developing social capital to replace foregoing donors
TRANSCRIPT
Edited by Masahiro Yamao
Sponsor TOYOTA FOUNDATION
DEVELOPING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO REPLACE
FOREGOING DONORS:
A STUDY ON THE CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONING OF COASTAL COMMUNITIES OF SRI
LANKA, THAILAND, AND INDONESIA
IN POST-TSUNAMI PERIOD
i
Developing Social Capital to Replace Foregoing Donors: A Study on the changes in the structure and functioning of coastal communities of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia in post-tsunami period
Table of Contents page Part I Executive Summary of International Symposium on Developing Social Capital to Replace Foregoing Donors-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Keynote Speech: Our Direction toward Developing Social Capital in Tsunami-affected Coastal Communities----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14 Developing Social Capital to replace forging donors: A case of Sri Lanka-------------------22 Economics Studies on Tsunami Affected Mangroves and Other Coastal Forests and Agriculture Areas in the Southern Part of the Country: Phuket Phang Nga and Ranong Provinces--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Damages and Restoration of Fisheries Livelihood in South Thailand----------------------62 Rebuilding People’s Network on Coastal Resources Management----------------------------89
How people cooperate in restoration: Role of microfinance and its impact----------------106
Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program as a Case Study in Krueng Raya Aceh Besar District---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
Self-dependence and role of social networks: Women’s role in restoration-----------------136 Japanese Aid and Help to Recovery of Fisheries and Fishing Community in Tsunami Affected Area, Indonesia-------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
PartⅡ Outcomes of the stakeholder workshop – 2010 August, South coast, Sri Lanka---------163
Part Ⅰ
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON DEVELOPING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO REPLACE FOREGOING
DONORS: A Study on the changes in the structure and functioning of coastal
communities of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia in post-tsunami period
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
DEVELOPING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO REPLACE FOREGOING DONORS: A Study on the changes in the structure and
functioning of coastal communities of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia in post-tsunami period
YAMAO Masahiro Hiroshima University
OPENING OF SYMPOSIUM
Backgrounds of Symposium
1 This paper is the summary of international symposium, entitled “Developing Social
Capital to Replace Foregoing Donors, which was held on September 16 and 17, 2010.
It was held in Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Hiroshima University (Graduate School of Biosphere Science), Kasetsart University
(Faculty of Economics), Sarabragamuwa University, and Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center (SEAFDEC) were organizational affiliations. The TOYOTA
FOUNDATION kindly sponsored this symposium.
2 This symposium was initially planned to disseminate the results and outcomes of
survey on developing social capital to replace foregoing donors in tsunami-affected
coastal communities, which was led by Prof. Masahiro Yamao who belongs to Hiroshima
University. As staff of Kasetsart University joined this research project, Hiroshima
University expected that the symposium would be a collaborative one based on MOU
between the both. Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, kindly acted as a
cooperative organizer to take part in preparation for the symposium and provider a
2
financial support.
3 Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, helped our
research activities in tsunami affected communities and new settlements. SEAFDEC/
Training Department (TD) also dispatched a senior researcher to this research project.
Remarks and Address
4 Associate Prof. Dr. Saroj Aungsumalin, Dean of Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart
University, presented welcome remarks. He emphasized that it was very important to
assess whether or not, in the rehabilitation process of tsunami affected society, local
people could develop social capital rather than physical and other capitals. He stressed
the fact that tsunami affected societies rebuilt a higher level of physical capital than
prior to the disaster, while many of them had not yet regained self-dependence ever
after donor had phased out. He expected that presentations and discussion would be
very useful for a further development of social capital in tsunami affected coastal
communities.
5 Opening address was presented by Prof. Dr. Maeda Teruo, Vice Dean of Graduate
School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, with the message from Prof. Esaka
Muneharu, Dean. Prof. Maeda expressed to the Dean of Faculty of Economics to his
deepest gratitude for having a collaborative international symposium. Staffs of
Hiroshima University were very proud of contributing to rehabilitation and rebuilding
of tsunami affected coastal communities, through coming up with effective strategies to
reduce the over-dependency syndrome. The Dean, in his message, strongly expressed a
further development of exchange activity between Hiroshima University and Ksetsart
University.
3
Keynote Speech
6 Prof. Dr. Yamao Masahiro, Hiroshima University, gave a key note speech with the
title “Our Direction toward Developing Social Capital in Tsunami-Affected Coastal
Communities.” Social and economic loss particularly in fishing communities were
massive and both domestic and international donor agencies have made enormous effort
to rehabilitate and rebuild them. Question was whether or not “building back better” is
achieved. Besides physical, economic and infrastructural rehabilitation, at present,
social, cultural and religious aspects should be paid more attention. Any rehabilitation
and rebuilding programs effectively worked for those who survived in order to empower
to reshape the future and redevelop their way of life. The development of social capital
brings the sustainable recovery of people and society. However, a “dependency
syndrome” is still a wide spread phenomenon throughout the tsunami-affected areas.
7 The purpose of the symposium was to identify the development of social capital,
and to find out the strength of social networks and level of cooperative social
responsibility among re-settlers in tsunami-affected coastal communities through
livelihood recovery activities, especially fisheries and aquaculture. This symposium
was also designed to show results of the survey conducted in Thailand, Indonesia, and
Sri Lanka, which was financially sponsored by TOYOTA FOUNDATION. Prof. Yamao
mentioned three specific objectives of the symposium as follows; 1) to identify the ways
to overcome dependency on outside hand and strengthen self-dependency of
tsunami-affected fishing communities; 2) to evaluate the development of
community-based and people’s organizations; 3) to recommend a direction of developing
social capital in tsunami-affected fishing communities.
4
SESSION I WHAT IS SOCIAL CAPITAL
Developing social capital to replace foregoing donors: A case of Sri Lanka
8 Dr. D.A.M. De Silva, Senior Lecturer, Sabaragamuwa University, Sri Lanka,
presented the conceptual framework of social capital, and showed a film with donor’s
support projects, people’s self-help projects, community-based organization and activity,
empowered women’s groups, and so on, in Sri Lanka. Her presentation empirically
illustrated the bonding, bridging and linking social capital status of the tsunami
re-settlements and its impact on donor dependency. Interviewing with 600 fishing
families re-settled in new locations of South (Galle, Matara and Hambantota) and East
(Trincomalee and Hambantota), results revealed that fishing communities are multi
ethnic and multi religious in nature and Tamils and Muslims were the dominant groups
in East Sinhalese Buddhists were the majority of South. Tsunami as well as new
re-settlement schemes in new locations destroyed the generations old community bonds
while disappear the community leaders.
