developing young children's creativity: what can we … · recognition to the importance of...

IntroductionIn September 2000, the Arts Council of Englandasked the NFER to summarise recent research andtheory on creativity in early childhood. The workentailed a selective review of research and theorypublished between 1988 and 2000 and resulted in abriefing paper on the subject (1). This article sets outto update the earlier paper and to identify some ofthe principles involved in helping young children todevelop their creativity in early years settings.

How has creativity been interpreted ineducational policy?Creativity has recently been granted officialrecognition as one of the overarching aims of thecurriculum in English schools.

The curriculum should enable pupils to thinkcreatively and critically, to solve problems and tomake a difference for the better. It should givethem the opportunity to become creative,innovative, enterprising and capable of leadershipto equip them for their future lives as workers andcitizens (2, p. 11).

The Foundation Stage curriculum is aimed at earlyyears settings, providing for children aged aroundthree to six years. The curriculum is divided into sixmain areas of learning, one of which is creativedevelopment. According to the curriculum guidancefor the Foundation Stage in 2000 (3, p.116):

Being creative enables children to make connections

between one area of learning and another and so extend

their understanding. This area includes art, music, dance,

role-play and imaginative play.

These definitions have been welcomed as givingrecognition to the importance of creativity and therole of education in encouraging creativedevelopment. The appearance of creativity as anaim of the curriculum in England is part of a trendto recognise the importance of creativityinternationally (4). However, the above statementsalso raise many questions, such as: what is meantby the terms ‘creative thinking’, ‘creativedevelopment’ and ‘being creative’? How doescreativity relate to curriculum areas? And howshould early years staff help children to developtheir creative abilities?

Defining creativityDefinitions of creativity are not straightforward,and many writers have contributed to the debateabout what constitutes creativity, often hotlycontesting different views. However, most theoristsagree that the creative process involves a numberof components, most commonly:

• imagination

• originality (the ability to come up with ideas and

products that are new and unusual)

• productivity (the ability to generate a variety of

different ideas through divergent thinking)

• problem solving (application of knowledge and

imagination to a given situation)

• the ability to produce an outcome of value and

worth.

Where definitions of creativity differ most strikinglyis the extent to which their proponents areattempting to identify creativity as a generic humancharacteristic, or to define what makes highly

Topic

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Developing young children’s creativity: whatcan we learn from research?

Autumn 2004 / Issue 32

In this article, Caroline Sharp of the NFER considers evidence from research and theory as

it applies to developing young children’s creativity. She explains how creativity is defined,

and identifies the implications for staff working in early childhood settings. She also

identifies some common myths about developing young children’s creativity.

Readership: primary

creative people special and different from others.This is the distinction between what the RobinsonReport (5) calls the ‘democratic’, as opposed to the‘élite’, definition of creativity. Howard Gardner (6),adopts an élite definition of creativity when heargues that truly creative people are those who makea difference to the world (e.g. by moving forwardthinking in science, social science, music or art).This type of ‘Big C’ creativity is reserved for very fewindividuals. The report (5) of the National AdvisoryCommittee for Creative and Cultural Education,chaired by Professor Ken Robinson, adopted ademocratic view of creativity. It argued that this wasthe most useful way of viewing creativity in relationto education (5, para. 25)

All people are capable of creative achievement in

some area of activity, provided that the conditions

are right and they have acquired the relevant

knowledge and skills.

So is creativity another way of talking aboutintelligence or talent? Most authorities agree thatcreativity is different. Creativity has been shownto be distinct from intelligence (children scoringhigh on intelligence tests are not necessarilyhighly creative). The concept of ‘multipleintelligences’ (6) suggests that people may have aparticular intelligence (or potential) in relation to

a given field of endeavour.While this is a more ‘inclusive’concept than traditional IQ, itis still essentially distinct fromcreativity, which may beconsidered to represent a moregeneric set of abilities,applicable to a range of

domains. Talent usually refers to the possession ofa high degree of aptitude and skill in a given area(such as music or mathematics), but would notnecessarily imply either a high degree oforiginality or an ability to demonstrate creativeabilities outside the specific area.

