports (Various issues) MPEDA, Kochi)

In the initial years, growth of shrimp farming was facilitated by

shift in land resources from paddy cultivation to shrimp farming. The

Page 38: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

102102

main grow-out system used for shrimp farming in Kerala was low-lying

paddy fields. Paddy cultivation in these fields was non-profitable due to

very low price of paddy and high cost of cultivation. As a result for

farmers the opportunity cost of shrimp farming, i.e., the return foregone

paddy cultivation was very low. At the same time very fast increase in

shrimp prices made shrimp farming very lucrative (Nair. K.N., et al.

2002). Table 3.16 and Figure No: 3.3 depict the movements in average

beach price of shrimp and average farm harvest price of paddy in the

state over the period 1984-85 to 2004-05. While paddy prices increased

very slowly over time, shrimp prices accelerated at a very high pace,

making shrimp culture far more attractive than paddy cultivation. Above

all shortage of agricultural labour made paddy cultivation more difficult.

All these factors facilitated a shift in the use pattern of land resources

from paddy cultivation to shrimp farming.

Table 3.16: Average farm Harvest Price of Paddy and Beach Price of Shrimp

Year Average Farm

Harvest Price of Paddy (Rs/Qtl)

Average Beach Price of Shrimp

(Rs/Qtl)

1985 – 86 240.99 1650.00

1990 – 91 299.61 3250.00

1995 – 96 528.23 6000.00

2000 – 2001 646.36 6200.00

2004 – 2005 651.00 20000.00

Source: Paddy price – Directorate of Economics and Statistics Shrimp price- Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala

Page 39: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

103 103

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

1986 1991 1996 2001 2005Year

Pric

e (R

s / Q

tl)

Paddy

Shrimp

Source: Paddy price – Directorate of Economics and Statistics Shrimp price- Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala

Fig. 3.3: Average farm Harvest Price of Paddy and Beach Price of Shrimp

Very high profitability of shrimp farming made it a venue of

investment by rich rural farmers, businessmen and urban elite. Many paddy

fields, where rotational paddy-shrimp culture was practiced, and fields

previously left fallow due to non-viability of rice cultivation were

converted to monoculture shrimp farms.

ii) Technological Developments

Promotion of aquaculture was also facilitated by biological and

technological improvements in the field of breeding of desired

species of aquatic animals, hatchery production and rearing of

seedlings, development of various culture systems that offer farmers a

choice with in the constraints imposed by economic, social,

environmental, and legal factors. Research institutions under the

Page 40: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

104104

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) like, Central Inland

Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute (CMFRI), Central Institute of Freshwater

Aquaculture (CIFA), Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture

(CIBA), Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) etc,

Agricultural Universities and Fisheries Colleges are in the process of

developing and refining the technologies relating to various aspects

of aquaculture in the country.

iii) Institutional factors

Development of aquaculture in the state is facilitated by the

promotional role played by central and state governments and various

agencies.

1) Government of India

At macro level aquaculture was encouraged on grounds of foreign

exchange earnings and employment and income generation.

Development of aquaculture was incorporated as a part of plan

programmes of the Government of India, State governments and

Union Territories during the fifth five-year plan. The Government

of India has implemented a number of development programmes in

successive five-year plans, the most notable being the assistance

given to State governments to establish Fish Farmers Development

Agencies (FFDA) and Brackish water Fish Farmers Development

Agencies (BFFDA) at district level. The programme of FFDA at

district level was initiated in 1973 to provide administrative and

infrastructural support, training to fish farmers, mobilization of

inputs, extension support to fish farmers, financial support to

framers in the form of subsidies and assistance for mobilizing

Page 41: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

105 105

institutional credit for fish culture (Simba, V.R.P., 1999). The

expenditure on the scheme is shared between Central and State

governments in the ratio 75: 25. The programme is continued in

subsequent five-year plans. A network of 429 FFDAs, operating in

429 districts, covers an area of 5.67 lakh hectare of total water area

under scientific fish culture (Pillai, N.G.K., 2004).

During the Seventh five-year plan period (1985-90), another

centrally sponsored scheme, Brackish water Fish Farmers

Development Agency (BFFDA) was initiated with the main

objective of utilizing country’s vast brackish water resources for

fish/shrimp culture and 39 BFFDAs were established in coastal

states/union territories. BFFDAs are intended to provide technical,

financial and extension support to shrimp farmers. The cost of

projects under the scheme is shared on a 50:50 basis by the Central

and State governments (Pillai, N.G.K., 2004).

