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1998 28: 101South African Journal of PsychologyJacobus G. Maree, N.C.W. Claassen and W.B.J. Prinsloo

Development of a Study Orientation Questionnaire in Mathematics  

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S. Afr. J. Psycho\. 1998,28(2)

Development of a study orientation questionnaire in mathematics

Jacobus G. Maree*Department of School Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

N.C.W. Claassen and W.B.J. PrinslooHSRC, Private Bag X41, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

The Study Orientation Questionnaire: mathematics was developed for use with all South African pupils in secondaryschools in South Africa. The statistical properties of the questionnaire for a sample in which all children in Grades 8 to11 in secondary schools in South Africa were represented, are briefly described. The reliability and validity of thequestionnaire, as well as the intercorrelations between the fields, are demonstrated. Norm tables were determined andthe questionnaire may safely be used in educational situations to distinguish between pupils with differing study orien­tations in mathematics.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed. (E-mail: jgmaree@econ.up.ac.za).

101

According to Visser (1989), research has shown that achieve­ment in school mathematics is one of the best predictors of suc­cess in tertiary studies. Seen in conjunction with the fact that thefailure rate in mathematics at school is unacceptably high, notonly in South Africa, but also internationally (Blankley, 1994;Christie, 1991; Cockcroft, 1982; Nongxa, 1996), it would appearthat there is reason for alarm. As Arnott, Kubeka, Rice and Hall(1997, p. 12) have observed:

In 1995, of every 100 pupils enrolled in mathematics, 71wrote exams, and only 33 pupils passed the subject ....Mathematics and science matric results are lower than thenational pass rates for other subjects .... Science passrates are (however) on average higher than mathematicspass rates.

In looking for reasons for this phenomenon, little attention isusually given to pupils' study orientation in mathematics (Maree,1995). Van Aardt and Van Wyk (1994) identified the harmfulinfluence of an inadequate study orientation among mathematicsstudents and state that there is agreement that an increasingnumber of academically underprepared students (specifically inmathematics) are reading for university degrees, with the resultthat many fail to meet the academic demands. They then pointout that recent evidence suggests that the use of effective learn­ing and study strategies is an important factor in determining(academic) success.

Du Toit (1970, p. 23) defines the concept of studying as fol­lows: 'Relatively protracted application to a topic or problem forthe purpose of learning about the topic, solving the problem, ormemorising part or all of the presented material.' He emphasisesthat there is a clear indication of acquired behaviour that shouldbe measurable in some way with a view to optimising pupils'study orientation.

It is important to launch an ongoing investigation into otheraspects than mere assessment of objectives that are aimed at con­tinually evaluating cognitive progress. The root of 'problems' inmathematics, perhaps, falls outside the cognitive field. The im­portance of a sturdy affective basis as an essential supportstruc­ture for adequate cognitive achievement in mathematics should,for example, not be overlooked. Pupils' emotions, their habitsand attitudes regarding mathematics, the way in which they pro­cess mathematical information, as well as their problem-solvingbehaviour (problem-solving attitude and abilities in mathemat­ics) may have an influence on their achievement in mathematics

(Howie, 1997). Social factors, such as pupils' study environment(social, physical and experience environment); i.e. their feelingsabout mathematics, the way in which they experience theirteachers, the class atmosphere, their circumstances at home andthe teaching of the subject, all play a significant role in theireventual achievement in mathematics (Brodie, 1994).

Several methods are used to assess pupils' study orientation inmathematics. These include observation, the interview method,checking books, testing and examining. The questionnairemethod is seldom used, probably because it is relatively un­known. The need exists, therefore, for a study orientation ques­tionnaire in mathematics, which must be easy to use, with goodpsychometric qualities, taking relatively little time, providingreliable results, is standardised and must easily be applied tolarge groups of pupils.

It was therefore decided to design and evaluate the Study Ori­entation Questionnaire in Mathematics (SaM) in conjunctionwith researchers at the Human Sciences Research Council(HSRC). The SOMwas compiled with a view to promoting, interalia, the following aspects of test interpretation (Madge & Vander Walt, 1995) in mathematics:(i) providing information on different aspects of pupils' study

orientation in mathematics (assessing pupils' study orienta­tion), but also providing guidelines for optimising pupils'achievement in mathematics; and

(ii) helping psychologists and mathematics teachers to gain in­sight into the reasons why certain pupils display a favourablestudy orientation in mathematics and others do not.