Talk to most parents about their children’screativity and they will probably think you aretalking about artistic or musical talent. TheRobinson Report (5) argues that, while there arestrong links between the expressive arts andcreativity, viewing creativity as solely or mainly theprovince of the arts is unhelpful because it canlead to a denial of the role of creativity in otherareas, such as science and mathematics.

Creativity in young childrenWhen considering young children, it is appropriateto adopt a broad, democratic definition ofcreativity. In this way, every child can beconsidered to have creative potential and to becapable of creative expression.

It is important to consider what might constitute‘originality’ in the work of a young child. After all,only a child prodigy could be expected to come upwith something new and valuable to society.Instead, each child’s creative abilities can be relatedto his/her personal stage of development. Forexample, a young child’s work may be adaptiveand original for that particular child and/or inrelation to children in their class or age group (7).

Another suggestion for adapting the notion ofcreativity to suit young children is to put theemphasis on the creative process, rather than tojudge the quality of their ‘products’. This isbecause young children may not have developedall the skills they need to achieve a successfulcreative outcome (8, 9). A similar point is made byMalaguzzi (10), who says (p. 77):

Creativity becomes more visible when adults try to

be more attentive to the cognitive processes of

children than to the results they achieve in various

fields of doing and understanding.

This is an interesting comment coming from thedriving force behind the Reggio Emilia approach,which has impressed so many people with thequality of creative ‘products’ generated by youngchildren.†

How does creativity develop?Some theorists have studied the way in whichcreativity develops in children. Most theories ofchild development view young children as highlycreative, with a natural tendency to fantasise,experiment and explore their environment.However, this high level of creativity is notnecessarily maintained throughout childhood andinto adulthood. For example, Meador (11) presentsevidence from the USA that creativity (as measuredby divergent thinking tests) declines when childrenenter kindergarten, at around the age of five or six.

Runco (12) has studied how creativity develops. Heexplains that longitudinal research on trends increativity suggests both continuities and

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Developing young children’s creativity

is creativityanother way of

talking aboutintelligence or

talent?

discontinuities throughout an individual’s lifespan.In other words, a child identified as highly creativein early life may or may not consistently showcreativity later on. He argues that this unevendevelopment may result from the fact that certaintraits and talents develop at different rates and areinfluenced by each individual’s environment andlife chances.

How does education influence creativity?Most writers on creativity agree that it is possibleto encourage or indeed to inhibit the developmentof creativity in young children. The findinghighlighted by Meador (11), that children areapparently more creative before they enterkindergarten, leads to the question of whether thisis a natural consequence of children maturing andbecoming constrained by social conventions, orwhether their experiences in kindergartensomehow caused the decline.

In order to consider the way in which creativitycan be fostered in educational settings, it may behelpful to identify some of the components ofcreativity in young children. Creativity is closelybound up with an individual’s personality andemotional life: there is more involved than just‘thinking skills’.

Russ (13) has developed a model to explain therelationship between creativity and psychologicalprocesses. This model suggests that the followingthree elements are involved:

The implication of this model is that, in order forchildren to express creativity, they need acombination of attributes. Although some childrenalready have the necessary components, othersmay need help, encouragement and skilldevelopment in order to engage in creative activity.

For example, a child may not choose to engage increative thinking because she lacks self-confidenceand does not believe that she has anything ofvalue to offer. Or maybe she becomes anxiouswhen given an open-ended task with severalpossible solutions. Through observation andconversation, an adult can work out what iscausing the child’s difficulties and encourage her towork through them.

How can educational settings influence creativity?Mellou (14) suggests that young children’screativity can be nurtured through educationalsettings in three respects: the creativeenvironment, creative programmes and creativeteachers and ways of teaching. A brief overview ofrecommendations in relation to these threeelements is given below.