Another major programme initiated by the Central government was

the National Programme for Fish Seed Production. Under the

programme more than 50 seed hatcheries have been commissioned. It

has led to marked improvement in the hatchery production of fish

seed in the country (Pillai, N.G.K., 2004).

The state governments own most of the coastal land suitable for

brackish water aquaculture. Ministry of Agriculture, Government

of India has issued guidelines to the states for the allotment and

lease of brackish water lands for shrimp/fish farming. As per these

guidelines 60 % of brackish water areas involving low capital

investment on development is to be given to fishermen and small

Page 42: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

106106

and marginal farmers with financial and technological support by

the government through the central and state schemes. About 20 %

of the brackish water area, which needs medium-size capital

investment, is to be leased to medium entrepreneurs having

financial backing, with provision for technological support. The

balance of land available for cultivation and involve high

investment may be leased to progressive entrepreneurs, who have

financial backing and management capacity for introducing

advanced technology (Aquaculture Authority, 2001). But many

states, including Kerala, are yet to bring out a land leasing policy

in accordance with the guidelines issued by the Central

government.

The Government of India constituted the Aquaculture Authority to

protect the coastal environment, and to control the indiscriminate growth

of shrimp farms all along the Indian coast, as per the guidelines issued

by the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India, wide a Gazette Notification

issued in 1997. The Parliament in 2005 passed the Coastal Aquaculture

Authority Act and Central Government has framed the Rules and

Guidelines to improve the productivity under sustained conditions,

which are mandatory for all farmers in coastal states. The Central

Government has established the Coastal Aquaculture Authority, with its

head quarters at Chennai in December 2005. The Act enables the Central

Government to regulate coastal aquaculture and to ensure sustained

increase in the aquaculture production. As per the Act it is mandatory for

all shrimp farmers to register with the Coastal Aquaculture Authority

and operation of farms without registering is a criminal offence (Coastal

Aquaculture Authority, 2006,)

Page 43: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

107 107

2) Government of Kerala

Fourteen Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs) and six

Brackish water Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFFDAs) were

established in the State under Centrally sponsored programme. A

State level Agency for the Development of Aquaculture Kerala

(ADAK) was established in 1989 as an autonomous agency to

implement various aquaculture development activities. These

agencies provide technical, financial and extension service to farmers.

The entry of these agencies contributed significantly to the growth

and adoption of scientific aquaculture in Kerala.

The Indo-German Reservoir Fisheries Development Project

(IGRFDP) started in1992 is an attempt to intensify freshwater

aquaculture in reservoirs in the state. The project was a joint initiative

of the Indian and German governments and was implemented by the

Department of Fisheries of the Kerala government. The programme

was intended to enhance the fishery resources and utilization of

reservoirs through improvement in management methods, to be

achieved with better participation and benefits to weaker sections of

the population in reservoir areas. Out of the 53 reservoirs of various

sizes, the programme covered only ten (Director of Fisheries, 2007)

Recently ornamental fish culture has emerged as a promising

enterprise in the state. Government of Kerala has adopted many

measures to promote ornamental fish culture in the state. Under the

initiative of the Department of Fisheries many International

Aquaculture Shows were arranged to attract the attention of people to

the potential of the industry. The state government has implemented a

Page 44: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

108108

centrally sponsored scheme, through FFDAs, with a subsidy

component of 10 % of the total cost, subject to a maximum of Rs 1.5

lakhs, in order to set up integrated ornamental fish farming units

including hatcheries. In addition, The Kerala State Co-operative

Federation for Fisheries Development (Matsyafed) has initiated a

scheme for imparting training to fisher women in breeding and

rearing ornamental fishes, with provision for financial assistance

(Velayudhan, T.D., 2005).

Aquaculture in the state got a real breakthrough with the

implementation of the Janakeeya Matsya Krishi (JMK) programme

(Peoples campaign for aquaculture) during the 9th five-year plan

(Ghosh Sanjeeva 2002). The JMK aimed at meaningful utilization of

water bodies for aquaculture by attracting neo-farmers, and

unemployed youth. It was designed to explore and develop village

level fishery resources with the help of local bodies and people. The

main objectives of the programme were creation of awareness among

people regarding the necessity of utilizing suitable water bodies for

aquaculture, demonstration of techno-economic feasibility and

viability of various eco-friendly models of aquaculture, augmentation

of fish and shellfish production, mobilization of people’s

participation in fisheries development and creation of more

employment potential in the field of fisheries.