MethodPilot study

The questionnaire was initially applied to a group of 60 Grade 8pupils whose mother tongue was not the same as the language ofthe test to identify potentially unclear instructions and items.Testees were requested to circle the numbers of the items theydid not understand, and to underline phrases and words they didnot understand. On the basis of the testees' reactions with respectto the items, the formulation of a number of items was amended.

Su~ects .

The preliminary questionnaire was administered during Augustand September 1994 at most of the schools. However, at certainschools the testing only took place at the end of the first quarterof 1995.

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102

For the purposes of this investigation the population wasdefined as all pupils taking mathematics in Grades 8 and 9, andin Grades 10 and 11, in high schools in South Africa. A stratifiedrandom sample was used. Of respondents 737 Grade 8 and 9learners (822 in Grades 10 and 11) were tested in their mothertongue. Of respondents 1004 Learners in Grades 8 and 9 (450 inGrades 10 and 11) were not tested in their mother tongue.

Measuring instrumentsThe SOM was designed for South African pupils from Grade 8 toGrade 11. In addition to an intensive literature study (Maree,1997), the following sources of information influenced the item­choice and structure of the SOM:

(i) Summary of Study Habits and Attitudes (SSHA) (Du Toit,1980).

(ii) The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI)(Weinstein, 1987).

(iii) The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ)(Pintrich, Smith & McKeachie, 1989).

(iv) Informal study orientation questionnaires in mathematics(Schminke, Maertens & Arnold, 1978).

The statements in the SOM relate to how individuals feel or actregarding aspects of their achievement in mathematics. Testeesare placed in various hypothetical situations in which they haveto choose one option among various alternatives that agrees withtheir feeling or probable actions. Each statement must beanswered according to a five-point scale, namely almost never,sometimes, often, usually or almost always: Some items are re­versed to avoid a 'yes' set. The rationale (description of thefields of the SOM) is the following:

(i) Study attitude (SA) in mathematics. This field comprises 14questions and has a bearing on feelings (subjective, but alsoobjective experiences) and attitudes (towards mathematicsand aspects of mathematics) that are manifested consistentlyand that affect pupils' motivation, expectation and interestwith respect to mathematics.

(ii) Mathematics anxiety (MA). This field comprises 14 ques­tions. Panic, anxiety and concern are manifested in, interalia, the form of aimless, repetitive behaviour (like bitingnails, excessive sweating, playing with objects, exaggeratedneed to visit the toilet, scrapping of correct answers and aninability to speak clearly).

(iii) Study habits (SH) in mathematics. This field comprises 17questions and includes the following: displaying acquired,consistent, effective study methods and habits (like planningtime. and preparation, working through previous tests andexam papers, working through more than just familiar prob­lems, as well as following up problems in mathematics).

(iv) Problem-solving behaviour (PSB) in mathematics. This fieldcomprises 18 questions and includes cognitive and meta­cognitive learning strategies in mathematics. It includesplanning, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-regulationand decision making during the process of problem solvingin mathematics, and can be described as 'thinking aboutthinking' in mathematics (e.g. when pupils try to find outwhat subdivisions of mathematics they do not understand).

(v) Study milieu (social, physical and experience milieu) (SM)in mathematics. This field comprises 13 questions and in­cludes questions regarding pupils' level of frustration, re­strictive circumstances at home, non-stimulating learning andstudy environments, physical problems like an inability tosee or hear well, reading problems, names and life styles in

S.Afr. J. Psycho!. 1998,28(2)

word problems that do not come from the pupil's field ofexperience, and language problems.

(vi) Information processing (Grades 10 and 11) (IP). This fieldcomprises 16 questions and includes general and specificlearning, summarising and reading strategies, critical think­ing and understanding strategies (like the optimum use ofsketches, tables, diagrams).

For Grade 8 and 9 pupils the questionnaire comprises 76 items,and for Grade 10 and 11 pupils it comprises 92 items.

Two tests were used as criteria to determine the concurrentvalidity, namely:

(i) Diagnostic tests in mathematical language (Barnard, 1990).The aim of these tests is to provide diagnostic aids in basicmathematics on the basis ofwhich gaps or shortcomings withrespect to knowledge and understanding of mathematicalterminology can be determined. The basic assumption is thatthere are certain terms pupils must know and understand.Without this frame of reference no progress can be made inmathematics.