9 Level of social capital in East was high compared to South and same pattern was
prevalent in bonding and bridging social capital levels of the studied communities. In
contrast, linking social capital level of South is higher than the east. Conflicts were the
common feature among re-settlers and existing villagers in new locations. Fishers were
categorized into 3 groups (high, medium and low) based on their level of social capital.
Re-settlements having high level of social capital were less donor dependent compared
to low levels of social capital. The main features of the high social capital re-settlements
were family composition and occupation were similar to old establishment. Moreover,
re-settlements with disturbed old village mechanism and fishers mixed with other
occupancies showed low level of social capital and high donor dependency.
5
SESSION II A CASE OF THAILAND
Economic studies focusing tsunami affected mangroves and coastal forests in southern
Thailand
10 Associate Professor Apiwan Kamlang-Ek, Kasetsart University, gave a
presentation with the title “Economic Studies on Tsunami Affected Mangrove and other
Coastal Forests and Agriculture Areas in Phuket, PhangNga and Ranong Provinces.”
Her presentation consisted of two objectives; 1) to study on the economic damage to
mangroves, coastal forests and economical tree crop plantations; 2) .to assess the
economic values of the mitigation functions, socio-economic, biodiversity, tourism and
cultures of mangroves and coastal forests. The study areas were located in Phuket,
PhangNga and Ranong Provinces. The lost assessment was divided to several aspects,
in accordance with damages and lost in studied areas.
11 Based on her case studies, Associate Professor Apiwan Kamlang-Ek suggested
that systematic assistance to disaster affected victims should be established in order to
deliver aids in a timely and appropriate manner. This includes setting up data on
population characteristics and occupation, and contact list of community leaders.
Dissemination of knowledge related to disasters and ways of protection should be
undertaken, and mental/traumatic treatment should be continuously provided. In her
presentation, in southern Thailand, enhancing the tourist awareness in the value of
natural resources and balance of eco-system should be promoted. Mangroves and
perennial trees plantation along the coast are to promoted, in order to reduce any
possible damages and loss which may occur in the future. It is important to set up a
measure to periodically alert the local people about disaster and to build natural
conservation awareness.
6
Damages and restoration of fisheries livelihood
12 Dr. Phattareeya Suanrattanachai, Senior Researcher, SEFDEC/ TD, gave a
presentation on “Damages and Restoration of Fisheries Livelihood in South Thailand.”
In coastal provinces facing Andaman Sea and PhangNga Bay, fishers and their families
lost means of production and livelihoods. In the aftermath of tsunami disaster, donor
agencies had common purposes to both relief and revitalize victims from suffering. To
monitor a restoration of fishing communities affected by the tsunami, her team
conducted a sampled survey of seven villages in PhangNga and Krabi Provinces. The
study focused on types of assistance transferred to victims that they could rehabilitate
their capacity and livelihood.
13 In the survey, the largest proportion of assistance was eared for house
construction (57.7 %). The second and third proportions were related to rebuilding up
fishing capacities, namely fishing boat (19%) and fishing equipment (11.5%). With
these assistances, those fishers affected by the tsunami could re-entry to fishing
business and secure their livelihood. However, in new settlements, there were a
number of fishers had a difficulty in continuing fisheries, which were located far from
sea. Some had to alter livelihood activities. Migrated fishers have changed their
thought and life style. In conclusion part, she suggested that women and youth
should be given a high priority to restore their economic and social life, and that any
assistance to encourage ethnic group is required.
Rebuilding people networks on coastal resource management
14 Dr. Wantana Chenkitkosol, Senior Research Officer, Department of Fisheries,
Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperative, presented the analysis and result of her research
with the title “Rebuilding People Networks on Coastal Resource Management.” Her
research focused on the evaluation of the social relationship of people in tsunami
affected communities. The research was conducted together by Dr. Phattareeya
7
Suanrattanachai and Dr. Pornprapa Sakulsaeng, in 7 communities in PhangNga and
Krabi. They were interested in community perceptions about daily-life activities, civic
actions, and social relationships. Moreover, the community perception on conversation
of natural resources, especially fisheries resources was another important topic.
15 According to her survey, the social relationships in the communities maintained
moderately and highly strong networks, which implied good relationships among
neighbors. Financial assistance from friends and relatives—from social
networks—could be very important for cash-strapped tsunami victims experiencing
income shortfalls. Friends and relatives were the first source of help. With references
to fisheries situation after the tsunami disaster, people felt that it rebuilt a better
situation than before the tsunami disaster. Fishers emphasized a development of
physical infrastructure in new settlements, and highly appreciated donors’ tremendous
support to revitalize fisheries business. Therefore, most of respondents were more
concerned on resources conservation.
SESSION III PARTICIPATION, EMPOWERMENT AND NETWORKS
How people cooperate in restoration?
16 Dr. Pornprapa Sakulsaeng, Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart Univesity,
gave a presentation entitled “How People Cooperate in Restoration: Role of
Microfinance and Its Impact.” She stressed that key elements of recovering coastal
society are long-term social protection, and improved local governance and community
participation. In the aftermath of disaster, empowerment programs were especially
designed to generate rural employment, income-generation, self-employment or small
scale business. Her team conducted a series of survey on the microfinance programs
and its impact to local economy and society. In the post-tsunami period, majority of
people have still continued to work inside their community and immediate vicinity.
Percenta
8
She analyzed that microfinance strategy successfully empowered people and community,
and strengthened human spirit.
17 It was pointed out that many of existing and newly established groups were
undertaking revolving funds together with income generating activities in their
community. Demand for microfinance services has increased after the disaster.
According to respondents, She concluded that, nowadays, group formation especially
women’s groups created strengthen the community’s self-help ability to generate income
activities and improve participation in community based development.