The JMK was implemented in all local bodies in the state, except for

the ones with little potential for aquaculture. In the year 2000-01, 876

grama panchayats, 46 municipalities, and 3 corporations in the state

participated in the JMK programme. There was large-scale

participation of farmers in the programme. Number of farmers

Page 45: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

109 109

participated in the programme increased from 24,073 in 1997-98 to

46486 in 2000-01. The programme was a great success with

significant impact on inland fish production in the state. Area under

aquaculture increased from 3257 ha in 1997-98 to 10188 ha in 2000-

01. The average productivity of freshwater aquaculture increased

from 1000 Kg/ha to 2600 Kg/ha, due to the impact of JMK. (Ghosh

Sanjeeva, 2002)

Another important programme of the Government of Kerala

implemented during the 10th five-year plan period, in order to promote

aquaculture was the integrated scampi/fish culture in the Kole lands of

Thrissur and paddy fields of Kuttanadu. The implementation of the

programme, “Oru Nellum, Oru Meenum” (One Paddy and One Fish) was

entrusted to the Agency for the Development of Aquaculture Kerala. The

components of the project include development of farms, establishment of

hatcheries, extension and training support for culture activities and disease

monitoring programmes. The scheme for integrated development of

scampi/fish culture in rotation with paddy in Kuttanadu and kole lands was

started in 2003-04 with the target area of 3500 ha. During 2009-10 an

amount of Rs 40 lakh were expended for the implementation of one paddy

one fish in Kuttanadu and kole lands. The scheme covered an area of

341.62 ha in Kuttanadu and kole lands. About 85.46 tons of scampi and

92.48 tons of fish were produced during 2009-10 and a revenue collection

of Rs 142 lakh was achieved. The details of achievement in oru nellum oru

meenum in Kuttanadu and kole lands from 2002-03 to 2009-10 are given in

table 3.17

Page 46: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

110110

Table 3.17: Achievements of the Integrated Scampi/Fish Culture (Oru Nellum Oru Meenum) in Kuttanadu & Kole lands

Year Area Covered Production (ton) Revenue(Rs Lakh)

2003 - 04 43.7 Scampi - 206.36 ton

Fish - 123.92 ton 37.42

2004 - 05 359.79 Scampi - 67.78 ton

Fish - 41.37 ton 185.99

2005 - 06 480.65 Scampi - 140.46 ton

Fish - 132.61 ton 404.19

2006 - 07 505.93 Scampi - 136.19 ton

Fish - 181.39 ton 413.05

2007 - 08 149.33 Scampi - 28.49 ton

Fish - 28.53 ton 60.33

2008 - 09 178.68 Scampi - 51.41 ton

Fish - 77.78 ton 103

2009 - 10 341.62 Scampi – 85.46 ton

Fish – 92.48 ton 142

Source: Economic Review 2010, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram.

The tenth five-year plan proposed extension of the Indo German

Reservoir Fisheries Development Project currently implemented in 10

reservoirs to other reservoirs in the state. The programme envisaged intensive

stocking of the reservoirs with the proper species to enhance fish production. It

is planned to develop reservoirs as Community Projects, with management as

well as harvesting entrusted to SHGs of poor women under Kudumbasree with

technical assistance from the fisheries department.

Another important project proposed by the 10th five-year plan was

Integrated Prawn Culture in 2500 ha Pokkali Fields in Ernakulam,

Alapuzha and Thrissur Districts. This project aimed at popularizing

Page 47: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

111 111

scientific prawn farming in Pokkali paddy fields through appropriate

improvements in the traditional system. The Agency for Development of

Aquaculture, Kerala (ADAK), was entrusted with the implementation of the

programme. It is proposed to integrate the project with other agriculture/live-

stock projects taken up by agencies like Pokkali Development Agency,

Paddy Development authority, Kerala Agricultural University etc., and with

credit support from commercial banks. During 2009-10 an area of 132.88 ha

was brought under culture and an amount of Rs 20 lakh was provided for the

scheme. 149 tons of Shrimp worth Rs 415 lakh was produced during the

period. The details of shrimp aquaculture production in Pokkali lands from

2004-05 to 2009-10 is given in table 3.18.