The creative environment

Fundamental to the creative environment is theencouragement of children’s play. Play is stronglyfeatured in many of the discussions aboutcreativity in young children. Indeed, older childrenand adults are often encouraged to be ‘playful’ inorder to facilitate creative thinking. Imaginativeplay (especially role play) and free choice ofactivities would seem to be key components of theearly childhood setting in relation to creativity (see9, 13, 15–18). Both creativity and play requireimagination, insight, problem solving, divergentthinking, the ability to experience emotion and tomake choices (19).

This does not mean that all play involvescreativity. Prentice (18) suggests that activeinvolvement is a key feature: ‘For creativity toflourish in an educational setting, it is necessaryfor learners to be actively involved in the processof their own learning’ (p. 154). Research has alsoshown that it is possible for adults to help childrenimprove their imaginative play skills, withapparent positive consequences for their creativeabilities (19).

Two other issues have been raised concerning theenvironment in early childhood settings. Thestimulation offered by a child’s physicalenvironment is important, as Runco (20) haspointed out. This could include the size and layoutof the classroom and outdoor space, the quality ofequipment and materials, and access to varied andnew environments. A second key issue is the need

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1. personality traits, such as self-confidence, being able

to tolerate ambiguity, curiosity and motivation

2. emotional processes, such as emotional fantasy in

play, pleasure in challenge, involvement in tasks and

tolerance of anxiety

3. cognitive abilities, such as divergent thinking, ability

to ‘transform’ thinking (for example, by being able to

reorder information or shift thinking ‘sets’), sensitivity

to problems, breadth of knowledge and judgement.

for children to be given sufficient and sustainedperiods of time in which to develop their creativeprojects (see 5, 10, 21).

Creative programmes

Can creativity be taught through creativeprogrammes? The results from research in this areawould seem to suggest that it is possible to enhancechildren’s creative skills through specific teachingprogrammes, including arts-based ones (see 22, 23).However, conclusions from two reviews of researchinto the transferable effects of arts education haveconcluded that the impact of arts programmes onchildren’s creativity is not yet proven (24, 25). Theapparent contradiction probably arises from a lackof sufficient high-quality research, and thepossibility that not all arts activities serve toenhance creativity.

Creative teachers and creative teaching

Creative teachers and creative teaching are keycomponents in fostering creativity in youngchildren. Many writers such as Tegano et al. (9),Mellou (14), Craft (15), Runco (20) and Edwardsand Springate (21), highlight the role of theteacher in providing the optimum balance betweenstructure and freedom of expression for youngchildren. They explain that teachers and otherearly childhood workers can encourage creativityby behaviours such as:

• asking open-ended questions

• tolerating ambiguity

• modelling creative thinking and behaviour

• encouraging experimentation and persistence

• praising children who provide unexpected answers.

Malaguzzi (10) has made a number of observationsabout the best conditions for developing creativity inchildren’s daily experience, which include anemphasis on interaction with adults and peers (p. 76)

The most favourable situation for creativity seems to

be interpersonal exchange, with negotiation of

conflicts and comparison of ideas and actions being

the decisive elements.

Runco (7) argues that teachers should show aninterest in children’s creative potential andencourage children to construct their ownpersonal interpretations of knowledge and events.

Some children may need to learn to stand up fortheir own ideas, especially when these do notconform to those of the rest of the group. Butchildren also need to learn discretion, so that theycan judge when it is appropriate to be divergentand original, and when it is appropriate toconform.

Adults, therefore, can act as supporters andcoaches, facilitators and models of creativity forchildren. But on the other hand, adults also havethe potential to stifle opportunities for creativityby being overly didactic or prescriptive (9, 10).They can limit creativity by discouraging fantasyor by having low expectations about what youngchildren are able to achieve (14, 18). Severalelements can conspire against the encouragementof creativity in early years settings, including thepressure for teachers to focus on literacy andnumeracy, a lack of training in early yearspractice, and a tension between meeting the needsof a class and encouraging the interests of anindividual (26, 27).