Special guest speech: Our experiences of Batik making group in Krabi Province
18 According to case studies on microfinance and income generating activities by
Dr. Pornprapa Sakulsaeng, the symposium invited three members of Batik Making
Group in Khao Tong Sub-district, namely Ms. Nongnut Puanlaeiat, Leader, Ms.
Katesarin Aoluknoi, Committee, and Ms. Dokmai Pan-Kawan, Assistance. This group
was established in 2006, after the tsunami disaster. At the outset, only 16 members
joined its membership, but today 30 members have actively involved batik making,
marketing and training program. They explained in depth the organization and
activity of the group.
19 Not only members but also around 100 persons (contract workers outside
membership) made a wide variety of batik products. The members trained anybody
who would like to paint batik clothes. Their voluntary training has successfully
attracted and empowered women and youth. This batik making group applied “One
Tambol, One Product” (OTOP) scheme, and gained various kinds of supports from
provincial and local governments. In Khao Tong, in the post-tsunami period, those
affected by tsunami have tried to diversify their livelihood and increased income sources.
They had reduced donor-dependence soon after starting batik making, and increased
9
self-dependence.
SESSION IV A CASE OF INDONESIA
Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program as a Case Study in Krueng Raya Aceh Besar
District
20 Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia, had involved a fisheries livelihood
recovery program in Ache Besar in the aftermath of earthquake and tsunami. Mr.
Zulhamsyah Imran, Lecture in Aquatic Resources Management and Resercher in
Center for Coastal ang Marine Resources Studies, was responsible for planning and
implementating community-and people needed livelihood activities. Project site was
located in Krueng Raya Bay, funded by United Nations Development Program. The
project was to provide integrated assessment assistance including technical inputs and
actions regarding to the local fisheries livelihood recovery based on integrated coastal
management planning. In his presentation, how a donor agency approached to those
affected community and people to encourage them to be self-dependent in long-term and
sustainable ways was explained. He stressed that any recovery program in certain
level needed physical treatment, and also comprehensive approach, integrating
financial capital with other capital such as social capital; human capital as well as
natural capital in order to obtain a livelihood strategy and livelihood outcome. This
approach was called Coastal Livelihood System Analysis (CLSA).
21 Mr. Zulhamsyah Imran emphasized the importance of formulating steps to
anticipate the post-project completed in order to ensure the sustainability of the project.
He suggested that there should be four conditions leading to the success of fisheries
Women’s batik group
10
livelihood program. Firstly, there should be a strong commitment by village leaders and
Panglima Laot Lhok (Leader of traditional fishermen’s organization). Secondly,
cooperative as microfinance has to manage revolving funds system to reduce donor
dependency and develop capital for livelihood and economic development. Thirdly, more
than 3 years is needed to complete one cycle of livelihood project to secure sustainability.
Finally, capacity enhancement of local facilitators is a substantial factor to lead to the
success of livelihood projects.
Self-dependence and role of social networks
22 In both Kruneng Bay and other villages, Associate Professor Dr. Tatsumi Kazuko,
Extension Center, Yamaguchi University, surveyed on a development of social networks,
focusing on women’s role. Her presentation was entitled “Self-dependence and role of
social networks: Women’s role in restoration.” She mentioned that physical and social
infrastructures have been almost recovered in tsunami-affected areas, but still
socio-economical and mental problems remain. Women have played a very important
role in restoration. They were engaged in fisheries processing, store business, sell
snacks, and so on. Through doing such small businesses, they have developed social
networks, and have increasingly felt self-confidence and self-dependence.
23 Through interviewing women in tsunami affected communities, her findings
showed three patterns; (1) strong relationship among family and relatives, (2) strong
friendship, (3) strong sense of self-dependence. In other words, most cases had strong
relationship among family and relatives. She analyzed some cases of individual family,
and found that mutual support and emotional relation among women improved their
empowerment and activates. Moreover they have felt self-confidence and
self-dependence gradually. These changes of women have affected the relationships of
their family, relatives, neighbors, friends and community after the tsunami. Comparing
two villages, there was a gap as regards donor dependency. However, after five and half
11
years have already passed, affected people and communities have realized that it is
important to improve their livelihood and rebuild society back better on their feet.
OPEN FORUM
24 Open forums were held in each session, and questions and comments were
given to presenters. Exchange of opinions was very active and useful in all sessions,
covering such aspects as social capital, social trusty, networks, and other aspects
related to the rehabilitation and rebuilding of affected societies and networks.
25 Dr. D.A.M. De Silva introduced a community-based workshop that her team
held in Bentota, Sri Lanka, on August 7, 2010. In re-settlements, there have appeared
a number of conflicts among people, although their life and livelihood have got back
better with enormous supports from donor agencies. People are still searching for new
livelihoods and requesting training program of technology which would be fitted into
their demand. In rehabilitation process, how to secure the sustainability of microfinance
and community-based organization has been a controversial issue so far. And a proper
management of these arrangements is a substantial element leading to the reduction of
donor dependence. Participants in the workshop proposed a development of self-help
institution and social capital.
26 Changes in social structure and people’s mentality in new-settlements were
focused and discussed in several presentations. Many cases were reported. Generally
speaking, component and its size in a social network are a decisive factor to increase
self-dependence. The main features of the high social capital were family composition
and occupations which were similar to old establishment. Re-settlement societies with
high level of social capital were less donor dependent compared to those with low levels
of social capital.
12
27 People’s group and community-based organization (CBO) were focused in open
forum, from various aspects. This is because a tremendous number of groups and CBOs
were established and implemented in the post-tsunami period, but many failed to
sustain their target activities. With a development of social capital, these self-help
organizations would have succeeded, and vice versa. Even after almost six years have
passed, empowering people should be given a high priority in tsunami-affected
communities.
28 Microfinance was discussed in depth among participants in the symposium.
Through presentations and discussions, we understood almost all tsunami-affected
communities had made enthusiastic effort to establish microfinance groups,
particularly revolving funds groups. These groups were designed to help members
become self-dependent in economic terms and to empower their livelihood; in reality,
however, many of them acted as a conduit of donor’s funds. Activity and organization
of microfinance were not much effective as had been expected. Microfinance groups
would have worked effectively and sustainably, people and society could have been more
self-dependent while reducing dependence on donor agencies. It is widely
acknowledged that empowering women is effective tool to develop livelihood and
increase self dependence.