Table 3.18: Achievements of Integrated Prawn Culture in Pokkali fields

Year Area Covered No Beneficiaries

Production (ton)

Revenue (Rs Lakh)

2004-05 579.46 214 220 425.4

2005-06 1488.99 458 4444.65 911.45

2006-07 1631.46 425 836.93 1756.07

2007-08 2000 125 198.48 489.66

2008-09 357.17 94 210.9 446

2009-10 132.88 49 149 415

Source: Economic Review 2010, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram.

A new multi-species hatchery was established at Odayam during the

10th five-year plan period. In order to supplement the seed production in the

department hatcheries, establishment of Fish Seed Rearing Units as a

farmer participatory programme was introduced during the 9th Plan.

Page 48: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

112112

In the Eleventh five-year plan also development of aquaculture

through an integrated approach remained a thrust area. Under the plan a

new scheme for the promotion of aquaculture, ‘Matsya Keralam’ (an

integrated project for the development of inland fisheries and aquaculture

in the state with the support of local self governments) was introduced in

2008-09 and implemented. The specific objectives of the ‘Matsya Keralam’

programme were

a) Diversify aquaculture for enhancing fish production from

inland fresh water/brackish water areas.

b) To increase the inland fish production from the present level of

75,000 metric tons to 2, 00,000 metric tons over a period of

three years.

c) To create new employment opportunities in rural areas.

d) To increase export of fish and fish products

e) To increase the per capital availability of fish,

f) To develop a well designed marketing system for aquaculture

products.

The major components of the proposal were the following.

a) Programme for diversification of freshwater aquaculture in

inland sector.

b) Programme for diversification of brackish water aquaculture.

c) Programme for the development of infrastructure in inland

sector.

d) Programme for the development of extension and training.

e) Programme for marketing support.

Page 49: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

113 113

The beneficiaries under the project included individual farmers,

farmers groups, farmer’s co-operatives, Padasekhara Samithies (farmers

associations), lease holders of water bodies, Local Bodies, owners of holy

ponds, NGOs and other Departments having water bodies. Pond

preparation practices like de-weeding, pond clearing, reclamation of

ponds, water inlet- outlet arrangements etc. are done by the beneficiaries

them selves. Good quality fish/ shrimp seed are made available for

stocking in the ponds. Reclamation/ renovation subsidy, Seed, feed and

manure are provided to the farmers during the first year. After seeding,

fish / shrimp rearing practices are undertaken by the farmers groups/

societies. The water management, manuring, feeding, growth monitoring

etc are carried out under the guidance of the Government Agencies and

Fisheries Department (Rajendran, G., 2009).

The achievement of the project during the first phase showed an

amazing result especially in shrimp and mussel farming. About 2200 tons of

Shrimp, 2395 tones of mussels and 8 tons of Karimeen (Pearl spot) were

produced having an average earnings of Rs 45 crore and 4608 beneficiaries

have participated in this phase.

In the second phase both freshwater and brackish water fish culture

was undertaken. Number of local bodies participated in the implementation

of the second phase was 728 with 22284 beneficiaries. During the second

phase of the project about 2795.6 tons of shrimp, 3067.36 tons mussel and

9.5 tons of Karimeen (Pearl spot) were harvested having an average of

earning of Rs 60.08 crore (Kerala State Planning Board, 2010). The harvest

details in the second phase are shown in table 3.19.

Page 50: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

114114

Table 3.19: Harvest details of Matsya Keralam Project in the Second Phase

Sl No Item Qty (tones)

1 Shrimp 2795.6 2 Mussel 3067.36 3 Karimeen 9.5

Total 5872.46 Source: Economic Review 2010, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram

3) Marine Products Export Development Authority

The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), an

autonomous body under the Ministry of Commerce is promoting

shrimp farming with a view to augment supply for shrimp export. The

MPEDA is implementing several schemes for the promotion shrimp

culture in Kerala and other coastal states of the country. Important

among them are as follows

a) Technology and extension. MPEDA render many services to

farmers to take up scientific farming. Farmers are given

assistance, starting from site selection till harvest. The

assistance provided include preparation of project reports to get

credit facilities from financial institutions, besides technical

assistance on farm construction, pond preparation, seed

procurement, selective stocking, pond management etc.