The role of creative professionalsIn addition to the three aspects already outlined, theliterature contains several references to the potentialof creative professionals to help develop children’screativity. For example, the QCA’s guidance in 2000for the Foundation Stage (3) suggests that, in order

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Children are encouraged to use drawingsas a ‘graphic language’

to facilitate creative development, young childrenshould have opportunities to work alongside artistsand other creative adults.

In the pre-schools of Reggio Emilia, educatorsenable young children to engage in extendedprojects. Children are encouraged to use drawingsas a ‘graphic language’ to record their ideas,feelings and observations. A key part of ReggioEmilia settings is the existence of spaces that are‘rich in materials, tools and people withprofessional competencies’ (10, p. 74). Thesespaces, known as ateliers, are designed to be placesin which children’s different languages can beexplored by them and studied by their teachersand others in a peaceful atmosphere.

While there is a body of research into the impactof artists-in-schools schemes, the role of artists inencouraging young children’s creativity has notyet been well researched. In other words,although the involvement of professional artistsand creative workers has considerable potential tobe helpful, we do not have research evidence tosay what kinds of involvement may have thegreatest impact on creativity. This issue is,however, currently being investigated as part ofthe Creative Partnerships Programme (Seewww.creative-partnerships.com/)

ConclusionCreativity is an important human characteristic. Itis perhaps best thought of as a process, requiringa mixture of ingredients, including personalitytraits, abilities and skills. Early years staff can helpyoung children to develop their creativity byproviding a creative environment, helpingchildren to build up their skills through play,behaving creatively themselves and praisingchildren’s creative efforts.

Remember that people are creative because theychoose to be, so finding out about andencouraging a child’s own interests is an importantstarting point. Some children may find it difficultto express their creativity. Staff can help byobserving their behaviour (especially duringimaginative play), identifying where the difficultylies and devising an action plan. But, you may ask,isn’t this just a description of good early childhoodpractice? Well yes, but with a creative twist.

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Some myths about creativity

1. Creativity is limited to arts subjects.Although creativity is often associated with‘creative’ subjects, such as art and music,creativity is not subject specific. Creativityis a way of approaching problem solvingthat can be exercised in different areas. Onthe other hand, creativity does not takeplace in a vacuum: the way in whichchildren express creativity will be differentin different curriculum areas.

2. Children find it easy to transfer learningfrom one area/domain to another.All the evidence shows that most childrenfind it very difficult to transfer learningfrom one area to another. Knowledge andskills are so context specific that childrenmay simply fail to recognise thatsomething they had already learned can beapplied to a new situation. Adults can helpchildren to make the connection.

3. The creative process is fun: it should notbe taken too seriously.Creativity may seem like a fun, self-indulgent activity to counteract the moreserious ‘work’ of the classroom. But thecreative process presents many challenges.It requires concentration, persistence anddetermination to succeed; it may in fact bea frustrating and difficult process.Creativity deserves to be taken seriously.

4. Creativity is an in-born trait, limited tothe talented few. Highly creative peoplewill find their own way, regardless ofwhat happens at school. Individuals have a different combinationof abilities, personality traits and homeexperiences that make them more or lessable to express their creative potential. Thestudy of highly creative adults shows thatsome of them insisted on ‘being creative’almost in spite of their educationalexperiences, but this is not an argumentfor leaving creativity to chance. Somechildren will miss the opportunity todevelop their creativity withoutencouragement and support in pre-schooland school.

Note† Reggio Emilia is a community in Northern

Italy that has pioneered a particular approachto early childhood education, emphasisingcreative learning.

References1 SHARP, C. (2001). ‘Developing young children’s

creativity through the arts: what does researchhave to offer?’ Paper presented to an InvitationalSeminar, Chadwick Street Recreation Centre,London, 14 February [online]. Available:http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research/papers/creativity.pdf [13 January, 2004].