29 As regards sustainable use of coastal resources, community-based and traditional
systems have worked effectively in the rehabilitation process. Issues on restoration of
workable framework in the use of coastal resources were discussed particularly in
SESSION III and IV. Participants in the symposium realized that fishers and
stakeholders had a difficulty in sustaining a conventional framework in new
settlements.
13
CLOSING OF THE SEMINAR
30 Dr. Yamao Masahiro concluded that this symposium would be useful for a
further research on the development of social capital in tsunami-affected coastal
communities. Topics and issues related to social capital should be studied in depth.
He thanked all staff of the Faculty of Economics who kindly assisted to hold this
symposium, and his special thank was given to Assistant Professor Mr. Nugool
Kornyuenyong. who has continuously supported to our research activity and the
symposium.
31 Dr. Maeda Teruo, Hiroshima University, highly appreciated a partnership with
Kasetsart University, and stressed that any academic collaboration would be planned
and implemented in the near future. Dr. Saroj Aungsumalin, Kasetsart University,
concluded that social capital approach should be more developed in the rehabilitation
and rebuilding of any disaster-affected community, referring to his economic analysis.
In his final speech, his faculty would like to apply for both educational and research
programs in collaboration with Hiroshima University.
14
Keynote Speech
Our Direction toward Developing Social Capital in Tsunami-affected Coastal Communities
YAMAO Masahiro Graduate School of Biosphere science, Hiroshima University
1 Background of This Symposium
Problem Statement
On 26th December 2004, a Sumatra earthquake and a series of great tsunamis
heavily struck to many parts of Asian coastal communities. This disaster caused an
unprecedented loss of life, and damaged a foundation of coastal communities, and
ongoing development activities. The victims were approximately 300,000 persons and
more than 5 million people were severely affected. Economic loss was estimated to reach
$115 billion and more. In the wake of disaster, an enormous number of affected people
lost their livelihood, society, and culture.
In the aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami, both domestic and international
societies, both governmental and non-governmental organizations, both individuals and
groups enthusiastically supported affected people and societies. Major parts of coastal
area affected were fishing communities, and many of the victims were fishers and their
families. In March 2005, FAO (2006) declared that fishers and people have rights to
access marine resources as it was always in the past. Economic loss in fisheries industry
was massive. Livelihood of fishing village was been destroyed. There was functional
failure in the system and network which were under sustainable use of renewable
marine resources.
Five and half years have already passed, during which tremendous efforts and
donations have been put into the rebuilding and restore of tsunami-affected coastal
15
society. In relation to this, our question is whether or not “building back better” is
achieved. Besides physical, economic and infrastructural rehabilitation, at present,
social, cultural and religious aspects should be paid more attention. Out most concern is
whether any rehabilitation and rebuilding programs effectively worked for those who
survived in order to empower to reshape the future and redevelop their way of life (BRR
2009a).
With excessive donor funding, those affected people and societies might be able to
concentrate their effort on “building back better” projects in any conceivable fields. It is
apparent, however, that
they need to build a
mechanism to ensure the
sustainability of own life
with an increased
self-reliance, since donor
funding is decreased.
Given the conditions
under which donor
dependency should be
reduced, individuals and
society are to develop social capital to enhance cohesion among community members,
thereby leading to an increased sense of community and commitment to each other
(BRR, 2009b).
Toward Self-reliance
In this context, the development of social capital brings the sustainable recovery of
people and society. As illustrated in Figure 1, most of tsunami-affected countries had a
five-year recovery plan, and both international and governmental agencies (including
NGOs) implemented sequential project activities. In the aftermath of the tsunami
Fig. Recovery Process: Livelihood Improvement and Development of Social Capital
“Build back better” in tsunami-affected community Immediately after the disaster, donors provided emergency support. They prepared houses, and shifted to physical and social infrastructure. While decreasing involvement, people and society increase self-dependence.
(Source) Author illustrated by referring to Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency (BRR, 2005),.
2010
Self-dependency Donor support
16
disaster, emergency support was provided. At second stage, temporary housing or
reconstruction of permanent houses was started. And at last stage, development of
physical and social infrastructure was undertaken, while donor agencies input their
enormous effort to support microfinance programs with technical assistance and
capacity building program. These would ensure the long-term sustainability of any
program activities. A
countless number of
microfinance groups
were established through
the whole area of
tsunami-affected coastal
communities. In spite
of failures and failures of
microfinance programs,
donor agencies could
hardly stopped to empower small-scale business and women’s activities. These untiring
supports to income generating activities have gradually, but steadily fostered people’s
self-reliance. Of course, a “dependency syndrome” is a wide spread phenomena
throughout the tsunami-affected areas.
A community-based approach to rebuild society
To empower those affected people and communities, donor agencies would avoid to
adopt top-down approach which might not fit in with local reality. This is because, in
the final stage, affected communities and people should reduce overdependence on the
donor agencies. However, this task is not easy since a conventional type of community
was destroyed by the disaster. Very few communities could have worked effectively in
the rebuilding of society, where leaders were dead and missing. In many countries
affected by the tsunami, decentralization of local administration became a controversial
New settlement for fishers (Thailand)
17
issue for undertaking rehabilitation program. LGUs did not work effectively although
they were expected to play an important role in emergency and recovery activities.
Nevertheless, community-based approach was widely accepted as effective tool by
which donor agencies would be able to respond to community-identified relief needs and
supports. The agencies tried to encourage people to organize community-based
organizations (CBOs) and groups in their target areas. Organization and activity of
CBOs and groups play crucial roles in rebuilding and rehabilitation. Cohesion among
their members directly reflects the success and failure of self-reliance activity.
2 How to rebuild a sustainable device of resource utilization for the future
Hardship of fishing community
In many parts of affected coastal communities of South and Southeast Asia,
fisheries and their related industries were dominant; it is generally acknowledged that
fishers are a core of the poor, who are often regarded as the lowest strata of society.