b) MPEDA has been organizing training programmes on shrimp

farming and hatchery management. In addition MPEDA

regularly conduct farmers meets, seminars, workshops and inter

state study tours for the benefit of local farmers.

c) In order to promote scientific shrimp farming MPEDA provide

incentives in the form of subsidy for the development of new

Page 51: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

115 115

farms, establishment of shrimp hatcheries, on shrimp seed and

feed etc.

d) Other services provided by MPEDA include help for availing

customs duty concession on import of shrimp feed, supply of

quality shrimp seed from hatcheries operated by MPEDA,

demonstration of latest culture techniques to shrimp farmers,

shrimp disease diagnostic facilities etc.

e) Recently MPEDA has implemented a scheme to promote

ornamental aquaculture. MPEDA provides a subsidy of Rs

40,000 for a unit, having a production capacity of more than

50,000 fingerlings in year. Regular workshops are organized to

impart training to farmers on different aspects of ornamental

fish culture. MPEDA provides developmental assistance for

export of ornamental fishes. It gives a subsidy of 10 % of the

FOB value for export of ornamental fishes by registered

exporters. (Velayudhan, T.D., 2005)

The Marine Products Export Development Authority has played a

very crucial and promotional role in the development scientific shrimp

culture in the state.

3.2.4.3.b) Stagnation Phase

In spite of the existence of vast potential for horizontal and vertical

expansion, aquaculture sector in the state remained stagnant for over a

decade, with respect to area under culture and production. Many economic,

technical, environmental, social legal and institutional constraints can be

identified as responsible for the poor performance of the sector in recent

years.

Page 52: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

116116

i) Economic Problems

The main economic problem that aquaculture producers, particularly

shrimp farmers, face is the decline in prices. High demand and price

of shrimp in the 80s generated high profit in shrimp farming. This

lured increasing number of investors in to shrimp farming many

countries. The whole process resembled a gold rush. (Shang, C.Y., et

al., 1998). Shrimp being a short-term crop, investment in shrimp

farming is considered as a means of making quick profit. However,

the rapidly expanding industry began to face problems as the world

price started falling due to excess supply. The problem of falling

prices is, in fact, a correction process taking place in the market.

Shrimp prices are falling as world supply expands faster than demand

and costs are rising as demand for inputs is increasing faster than

supply. Changes in prices are market signals with in a process of

adjustment to equilibrium (Neiland, A.E., et al, 2001).

Being an export oriented activity; shrimp farming in Kerala is also

subjected to fluctuations in prices of shrimp in international markets.

Table 3.16 shows that the average unit value realization of cultured

shrimp recorded continuous fall since 2002. Along with decline in

international price of shrimp, appreciation of Indian rupee against

dollar and other international currencies since 2002 (the exchange

rate of Indian rupee against US $ increased from Rs 48.5993 in 2002

to Rs 43.4242 in 2008) also contributed to the decline in the

international price of shrimp in terms of rupee. Things are made

worse by the increase in cost of production, leading to a profit

squeeze in the sector.

Page 53: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

117 117

ii) Technical Problems

A major technical constraint in the state is the inadequate supply of

quality seed of fish/shrimp. The freshwater aquaculture in the state is

totally dependent on hatchery seeds of fish/prawn. Traditional system

of shrimp culture is based on auto stocking of seed from the wild. But

operation of stake nets and Chinese dip nets fixed in backwaters

cause hindrance to migration of shrimp and fish larvae and their

destruction in large quantities ( Pillai, S.M., et al, 2002) But with

commercialization of shrimp culture, the intensity of production

increased, with additional stocking of selected species at higher

densities. Initially the seed required for culture were collected from

the wild. The rapid expansion of the industry caused huge pressure on

wild stock of fish/shrimp seeds, leading to steady decline in coastal

fishery resources and biodiversity loss.

The advent of hatchery technology has helped to overcome this

environmental constraint and ease the supply of fish/shrimp seed

required for aquaculture. However, seed production in the state is

limited to few hatcheries operating in public and private sectors.

The hatcheries in the state have a capacity to produce 188 million

fish seed, 140 million scampi seed and 640 million shrimp/prawn

seed. While the total capacity created itself is inadequate to meet

aquaculture requirements in the state, the capacity utilization of

hatcheries in the state is far from satisfactory (Padmanabhan, P.G.,

et al, 2004). As a result farmers have to depend on seeds imported

from hatcheries in neighbouring states, the quality of which is

doubtful.