(ii) Achievement test in mathematics (Grade 9) (De Kock,1993). This test comprises 30 multiple-choice items (ques­tions) in mathematics from the National Item Bank formathematics maintained by the HSRC. These items arestandardised for the Grade 9 population of South Africa. Thetest measures the general level of knowledge and under­standing of mathematics in Grade 9 and can therefore beregarded as an achievement test in mathematics at Grade 9level. An attempt was made to compile the test in such a waythat its content would be representative of the core syllabusfor mathematics: Grade 9, as applicable in 1993, in so far asit is possible with a limited number of items (30). Items witha discrimination value which was higher than 0.20 were used.

Procedure

The questionnaire was submitted to a committee of experts at theHSRC for assessment of the statements. In the assessment of theitems, attention was, inter alia, given to clarity, uniqueness,ambiguity, the use of words with exact meaning and the equiva­lence of the Afrikaans and English statements. Attention wasalso given to the placement of the statements in specific fields.Statements that were judged by the committee to be unrelated tothe fields in which they were placed, were amended or placedunder a more appropriate field. The compiler then submitted thequestionnaire to various mathematicians at universities for theircomments. The questionnaire was adjusted further on the basisof these comments. Item analyses were done for the six fieldsindividually and for all the items jointly for each grade group.Item analyses were also done separately for each of the followinglanguage groups:

- African-language speakers who answered the questionnairein English

English speakers who answered the questionnaire in English

Afrikaans speakers who answered the questionnaire inAfrikaans

Three samples would be drawn, namely a sample of Grade 8and 9 pupils, a sample of Grade 10 and 11 pupils and a sample ofGrade 9 pupils. The latter sample would be used to determine thepredictive validity of the questionnaire. In order to ensure thatevery important part of the population was adequately repre­sented in the sample, the population was first divided into strataor subpopulations. The following strata were taken into consider­ation: control (education departments), medium of instruction

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S. Afr. J. Psycho!. 1998,28(2) 103

Table 2 Reliability coefficients (rtt) for the different fieldsfor Grades 8 and 9, as well as for Grades 10 and 11, jointlyaccording to language groups

(Afrikaans/English), and area (city/rural area). The sampling wasdone in two stages. A certain number of schools with a selectionprobability equal to the size of the strata and schools were firstselected. Then a specific number ofpupils were selected in a sys­tematic way at each school. The method of systematic samplinginvolved that from the first k sample units (pupils), one wasselected at random and then every k-th subsequent sample unit,until the required number of sample units had been selected.Alphabetical name lists or class registers of pupils in the gradesconcerned were used to select pupils in a school.

The steps below were followed to ensure the content validityof the study orientation questionnaire in mathematics:

an extensive literature study was undertaken on the subject;the item-field correlations were checked; andcare was taken that the most important facets of the differentfields were accounted for.

Grades 8 and 9 (N = 124)

African Eng- Afri-languages lish kaans

Fields (N =955) (N = 119) (N = 167)

1 0.73 0.86 0.80

2 0.72 0.84 0.87

3 0.77 0.88 0.87

4 0.67 0.82 0.82

5 0.69 0.83 0.83

6

Grades 10 and 11 (N= 814)

African Eng- Afri-languages lish kaans(N =439) (N = 178) (N = 197)

0.69 0.80 0.85

0.72 0.85 0.82

0.79 0.87 0.87

0.69 0.97 0.84

0.72 0.78 0.&2

0.77 0.83 0.86

Limitations of the studyDue to practical considerations the Achievement test in mathe­matics (Grade 9) and the Diagnostic tests in mathematical lan­guage were administered only to Grade 9 pupils and used ascriterion to determine concurrent validity. The intention is to ob­tain pupils' school marks in due course as criterion for determin­ing the validity of the SOM to predict future achievement inmathematics.

ResultsStandardisation of the SOMA principal component analysis was carried out on the items. Ascree test indicated that approximately three or four factors werepresent in the data. Principal factor analyses and varimax rota­tions carried out on the items respectively specified three, fourand five factors.