They stand on a vulnerable position even in the reconstruction and rehabilitation of
tsunami-affected society. Adoption of coastal zoning policy gives troublesome to fishers
and their traditional community, which causes their strong opposition, because they are
obliged to move to new settlements being located far from beach. They find it difficult
in the settlements to rebuild a community-based network being a substantial element,
for equal allocation of resources, sustainable use of coastal resource, an effective
marketing of fishery products, a division of labor on processing, and reciprocal help
among community members.
Even if fishers and coastal communities do not have any alternative choice, there is
a pressing need to carefully examine what extent they have restored social networks.
Due to overfishing and over-capitalization, vicious circle of coastal resources has been
enlarged. This causes another vicious circle of impoverishment. Wide spread social
unrest will be another crises for tsunami devastated coastal communities and countries.
Nowadays, there is still the fear of instability and vulnerability in reconstructed society.
18
For a sustainable device
Coastal fishing as livelihood is hard when community was lost. Marketing networks
become fragile (or have disappeared), which hampers a sound recover of
market-oriented fisheries. Technology and local knowledge are not much available as
before. People feel loss of social identity as before. Newly appearing CBOs may find it
difficult to adjust and coordinate conflicts that occur. Social network in a coastal
community (and a new settlement) becomes weak in the aftermath of the tsunami
disaster, which has a base of fishing activity as well as local society. Fishers had
developed various forms of social networks facilitating co-operation and mutual help.
Without them, they would be vulnerable vis-à-vis social disorders and insecurity.
In a new settlement, fishers have to establish a new relationship and network
within families, neighbors, members of occupational groups, and any societal
relationship. Due to mixture of affected people with various jobs and classes in the
settlement, a community based system has not effectively worked as a representative
unit of fisheries business, rather than donor agencies had expected. It would take long
time and pass through many steps for fishers and coastal communities to restore a
workable framework of resource management and livelihood improvement.
3 Purpose of the Symposium
Goal of the Symposium
This international symposium is to identify the development of social capital, and
to find out the strength of social networks and level of cooperative social responsibility
among re-settlers in tsunami-affected coastal communities through any livelihood
recovery activities, especially fisheries and aquaculture.
This symposium is designed to show results of the survey conducted in Thailand,
Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, with entitled “DEVELOPING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO
REPLACE FOREGOING DONORS.” This survey is financially sponsored by TOYOTA
19
FOUNDATION.
Specific Objectives
The symposium has three specific objectives;
1) to identify the ways to overcome dependency on outside hand and strengthen
self-dependency of tsunami-affected fishing communities.
2) to evaluate the development of community-based and people’s organizations,
which would ensure sustainable livelihood recovery of re-settlers and enhance
capacity building of coastal societies.
3) to recommend a direction of developing social capital in tsunami-affected fishing
communities.
Our expectations
The survey has been conducted in selected tsunami-affected coastal communities,
in three countries. We will evaluate the development of social capital and any
community-based organizations, which would ensure sustainable livelihood recovery of
re-settlers and enhance capacity building of coastal societies. Through comparative
studies on selected three countries, we will gain lessons learned through successful
cases which provides an insight into further development of social capital.
We expect that those tsunami-affected people and society release from heavy donor
dependency, and then strengthen the community’s self–help ability to create income
generating activities and improve participation in community based development work.
Our discussion will focus on how to construct strong social networks and to build social
trust among people. In coastal communities, to restore sustainable resource utilization
and environmental preservation in community is urgent need. We expect our survey,
suggestion and recommendation of this symposium will be able to contribute to reach
this goal.
20
Acknowledgement
As an organizer, first of all, I must thank to TOYOTA FOUNDATION which helps
our survey and opening such a collaborative symposium, with financial support.
Kasetsart University, which is a partner university of Hiroshima University, kindly
arranges not only academic but also logistic supports for the success of the symposium.
Dean Dr. Saroj Aungsumalin always encourages us to conduct a series of survey
together with staff of Faculty of Economics. Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri, Secretary General
of SEAFDEC, generously dispatches a senior researcher with technical assistance to
our project. With his assist, we can disseminate our experiences and lessons gained
through the survey and discussion to Southeast Asian nations.
Finally, our great thank is attributed to all fishers and people whom we interviewed
Indonesia
Thailand
Sri Lanka
Phannga province (Klongkien, Ban Nam Ken)Issues: Social capital, donor dependency, struggles of new communities, overuse of resources, impacts of social zoning , local governance, etc.
South: Issues: Social capital, donor dependency, impact of ethno domination in re-settlements, microfinance, social zoning, etc.
Kurabi province （Khaotong, Ao Luk Noi))Issues: Social capital, microfinance for livelihood, institutional arrangement of sustainable resource utilization, overuse of resources, recovery of coastal environment , etc.
Banda Ache (Krungraya Bay)Issues: Social capital, donor dependency, traditional community-based network, cultural changes , struggles of new communities, etc.
Our research sites (Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia)
21
with. They provide a profound insight into developing social capital. We expect that
they will build back better as soon as possible.
References
[1] FAO 2006. A Technical Assessment for Determining the Level of Fishing Capacity,
Impact of Tsunami on Fishery Resource and Identification of Resources Access and
Other Fishery-Related Issues in the Impact Area, Kasetsart University, FAO, June.
[2]BRR 2009a. BRR Book Series –Book a Case Study, Main, published by BRR
(Agency for the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of the Regions and Community of
Naggroe Aceh Darussalam and the Nias Island of the Province of North Sumatra)
[3] BRR 2009b. BRR Book Series – Case Study, Addition, published by BRR
22
Developing Social Capital to replace forging donors: A case of Sri Lanka
D.A.M. De Silva1 and Masahiro Yamao2
1Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences,
Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, P.O. Box 02, Belihuloya, Sri
Lanka. [email protected]
2Department of Food and Resource Economics, Graduate School of Biosphere Sciences,
Hiroshima University, 1-4-4 Kayamiyama, 739-8528, Higashi Hiroshima,
Japan. [email protected]
Abstract
The paper empirically illustrates the bonding, bridging and linking social capital
status of the tsunami re-settlements and its impact on donor dependency. After five
years of Indian Ocean tsunami, study investigates the resettled fishing communities in
Southern and Eastern coast of Sri Lanka. Sample composed of 600 fishing families
re-settled in new locations of South (Galle, Matara and Hambantota) and East
(Trincomalee and Hambantota). Cluster sampling technique was adopted to select the
fishing families and interviewer administered; pre-tested questionnaires and focus
group discussions were implemented to collect the data. Results revealed that fishing
communities are multi ethnic and multi religious in nature and Tamils and Muslims
were the dominant groups in East Sinhalese Buddhists were the majority of South.