Page 54: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

118118

Another constraint that farmers face is inadequate supply of nutritious

supplementary feed. Commercial pressures force farmers to stock

fish/shrimp seed at densities higher than what can be supported by

natural productivity of water bodies. This necessitates supplementary

feeding. As of now there is only one feed producing plant operating

in the state. Very high price of artificial feed is a factor that dissuade

small and marginal farmers from using factory produced artificial

feed. They are forced to depend on locally produced clam meat and

fishmeal to feed shrimp/fish. Lack of indigenous technology to

produce quality feed at affordable prices is factor that limits

production efficiency in aquaculture.

iii) Environmental constraints

A major environmental constraint that emerges as fallout of

commercialization of aquaculture is the pollution of natural water

bodies caused by the discharge of effluents from shrimp farms. It is

from these natural water bodies that shrimp farms take clean water.

Once the free environmental services of ‘waste sink’ and ‘clean water’

provided by natural water bodies are exhausted, the industry has to face

the associated negative feedback cost in the form of disease outbreak

and production crashes or incur the prohibitive costs of waste

management and water purification (Neiland, A.E., et al, 2001).

In Kerala shrimp farms depend on tidal effect for water management.

Water in farms is continuously exchanged with clean brackish water

to maintain salinity and to flush out waste like unused shrimp feed,

dead biomass, shrimp faecal matter etc. The flushed out water

contains chemicals and pesticides used in farms also. The discharge

of effluents from farms pollutes water in backwaters and canals and

Page 55: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

119 119

adversely affects natural productivity and biodiversity. Another

practice of shrimp farmers is that once they detect viral infection in

farms, they release the infected water directly in to the natural water

bodies and thus help to spread infection to other farms in surrounding

areas. (Ranga, M.R., 2006). The shrimp crisis in the state, during mid

90’s is attributed to over enthusiasm of farmers to make profit, which

prompted them to adopt aquaculture practices beyond the carrying

capacity of the environment (Purushan, K.S., 2007)

iv) Legal and Institutional Constraints

Absence of a proper leasing policy of water bodies is highlighted as

one of the most important constraint in the expansion of freshwater

and brackish water aquaculture in the state (Pillai, S.M., 2002). The

government and local bodies own large areas of water bodies suitable

for brackish water and freshwater aquaculture.

“Since no action is being taken so far on land leasing as directed by

Government of India hardly any progress can be made in bringing

additional area under brackish water shrimp aquaculture. ……A major

constraint identified for the development of mussel farming in

backwaters is the lack of leasing policy to use public water bodies for

aquaculture”. (Director of Fisheries, 2007).

There are more than 6800 ponds and tanks covering an area of 1487

ha (ref. Table 3.4), under the control of local bodies in the state. But

“non co-operation of local bodies and other departments in lending

water bodies owned by them for taking up fish culture programmes”

(Ghosh, Sanjeeva., 2002) is a factor responsible for low profile of

aquaculture in Kerala.

Page 56: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

120120

Absence of a leasing policy also hinders development of private

water bodies for aquaculture. The Organization of Shrimp Farmers at

Vypin, Kochi (Vypin Chemmen Karshaka Union) pointed out lack of

a leasing policy is one of the major constraints in taking up full time

farming in pokkali fields at Vypin. (Ranga, M.R., 2006). In order to

encourage large-scale investment in aquaculture, long term leasing

policy is a pre requisite.

Another legal deficiency in the state with regard to aquaculture is the

absence of a uniform fisheries act. The Travancore – Cochin

Fisheries Act, 1950 governs the leasing system in Travancore-Cochin

area. Under the purview of the act certain regulations were introduced

for controlling the traditional filtration system in 1974, as ‘Regulation

of Prawn Fishing in Private water Rules 1974’. As per these

regulations paddy fields can be leased out for prawn filtration only

during the non- monsoon season, during the monsoon season land

should be returned for paddy cultivation. Fisheries in the erstwhile

Malabar area are still governed by the Indian Fisheries (Madras

Amendment) Act, 1927. (Pillai, S.M., 2002). In order to promote

aquaculture on a responsible and sustainable way there is every need

for a uniform and comprehensive aquaculture regulation act.