2 QUALIFICATIONS AND CURRICULUMAUTHORITY (1999). The National Curriculum:Handbook for Primary Teachers in England KeyStages 1 and 2. London: DfEE and QCA.

3 QUALIFICATIONS AND CURRICULUMAUTHORITY (2000). Curriculum Guidance forthe Foundation Stage. London: QCA.

4 SHARP, C. and LE METAIS, J. (2000). The Arts,Creativity and Cultural Education: AnInternational Perspective (International Reviewof Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks)[online]. Available: http://www.inca.org.uk/pdf/finalreport.pdf [13 January, 2004].

5 ROBINSON REPORT. GREAT BRITAIN.DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION ANDEMPLOYMENT. DEPARTMENT FOR CULTURE,MEDIA AND SPORT. NATIONAL ADVISORYCOMMITTEE ON CREATIVE AND CULTURALEDUCATION (1999). All Our Futures: Creativity,Culture and Education. London: DfEE.

6 GARDNER, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed:Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. NewYork, NY: Basic Books.

7 RUNCO, M.A. (2003). ‘Education for creativepotential’, Scandinavian Journal of EducationalResearch, 47, 3, 317–24.

8 CRAFT, A. (2003). ‘Creative thinking in the earlyyears of education’, Early Years, 23, 2, 143–54.

9 TEGANO, D.W., MORAN, J.D. and SAWYERS, J.K.(1991). Creativity in Early Childhood Classrooms(NEA Early Childhood Education Series). WestHaven, CT: National Education Association.

10 MALAGUZZI, L. (1993). ‘History, ideas, and basicphilosophy: an interview with Lella Gandini.’In: EDWARDS, C., GANDINI, L. and FORMAN,G. (Eds) The Hundred Languages of Children: TheReggio Emilia Approach – Advanced Reflections.Second edn. Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing.

11 MEADOR, K.S. (1992). ‘Emerging rainbows: areview of the literature on creativity’, Journalfor the Education of the Gifted, 15, 2, 163–81.

12 RUNCO, M.A. (Ed.) (1996). Creativity fromChildhood through Adulthood: The DevelopmentalIssues (New Directions for Child DevelopmentNo. 72). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

13 RUSS, S.W. (1996). ‘Development of creativeprocesses in children’. In: RUNCO, M.A. (Ed.)Creativity from Childhood through Adulthood: TheDevelopmental Issues (New Directions for ChildDevelopment No. 72). San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.

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5. Children can get all the creativeexperience they need from free play andunstructured arts activities. Children do benefit from free play andunstructured arts activities. But leftentirely to their own devices, children’splay and artwork can become routine andrepetitive. Children need stimulation andcreative problems to solve. Adults can helpchildren to develop their creative skillsthrough play.

6. You don’t need to be knowledgeable orskilful to be creative.There is a balance to be struck here,because insisting on extensive knowledgeand skill development can be stultifying.On the other hand, knowledge and skill arefundamental to creativity. Existingknowledge of the world is a starting pointfor young children’s play. How can peopleexpress their creativity without developingthe necessary skills? How would you knowif your contribution was original orappropriate unless you had someunderstanding of the area?

14 MELLOU, E. (1996). ‘Can creativity benurtured in young children?’ Early ChildDevelopment and Care, 119, 119–30.

15 CRAFT, A. (2000). Creativity across the PrimaryCurriculum: Framing and Developing Practice.London: Routledge.

16 CRAFT, A. (2002). Creativity and Early YearsEducation. London: Continuum.

17 MELLOU, E. (1994). ‘The case of interventionin young children’s dramatic play in order todevelop creativity’, Early Child Development andCare, 99, 53–61.

18 PRENTICE, R. (2000). ‘Creativity: areaffirmation of its place in early childhoodeducation’, Curriculum Journal, 11, 2, 145–58.

19 RUSS, S.W. (2003). ‘Play and creativity:developmental issues’, Scandinavian Journal ofEducational Research, 47, 3, 291–303.