Tsunami as well as new re-settlement schemes in new locations were destroyed the
generations old community bonds while disappear the community leaders. Level of
social capital in East was high compared to South and same pattern was prevalent in
bonding and bridging social capital levels of the studied communities. In contrast,
linking social capital level of South is higher than the east. Conflicts were the common
23
feature among re-settlers and existing villagers in new locations and social workers and
administrators have to work hard to create new ties among them. Fishers were
categorized into 3 groups (high, medium and low) based on their level of social capital.
Re-settlements having high level of social capital were less donor dependent compared
to low levels of social capital. The main features of the high social capital re-settlements
were family composition and occupation were similar to old establishment. Moreover,
re-settlements with disturbed old village mechanism and fishers mixed with other
occupancies showed low level of social capital and high donor dependency.
Key words: social capital, donor dependency, re-settlements
Introduction
Disaster destroyed thousands of lives, physical resources which people accumulated
throughout the generations. Fishing communities were the worst hit by 2004, Indian
Ocean tsunami. Fishes in South and South East Asia, have to start life again with the
pain and trauma of painful tragedy. Donors all over the world jointly collaborated to
provide quick supplies or daily necessities as well as plans were laid to rebuild the
communities devastated by tsunami.
Six years has past now, many communities devastated by tsunami, recovered fast
with the help of donors and re-settlements were composed of better quality houses,
water, electricity, sanitary facilities, and other infrastructure facilities. Moreover, many
communities have received better facilities to engage in fishing activities such as ports,
harbours, anchorages, landing sites, roads, cold storage facilities, logistics and market
places. Across the countries devastated by tsunami, has two different faces or belong s
to two stages of development. In one hand many communities have completed their
infrastructure development and start their own livelihood options and reach better
economic levels. On the other hand, some communities are not yet completed their
infrastructure development projects and still heavily dependent on donors. Irregular
donor support, poor community participation, lack of intervention of government
24
officials, conflicts among own community members and among others neighbouring
villages are common.
Donors and donor support is not lifelong thing or donors are not to support forever.
In general, donors are moving place to place, region to region or country to country,
where ever people need help. Many donors and donor agencies were already moved from
tsunami region and very few agencies are still remaining. The objectives of the
remaining agencies are not to provide support for infrastructure development but their
plans are to introduce alternative livelihood options to fishers and their families.
Unfortunately, communities of slow recovering and conflict proven areas are still
eagerly waiting to receive the support from donors. Researchers and policy makers of
many developing nations battered by the disasters are searching for possible options to
overcome the donor dependency problem or reduce the burden on donors. The present
research was dreamed to identifying the solutions to tackle the donor dependency. The
logic behind this research was, where ever disaster happens, in general who comes first
to give their helping hand? The common answer is neighbors, friends, relatives or the
local community. The great example of Sri Lanka, country which was suffering from 30
years of civil war and has to face the first ever tsunami disaster. Local communities
were the first donors who came first and start relief efforts without borders or colors.
Therefore, the research aims to find out the relationships and whether we can replace
the community strengths and relationships, etc.( social capital) to replace the
returning donors.
Donor dependency and social capital
Fishing is risky activity. Risks stem from various sources. Open access nature,
unpredictability of catches, seasonality, dynamic nature of the environment and
consumer behavior are considered as leading factors associates with the risk fishery
business. Aside from above, which are intrinsic to fisheries, these are other shocks (civil
distribution, storms and tsunami) and trends (Climate change, decline resources base,
25
globalization and economic crises) which add to the uncertainties in fisheries.
Risks affect livelihoods of thousands of fishers. The coping capacity of the
individual will determine the impact of risk on his livelihood. This brings us to the
concepts of vulnerability, coping and resilience; Vulnerability is to be the probability of
one’s livelihood being affected by a certain risk or stress. The higher this probability is
the higher livelihood of falling into distress (negative impact on livelihoods). Therefore,
people develop mechanisms to respond to and recover from such capitals are limited, he
will have less coping mechanism available to fisher to respond and recover from shocks.
This is the context in which fishers in Sri Lanka operate. In 2004, Indian ocean tsunami
had devastated the fishing communities in Sri Lanka. Thailand, Indonesia, India and
many other South and East Asian countries. Generations old communities and social
networks were disrupt and scattered along the coasts. Many left the industry and
rumors were high on fish consumption.
Research Questions
• Do social capital and donor dependency interlinked?
• What type of relationship? Positive or Negative
• Does community based assistance improve the level of social capital
• To what extent the improved social capital helps to remove the burden of donor
dependency?
Objectives:
1. To measure the level of bonding, bridging and linking social capital and
develop social capital levels of the tsunami affected fishing communities in
South and East coasts of Sri Lanka
2. To measure the levels of donor dependency and the nature of dependency
among the same fishing communities
26
3. To identify the relationship between social capital and donor dependency in
tsunami affected fishing communities
4. To develop “tool kit” to enhance the social capital through the community
participation
Methodology
Research locations
Study locations were selected based on the severity of the damage caused by the
2004, great Indian Ocean tsunami. South and east coast of the Sri Lanka were the
worst hit areas and affected communities were principally the fishers. Three districts of
Southern province, Galle, Matara and Hambantota were considered for the South coast.
Trincomalee and Baticaloa were the selected two districts for eastern province.