Legal restrictions related to Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

Notification of the Government of India (GOI), also constrains the

growth of shrimp farming in Kerala. Unbridled growth of shrimp

farms in coastal areas of the country gave rise to many environmental

and social harms and conflicts, leading to the intervention of the

Supreme Court of India. In a judgment issued in 1996, the Honorable

Court ordered that shrimp culture industry/shrimp farms are covered

Page 57: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

121 121

by the CRZ Notification of the Government of India and no shrimp

culture pond can be constructed or set up within in the coastal regulation

zone as defined in the CRZ Notification. However, the Court exempted

the shrimp farms practicing traditional and improved traditional

technologies from the above restriction. The Court also directed the

Government of India to constitute an Aquaculture Authority, with all the

powers necessary to protect the ecologically fragile coastal environment

of the country and specially to deal with the situation created by shrimp

culture industry in the coastal states/ union territories. Accordingly the

Government of India set up an Aquaculture Authority in February 1997.

Later the Coastal Aquaculture Authority was set up as per the Coastal

Aquaculture Authority Act enacted by the Parliament of India in 2005.

All Shrimp farms in CRZ (two hundred meters from high tide line2) are

required to register with the authority and have to operate subject to the

rules and guidelines, pertaining to all aspects of shrimp culture, issued

by the Government of India.

In addition many institutional factors also restrain development of

aquaculture in the state. Inadequate institutional finance, R& D support,

extension network, insurance coverage, etc are factors that slow down

the forward pace the activity. Another serious limitation is the lack of

proper data bases that constraints formulation of proper management

policies for the sector. Availability of data related to resource base,

culture practices, area under aquaculture, production levels, population

depending on aquaculture, marketing channels etc is a pre requisite for

the formulation and implementation of effective management plans.

2 High tide line means the line on the land up to which highest water lines reaches

during the spring tide

Page 58: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

122122

3.3 Conclusion

The development of aquaculture in the state has taken place in a very

biased manner, with more emphasis on shrimp/prawn culture. Freshwater

aquaculture in the state still remains very much a homestead activity,

except for freshwater prawn culture, as a supplementary source of family

income and consumption. The expansion of shrimp/prawn farming is

directly related to the role of shrimp/prawn as an export crop. The prospect

of making quick profit in a short period induced transition from traditional

practice of paddy-shrimp rotation to monoculture of shrimp culture. The

technology for the monoculture of shrimp/prawn is capital intensive. This

change represents development of a capitalist production process, which

raises productivity of land, develops rural infrastructure, integrates rural

subsistence economy into industrial market structure and transfers labour

from agriculture to industry. These changes help to accelerate the process

of development in rural communities.

References

[1] Ackerfors, Hans., Huner, VJ., Konikott, M., 1994. “Introduction to the

General Principles of Aquaculture” Food Products Press, An Imprint of The

Haworth Press INC, New York.

[2] Alagarswami, K. 1995. Country Report – India. In Report on a Regional

Study and Workshop on the Environmental Assessment and Management of

Aquaculture Development”, Corporate Document Repository, Fisheries and

Aquaculture Department, FAO.

[3] Aquaculture Authority of India. 2001. “Shrimp Aquaculture and the

Environment – An Environment Impact Assessment Report, Submitted to

the Supreme Court of India”, Aquaculture Authority of India, Chennai.

Page 59: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

123 123

[4] Asche, Frank., Khatun, K. 2006. “Aquaculture: Issues and Opportunities

For Sustainable Production and Trade”, International Centre for Trade and

Sustainable Development, Geneva.

[5] Barnabe, G., (ed), 1994. “Aquaculture – Biology and Ecology of Cultured

Species”, Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York.

[6] Coastal Aquaculture Authority. 2006. Compendium of Act, Rules,

Guidelines and Notifications. Coastal Aquaculture Authority, Chennai.

[7] Director of Fisheries, Government of Kerala. 2007. Aquaculture Development in

Kerala: Present Status and Future Prospects. Indaqua 2007. MPEDA, Kochi.

[8] FAO. 2002. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Information

Division, Rome.

[9] Ghosh, Sanjeeva., 2002. Janakeeya Matsya Krishi (A successful peoples’

campaign for aquaculture in Kerala). Fishing Chimes Vol. 21 No. 10 & 11,

Jan/Feb 2002.

[10] Kerala Fisheries at a Glance. 2007. Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala.