In the case of each of the five different fields (items in thesixth field, viz. Information Processing, were only answered bylearners in Grades 10 and 11), three seed items were identified.Items in these fields were then selected on the basis of high item­field correlations. Items which correlated 0.30 or higher with theselected three seed items were included in that specific field. Anitem was kept in a specific field only if it correlated morestrongly with that field than with any other field. At this stageitems were eliminated that:

- did not correlate 0.20 or higher with the total score for allitems for at least each of the three language groups; and

- did not correlate positively with the Mathematics test(Mathematics: Grade 9) or with one of the two tests of theDiagnostic Tests in Mathematical Language.

Tables 1 and 2 contain the reliability coefficients (rtt) for thedifferent fields according to sex, grade groups and language.

Most of the reliability coefficients are in the order of 0.70 to0.80. For the questionnaire as a whole the reliability coefficientsvary from 0.89 to 0.95. The reliability coefficients can be re­garded as highly satisfactory for the purpose for which the ques­tionnaire will be used.

The intercorrelations ofthe fields for Grade 8 and 9 pupils andfor Grade 10 and 11 pupils are shown in Tables 3 and 4 respec­tively. As the items for each field were compiled to measure acertain aspect of study orientation in mathematics, correlationsbetween the various fields in general should be low. From Table3 it is clear that there is a moderate to high relation betweenFields 1 and 3, between Fields 1 and 4, between Fields 3 and 4and between Fields 2 and 5. The correlations vary between 0.601to 0.733. There is furthermore a low correlation between Fields 2

Table 3 Intercorrelations of the fields for Grade 8 and 9pupils jointly (n =1241)

Table 4 Intercorrelations of the fields for Grade 10 and 11pupils jointly (n =814)

Fields 1 2

0.092

0.722

1.000

0.307

6

5

1.000

1.000

5

1.000

0.467

4

1.000

0.118

4

1.000

0.217

0.401

3

1.000

0.672

0.325

3

0.719

0.465

1.000

0.373

1000

0.367

0.203

0.684

0.548

0.733

0.601

0.423

1.000

0.3922

3

4

5

Fields 1 2

1 1.000

2 0.440

3 0.757

4 0.653

5 0.410

6 0.453

Fields Male Female Male Female

1 0.754 0.740 0.789 0.739

2 0.764 0.762 0.788 0.748

3 0.791 0.791 0.860 0.797

4 0.714 0.706 0.784 0.724

5 0.708 0.708 0.752 0.761

6 0.809 0.795

Table 1 Reliability coefficients (rtt) for the differentfields according to grade groups and sex

*The reliability coefficients for the different fieldsandthe question­naireas a wholewere determined withthe aid of Ferguson'sadapta­tion of the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (Van den Berg, 1982).The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 applies only when item scoresare 0 or 1. Ferguson adaptedthis formula for weighted item scores,i.e. for item scoresof 0 to n, wheren is a positiveinteger.

Reliability coefficients

Grades8 and 9 Grades 10and 11

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104 S.Afr. J. Psycho!. 1998,28(2)

Table 5 Correlations of fields with standardised maths tests for Grade 9 pupils

Field2 Field4

Field 1 Mathematics Field3 Problem-solving Field5

Tests Studyattitude anxiety Studyhabits behaviour Studymilieu Fields 1-5

Mathematics: Grade9(N= 348) 0.252** 0.450** 0.190** 0.056 0.492** 0.39**

Diagnostic Tests inmathematicallanguage(N= 347) 0.289** 0.479** 0.239** 0.012 0.498** 0.41**

** Significant at the I% level

and 4, as well as between Fields 4 and 5. The correlations varybetween 0.092 and 0.423.

From the intercorrelation matrix in Table 4 it can also be seenthat certain fields have a high intercorrelation. The intercorrela­tions between the six scales vary between 0.757 and 0.217. Thefact that the intercorrelations are relatively high, indicates thatthe scales are not independent. The high correlation coefficientsindicate that the fields measure a common underlying factor.However, a thorough investigation of the results showed thatthere were no items with a higher correlation with any other fieldthan that in which it was included. When the theoretical model isused as basis, it should be kept in mind that certain fields do cor­relate highly with one another.

The intercorrelations for the fields for Grade 10 and 11 pupilsshow the same tendency as those for Grade 8 and 9 pupils. Theintercorrelations for Fields 1, 3 and 4 vary between 0.653 and0.757. Fields 2 and 5 again correlate highly, namely 0.684. Field6 shows a moderate correlation with all the other fields and itvaries between 0.401 and 0.548. (Table 5.)