27
Figure 1: Map of the research locations
Sample and Sampling
Sampling technique adopted was systematic sampling and tsunami affected
villages were selected randomly after having the choice of districts. 3 villages from
each district were selected and primary data were collected from entire re-settled
community. Sample composed of 252 fishermen (both full time and part time fishers)
from East coast and 348 from South coast. Study employed different data collection
techniques to gather primary data. Study was heavily based on Primary data and data
28
collection tools were, interviewer administered pre-tested questionnaire, in-depth
interviews, focus group discussions, filed observations and Participatory Rural
Appraisal tools. Principal data collection tool was structured questionnaire which was
aimed to measure the level of social capital among the tsunami rehabilitated villages in
South and East coasts of Sri Lanka. Structured questionnaire composed of different sub
sections. Introductory questions were aimed to collect information on the interviewer’s
engagement with voluntary organizations and the frequency of contacts of with the each
and every organization. Next couple of questions were targeted to measure the trust
among the dwellers and their level of trust on institutions. Five point rating scale was
used and ask respondents to select the appropriate answers. Final question in the
section on trust aimed to measure the respondent’s level of trust among
villagers/neighborhood on lending and borrowing matters. Next section was directed to
measure the strength of social networks among respondents and the impact of social
networks on social welfare activities. Sixteen statements were tested on five point
rating scale to measure the strength of social networks and the same format was used to
evaluate the impact of social networks on their welfare activities. The next section was
targeted on civic actions of respondents and their participation and awareness on civic
actions was measured against 13 different statements. Demographics were considered
next in the questionnaire where information on gender, age, level of education, social
position and monthly per capita income were gathered. Final part of the questionnaire
was targeted to evaluate the respondent’s level of donor dependency on following
activities. Donor dependency on housing assistance, water and electricity supply, waste
management, sanitary facilities, medical facilities, alternative livelihood opportunities,
educational assistance on pre-schools, primary and secondary schools, vocational
training facilities, Supply of fishing gear and equipments, fishing boats, fish processing
and marketing facilities, infrastructure for agriculture and farming, roads,
telecommunication, cultural and religious activities and institutions and community
organizations. Weights of each and every activity were used to develop the index for
29
donor dependency.
Analysis :Hypothesis testing
Ho – No relationship between donor dependency and social capital
H1 – There is a relationship between donor dependency and social capital
Results and discussion
Nature of fisheries –limited access to livelihood capitals
Vulnerable people combine an array of livelihood capital- financial, physical,
natural human and social to develop livelihood strategies to cope and recover from
shocks. Many fishing villages in Southern coats of Sri Lanka are isolated enclaves and
fisher’s access to good educational and training institutions is not restricted much. But
in East coast fishing villages are not isolated much compared to south. Unfortunately
their access to education, training and other human capital engagements are restrict by
the decades old civil was. Procuring physical capital, in the form of mechanized crafts
and gear is also difficult due to the capital bias of the modern technology. Financial
capital such as credit and insurance is probably the hardest of livelihood capitals to
come by in small-scale fishers. Deadly tsunami’s of 2004, tend to destroyed the billions
worth livelihood capitals within seconds. The damage to the compared to East.
Moreover, scattered fishing communities and destroyed social networks made huge
burden to the devastated countries.
In general, fishers’ need credit in order to purchase fishing equipment, meet repair
and replacement costs, for consumption and to meet social obligation. In respect of
formal credit fishers are at a serious disadvantage because their assets (Their craft and
gear) are not acceptable to formal lenders because they entail collateral – specific risks
(liable to damage and loss). Informal lenders are less discerning about type of collateral,
yet fishers are reluctant to borrow from them due to the extraordinary high interest
rates and the high probability of losing fishing or other assets kept as collateral.
30
Unfortunately, situation was worsen with the tsunami caused damage to both parties
and sunk all records and resources.
Moreover, fishes and their facilities are adopted various kinds of non formal savings
methods. Gold and silver jewelleries considered as most liquid asset next to the cash
and they tend to keep it, and it in case of emergency these assets can convert into cash
easily. Moreover, Seetttu, Mutti-casi, etc. non formal savings schemes are popular
among fishers and successfulness of these methods are heavily depend on trust and
reciprocity among village. Alternative forms of lending has involved, such as craft
owners lending to view, or fish merchants lending to fishers, producers both of which
lead to long formal bondage to the lender. Unfortunately, tsunami had devastated most
of the non formal savings schemes and assets with the scattered communities.
Establishment and functioning of these schemes essentially need the trust among the
members and it will take long time to establish expected trust levels among
new—re-settlers.
Due to the highly fluctuating and unpredictable nature of fish catches and the
hazardous nature of the marine environment, fishermen are likely to confront two types
of shocks; idiosyncratic shocks and aggregate shocks. Both phenomena impact food
entitlements of fishing household and both affect consumption of fishermen to a varying
degree. A fisher’s ability to cope with various shocks determinates his vulnerability
position. The higher the risks, the higher will be the demand for coping mechanisms.
Due to the existence of high informal asymmetries between the insurance and insures,
the emergence of private agents offering insurance is likely in the fisheries. Instead,
fishers have developed various individual and group mechanisms to cope with shocks
and our concern here with a particular type of group strategy fishers adopts to cope with
vulnerability cooperation. All social capital theorists stress that social networks have
each other and accept that individual values reap greater rewards from interacting with
each other and forming networks than from operating alone. These networks are
achieved through trust norms (such as reciprocity) and values, all of which shape the
31
behavior of individuals in a community and elicit beneficial social exchange and
producing higher economic outcomes. Such networks reduce transaction costs, produce
public goods through collective action and generate positive results such as public
shared knowledge.
Fishes living in isolated coastal enclaves, such as those in many locations in the
South have limited access to human capital such as education, training, knowledge and
skills. Various services have been provided by fisheries cooperative, central and local
governments, NGO, etc., with the aim of roving its members with access to human
capital. A large array of training programmes to develop the skills of members in divers
self-employed activates has been organize by the fisheries coops. A number of fisher
women have received assistance to start-up small grocery stores, plant nurseries,
sawing home gardening and fish processing (drying and salting) by applying newly
acquired scientific knowledge and using new equipment. Some NGOs operate human
capital development students scholarship programmes where by outstanding students
are awarded scholarship to pursue higher education.