[11] Kerala State Planning Board. 2010, Economic Review 2010, Thiruvananthapuram.

[12] Kurup. B.M. and Ranjeet, K., 2002. Integration of Freshwater Prawn with

Rice farming in Kuttanad, India. Naga, World Fish Centre Quarterly (Vol.

25, No.3 & 4) Jul-Dec 2002

[13] Menon, M.K., 1954. On the Paddy field Prawn Fishery of Travancore –

Cochin and an Experiment in Prawn Culture. Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish Counc.,

5th Sess., Sec11: 1-5.

[14] MPEDA. Annual Report 2010-11. MPEDA, Kochi

[15] Msangi, Siwa., and Rosegrant, M. W., 2005. Fish to 2020: Supply and

Demand in Changing Global Markets. Global Aquaculture Meeting, June

2005, Seattle.

Page 60: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Chapter-3

124124

[16] Nair, K. N., Vineetha, M., Mahesh, R., 2002. The Lure of Prawn Culture and

the Waning Culture of Rice-Fish Farming: A Case Study from North Kerala

Wetlands. Discussion Paper. No.43. Kerala Research Programme on Local

Development, Centre For Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.

[17] Neiland, A.E., Soley, N., Varley, J.B., Whitmarsh, D.J., 2001. Shrimp

Aquaculture: perspectives for Policy Development. Marine Policy 25

(2001) 265-279.

[18] Padmanabhan, P.G., Narayanan, N.C., Padmakumar, K.G., 2001. Economic

viability of an Integrated and Sustainable resource Use Model for Kuttanad.

Discussion Paper. No.33. Kerala Research Programme on Local

Development, Centre For Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram

[19] Panikkar, K., 1937. The Prawn Industry of Malabar Coast. Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol X X X IX[2], Bombay.

[20] Peters, D. M. and Feustel C. 1997. Social and Economic Aspects of

Fisheries Enhancement in Kerala Reservoirs. Paper presented at FAO/DFID

Expert Consultation on Inland Fisheries Enhancements. Dhaka, Bangladesh,

April 1997.

[21] Pillai, N.G.K., Katiha, P.K., 2004. Evolution of Fisheries and Aquaculture

in India. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi.

[22] Pillai, S.M., Krishnan, L., Venugopal, N., Sasidharan, C.S. 2002.

Traditional system of Brackish Water Aquaculture of Kerala. Bulletin

No.14, Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture, Chennai.

[23] Pillai, T.V.R., 2001. Aquaculture Principles and Practices. Fishing New

Books, Oxford OX2 0EL, England

[24] Purushan, K.S., 2007. Prospects of Brackish water fish farming in Kerala.

Sea Food Export Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2, Feb. 2007.

Page 61: DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN KERALA - AN OUTLINE

Development of Aquaculture in Kerala – An Outline

125 125

[25] Rajendran, G., 2009. “Success Story of Matsya Keralam”. Department of

Fisheries, Government of Kerala. www.fishnetkerala.gov.in/images/

mks.pdf

[26] Ranga, M.R., 2006. Transformation of Coastal wetland agriculture and

Livelihoods in Kerala. Thesis. Natural Resources Institute, University of

Manitoba, Canada.

[27] Reserve bank of India. 2007. Handbook of Statistics on India 2007.

[28] Sebastian, C.D. 2006. Farming of Giant Freshwater Prawn (M. rosenbergii)

in Koal waters of Trichur District of Kerala. Fishing Chimes. Vol. 26, No.

9, December 2006.

[29] Shang,, C.Y., Leung, P., Ling, B.H. 1998. Comparative Economics of

shrimp farming in Asia. Aquaculture 164 (1998) 183-200.

[30] Simba, V.R.P. 1999. Rural Aquaculture in India. Regional Office for Asia

and the Pacific, FAO, Bangkok.

[31] Stickney, Rubert. R., 2005. Aquaculture: An Introductory Text. CABI

Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK.

[32] Thomson, K.T., 2004. Traditional coastal Zone Institutions and Survival

Securities: a case study of an estuarine ecosystem in Kerala. Paper

presented at the International Conference on Folklore and Legal Pluralism,

Fredericton, Canada.

[33] Velayudhan, T.D. 2005. Development of Ornamental Fish Culture in Kerala

– In Relation to the Upliftment of Rural women. Fishing Chimes, Vol. 25,

no. 8, November 2005.

….. …..