Except for Field 4 all the correlations were significant at the1% level. From the correlation matrix it is clear that Fields 2 and5 correlated exceptionally highly with both tests. There is astrong positive relation between the presence of a favourablestudy milieu and the absence of mathematics anxiety on the onehand, and satisfactory achievement in the two criterion tests onthe other. Study attitude and Study habits (Fields 1 and 3) alsocorrelated positively with achievement in both tests. The absenceof a positive correlation between Field 4 and both tests might,among other things, indicate that several of the aspects of thisfield (including problem solving, cognitive and meta-cognitivelearning strategies and a problem-centred approach) are not par­ticularly important to achievement in the type of questions thatoccur in these tests. The total score for the study orientationquestionnaire correlates significantly positively with the criteriontests. Norms (percentile ranks) were calculated separately forGrades 8 and 9, and for Grades 10 and 11.

Comparing the results of the sex, grade and language groupsTables 6 to 7 contain the means (X) and standard deviations (s)for the different fields according to sex, grade groups and lan­guage.

The statistical significance of the difference between themeans for the language groups with respect to the different fieldswas determined on the basis of a multivariate analysis of vari­ance (MANOYA). The MANOYA was significant at the 5% levelfor both grade groups. Analysis of variance (ANOYA) were thencarried out. Where F values differed significantly at the 1% level,the Duncan test was carried out to determine between whichmeans of which language groups the differences were statisti­cally significant.

Table 6 Means (X) and standard deviations (s) forsex and grade groups separately

Grades8 and 9

Girls (N = 667) Boys(N = 564)

Fields X s X s

34.22 9.32 35.19 9.46

2 35.40* 9.52 36.48 9.47

3 39.10 11.45 40.04 11.41

4 36.78 10.16 37.04 10.33

5 33.86** 8.85 35.19 8.08

Grades 10 and 11

Girls (N = 407) Boys (N = 402)

38.11* 8.62 36.68 9.46

2 40.35 8.44 40.18 8.78

3 43.69** 10.72 40.83 12.53

4 35.94 10.11 35.51 10.93

5 38.90 8.06 38.57 7.76

6 38.06 10.10 38.53 10.22

*Statistically significant at the 5% level**Statistically significant at the 1% level

Table 7 contains the means for the language groups, as well asthe groups for which differences were statistically significant.For the Grade 8 and 9 pupils the means for the African-languagespeakers in Fields 2, 4' and 5 differed statistically significantlyfrom the means for the Afrikaans speakers and the Englishspeakers. The means for the Afrikaans-speaking and the English­speaking pupils differed statistically significantly only in Fields2 and 5. For Grade 10 and 11 pupils the means for the African­language speakers also differed statistically significantly fromthe means for the Afrikaans-speaking and the English-speakingpupils in Fields 1,3,4 and 5. The difference between the meansfor the Afrikaans-speaking and the English-speaking pupils wasnot statistically significant in any of the fields.

Discussion

It has to be stressed, once again, that the SOM is primarily adiagnostic instrument for the evaluation of pupils' study orienta­tion problems in mathematics. Assessment of pupils' study orien­tation problems may serve as a basis for enhancing theirachievement in mathematics.

During the norm determination the possibly significant rela­tion between biographical variables ami test scores was investi­gated. The premise was that the mere fact that average test scores

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S.Afr. J. Psycho!. 1998,28(2)

Table 7 Means (X) and standard deviations (s)for language groups separately

Grades 8 and 9

Africanlanguages I English? Afrikaans?(N= 955) (N= 119) (N= 167)

- - -Fields X X X

34.23 36.04 36.11

2 34.922• 3 40.633 38.12

3 39.33 39.90 40.40

4 37.622• 3 33.82 34.86

5 33.202. 3 40,853 37.05

Africanlanguages! English? Afrikaans3(N= 439) (N= 178) (N= 197)

39.972• 3 34.56 34.25

2 39.563 40.89 41.21

3 45.182•3 37.90 39.77

4 38.842• 3 31.65 32.46

5 37.242.3 40.89 40.09

6 38.15 38.67 38.30

2 and 3 in Column 2 of Table 7 indicate that the means forAfrican-language speakersdiffer statistically significantly atthe 5% level)from Englishand Afrikaans speakers.