20 RUNCO, M.A. (1990). ‘The divergent thinkingof young children: implications of theresearch’, Gifted Child Today, 13, 4, 37–9.

21 EDWARDS, C.P. and SPRINGATE, K.W. (1995).Encouraging Creativity in Early ChildhoodClassrooms (ERIC Digest). Urbana, IL: ERICClearinghouse on Elementary and EarlyChildhood Education (ED389474).

22 SCOPE, E.E. (1999). A meta-analysis of researchon creativity: the effects of instructionalvariables. Unpublished dissertation, FordhamUniversity.

23 MURDOCK, M.C. (2003). ‘The effects ofteaching programmes intended to stimulatecreativity: a disciplinary view’, ScandinavianJournal of Educational Research, 47, 3, 339–57.

24 WINNER, E. and COOPER, M. (2000). ‘Mutethose claims: no evidence (yet) for a causallink between arts study and academicachievement’, Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34,3–4, 1–65.

25 SHARP, C., BENEFIELD, P. and KENDALL, L.(1998). The Effects of Teaching and Learning inthe Arts: A Review of Research. London: QCA.

26 DAVID, T. (2003). What Do We Know aboutTeaching Young Children? A Professional UserReview of UK Research Based on the BERAAcademic Review ‘Early Years Research: Pedagogy,Curriculum and Adult Roles, Training andProfessionalism’. Nottingham: BritishEducational Research Association.

27 DOWNING, D., JOHNSON, F. and KAUR, S.(2003). Saving a Place for the Arts? A Survey ofthe Arts in Primary Schools in England (LGAResearch Report No. 41). Slough: NFER.

About the authorCaroline Sharp is a Principal Research Officer inthe Department of Professional and CurriculumStudies at the National Foundation for EducationalResearch. Her research interests are in earlychildhood, arts and creativity and study support.

Address for [email protected]

Copying permittedThe NFER grants to educational institutions andinterested bodies permission to reproduce this itemin the interests of wider dissemination.

Related websites

www.ncaction.org.uk/creativityThe Creativity website from the QCA is the resultof a project to research creativity in schools. Itoffers practical ideas on how to promote pupil'screativity, thinking and behaviour. The QCAinvites schools to contribute to the ongoing workof the project, go to by sending examples andtelling them how pupils' creativity has beenpromoted in the classroom and school.

www.creative-partnerships.com/Creative Partnerships is a government-fundednational initiative, established to developschoolchildren's potential, ambition, creativity andimagination. The initiative provides schoolchildren across England with the opportunity todevelop creativity in learning and to take part incultural activities.

Creative Partnerships does not fund projects butaims to establish collaborative partnerships to enablethe development of projects that reflect the interests,specialisms and shared vision of those involved.

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www.refocus-cambridge.co.ukRefocus Cambridge and Cambridge Centre forCuriosity and Imagination in collaboration withthe Kaetsu Educational and Cultural Centre hostthe 100 languages of children exhibition.

ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center,US) publishes digests on all aspects of education.The following may be of interest for furtherreading on the topic of creativity and youngchildren.

www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed306008.htmlMoran, James D., III (1998). Creativity in YoungChildren. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse onElementary and Early Childhood Education(ED306008). This digest explores factors that affect

creativity in children and techniques for fosteringthis quality. The need to study creativity, and thedefinition of creativity within a developmentalframework, are also discussed. (Original abstract)

www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed389474.htmlEdwards, C.P. and Springate, K.W. (1995).Encouraging Creativity in EarlyChildhood Classrooms. Urbana, IL: ERICClearinghouse on Elementary and Early ChildhoodEducation (ED389474). This digest considers bothteacher-initiated and child-initiated strategies forenhancing young children’s self-expression andcreativity. It reports on the Reggio Emilia approachto early childhood education, which considers thearts to be one of the ‘hundred languages ofchildren’.

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