3 in Column3 indicates that the means for English speakersdiffer statistically significantly (at the 5% level) from themeansforAfrikaans speakers.

on a test differed for two or more groups did not necessarily indi­cate bias in the test with respect to the variable with which thegroups were formed. Bias with respect to language, sex and levelof education was limited by judicious item selection. It appearsthat the observed group differences in test means can be ex­plained on the basis of available information. These observationsindicate that it would be advisable to provide one set of normsfor Grade 8 and 9 pupils, and one set of norms for Grade 10 and11 pupils.

In the case of the Grade 8 and 9 group the means for the boyswere higher throughout than those for the girls. Only for Fields 2and 5 and for the questionnaire as a whole are the differences sta­tistically significant, however. This finding correlates with thefindings of Tartre and Fennema (1995), and that of Visser (1989,p. 213), who found that '[females between Grade 7 and Grade 9]become more anxious about their mathematics studies ... theirinterest wanes ... expectations ... of their parents in their mathe­matics studies wanes also.' Unacceptably large numbers of girlsdrop mathematics at the end of Grade 9, for a variety of reasons(Maker, 1991; Costello, 1991). There appears to be a prevailingperception that mathematics is for males only (Fennema & Hart,1994). Those who do take the subject, apparently have a morepositive study orientation in mathematics. In the Grade 10 and 11group an opposite trend to that in Grades 8 and 9 was observed.The means of the boys are lower than those for the girls in all thefields except in Field 6. The differences are statistically signifi­cant only for Fields I and 3 and for the questionnaire as a whole.The numerical differences between the means for the boys andthe girls are not large and probably have no psychological mean­ing.

105

In all the grades the African-language speakers displayedmore favourable problem-solving behaviour (Field 4). In Grades8 and 9 the African-language speakers showed a less favourablestudy orientation in Fields 2 and 5 than the other two languagegroups. African-language speakers in Grades 10 and 11 showeda more favourable study orientation in Fields 1 and 3. It seems asif African-language speakers who take mathematics in Grades 10and 11 have a generally positive attitude towards mathematicsand display more optimum study habits than their English-speak­ing and Afrikaans-speaking peers. This corresponds with the fol­lowing finding: 'township youth take their education and after­class assignments very seriously' (Meller, 1994, p. 44). Herstudy confirmed the suspicion that these pupils 'spontaneously'make other arrangements (like working at school with theirfriends in the afternoons) in an attempt to overcome the negativeeffects of milieu disadvantages, but that these measures do nothave the desired effect. In conjunction with this, African-lan­guage speakers show consistently higher mathematics anxietylevels and a less optimum study milieu in mathematics (Howie,1996). A variety of factors probably contribute to the undesirablestate of affairs, including language problems, underqualifiedteachers and less optimum SES among African-language speak­ers in general. Meller (1994, p. 43) adds to this view: 'The moststriking finding ... is that the poor quality home environment pro­vides little support for homework activities ... poor school andhome environments tend to go hand in hand.'

ConclusionThis paper describes the development of a study orientationquestionnaire in mathematics. The investigation was instigatedby the fact that the pass rates for mathematics are lower than thenational pass rates for other subjects. Little attention is usuallygiven to pupils' study orientation in mathematics. Yet, the poten­tially harmful influence of an inadequate study orientation inmathematics has been highlighted by a number of authors.

The purpose of the study was to develop a study orientationquestionnaire for pupils with a view to its application in school.The questionnaire was compiled after an intensive literaturestudy was carried out and a number of questionnaires, includingthe SSHA, the LASSI and the MSLQ, influenced the structure ofthe SOM. Following a pilot study, a number of items wereimproved. For Grade 8 and 9 pupils, the SOM comprises fivefields (76 items), and for Grade 10 and 11 pupils the question­naire comprises six fields (92 items).

It was found that the SOM yielded satisfactory results withregard to the determination of, inter alia, reliability, intercorrela­tions and validity. The conclusion can be drawn that the SOMprovides psychologists with a useful psychometric test for theevaluation of the study orientation in mathematics of schoolpupils in South Africa.

AcknowledgementsThis article is based on the results of research conducted by theHSRC. The research reported here was financially supported bythe HSRC. Permission was granted by the HSRC to use data ob­tained during the standardisation of the SOM. We gratefullythank the two anonymous reviewers for their comments on theinitial manuscript, which we found most helpful. We also ex­press our sincere gratitude to the pupils and teachers who helpedus to develop this questionnaire.

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