Community organizations and cooperatives able to provide such a wide range of
services to its membership mainly by building links with the “out-side” is ink social
capital; this is distinct from social capital within small groups or individual coops which
is characterized by bonding social capital. This is where trust emerges through the
reputation for the donors and development agencies, a well functioning cooperatives
which represent the interest of fishers provides an efficient means of channelling
assistance to fisher community. It minimizes the transaction costs while ensuring that
help reaches the most needy. Social capital is drawn from social groups or networks
which foster cooperation away individuals, forming resources with members of such
organizations can draw upon to cope with vulnerability. Strong interpersonal
relationships, cemented by trust, foster, cooperation among members of coop have
facilitated fishers in securing the required livelihood capitals and deal effectively with
inadequately developed markets and other shocks. In general many traditional
32
communities are rich in participatory activities and community participation creates
the capital. In contrast many communities based on primary industries are going
towards to the individualization with the technological partners. If fishers can secure
required livelihood capitals cooperation it will be a great help to capital deficit
developing nations.
Leadership, social capital and dependency
Leadership can be defined as one’s ability to get others to willingly follow. Every
organization needs leaders at every level. Leaders can be found and nurtured if you look
for the following character traits. A leader with vision has a clear, vivid picture of where
to go, as well as a firm grasp on what success looks like and how to achieve it. But it’s
not enough to have a vision; leaders must also share it an act upon it. Minors are
vulnerable to natural disasters. Especially many fishing communities in South and
South East Asia lost their leaders. Tsunami destroyed the aged community leaders with
the decades old experience on fishery business, resource management and community
management. Lack of genuine experienced leaders creates many troubles in
rehabilitation period. Study finding identified that the communities having their own
leadership with strong social ties, developed in rapid phase compared t those who lack
such leaders, many experienced leadership involved in successful rehabilitation efforts.
Moreover, they were capable enough to attract many donors, both local and foreign
and lead to develop many livelihood projects. Especially, these communities are less
donor dependent compared to others. Party politics had made bad interventions on
community participation and which create many conflicts among people rather than
bonding them together.
Re-settlements
Re-settlements can be divided into two groups; resettled in new location and
33
resettle in old location. Fishing communities re-settled in previous locations were
developed as expected. Unfortunately, new re-settlements in new locations were
generated many conflicts and social unrests. In general ethic, religious and cast barriers
made the situation worst in Southern coast. In traditional society people were divided
according to their occupation and the cast that fishers belongs used live long the coastal
belt of the country. In traditional society people were divided according to their
occupation and the cast that fishers belongs used live long the coastal belt of the country.
In some places re0settlements were located in country side with other communities
such as with farming communities. Disparities between two different communities lead
to conflicts in many locations. Buffer zone its impact on rehabilitation is important
another important topic to discuss. Government establishment of 100 m buffer zone has
absorbed the lands of many fishing communities and create landless group of fishers.
On the other hand, resettlements located far from the beach were inconvenient tot
the fishers work. They have to re-think on safety and storage of nets, fishing gear, other
equipments and crafts.
Table 1: Sample Profile
Socio-economic feature Eastern province
(%)
Southern
Province (%)
Gender:
Male
Female
92
08
96
04
Ethnicity:
Sinhalese
Tamil
Muslim
22
62
16
86
-
14
34
Occupation:
Fishermen
Farmer
Self-employee
Pensioner
House wife
94
03
-
-
03
95
-
01
-
04
Membership of organization:
Fishermen’s group
Traders’ association/ business group Cooperative
Women’s’ group
Credit/finance group (formal)
Political group
Youth group
Religious group
Cultural association
Neighbourhood/village association
Parent group
School committee
Health committee
Water/ Waste
Sports group
NGO
Civic group (i.e. Rotarian)
Professional association
Trade union
08
01
34
12
47
02
03
-
01
-
-
13
45
14
-
56
-
-
-
12
02
86
67
89
74
34
-
-
-
-
36
16
10
-
-
-
-
Monthly Per Capita Income (Rs.)
<30000.00
12
04
35
3001.00-5000.00
5001.00-10,000.00
10,001-15,000.00
>15,001.00
46
32
10
-
34
53
09
-
Donor Dependency:
Housing assistance
Water supply
Electricity supply
Waste Management/ Garbage disposal
Sanitary facilities
Health facilities
Alternative livelihood strategies
Educational subsidies: pre-school
Educational subsidies: primary
Educational subsidies: Secondary
Vocational Training facilities
Fishing gear and nets
Fishing boats
Fish processing and marketing
Agriculture and farming
Infrastructure development: roads, community halls
Cultural and religious activities
Community organizations and networks
85
75
90
25
35
34
35
80
-
-
75
20
15
75
-
75
10
55
15
35
20
15
35
05
75
50
-
-
45
25
15
25
-
15
15
05
Source: Filed Survey, August- February 2010
36
Figure 2 describe the membership status of the village level organizations. Majority
of fishers were having membership of the one community level organization. Moreover,
less number of people were members of 2- 4 organizations. Study identified 20 different
organizations at village level and large number of organizations was established in
South compared to East.
Figure2: Membership of the village level organizations (frequency)
Figure 3: Frequency of contacts in village level societies (1-weekly; 2-monthly;
3-yearly)
In general, village level organizations were having weekly and monthly
gathering and weekly meeting were common (figure 3).
Freq
uenc
y
43210
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean 1.407StDev 0.6755N 123
Freq
uenc
y
3210
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 1.784StDev 0.7454N 255
37
Figure 4: Trust levels (0-cannot trust; 1- can trust)
Of the sample, majority of the people agreed with the statements on trust.
According to respondent’s point of view, most of the people in their respective
communities can trust and no need to be very careful in dealing with them
(figure 4).
Figure 5: Confidence on the government: (1-great deal; 2-quite a lot; 3-not very much;
4-not at all; 5-hard to answer)
Freq
uenc
y
10
200
150
100
50
0
Mean 0.5373StDev 0.4996N 255
Freq
uenc
y
54321
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 2.875StDev 1.187N 255
38
Figure 5 presents the people’s trust on institutions. Four types of institutions were
used to measure the trust levels of institutions; they were the legal system, the police,
the administration and the government. Of the sample around 50 % of the respondents
were confident on existing institutions and other half was not agreed.
Figure 6: Confidence on the administration: (1-great deal; 2-quite a lot; 3-not very much;
4-not at all; 5-hard to answer)
Figure 7: Confidence on the Police: (1-great deal; 2-quite a lot; 3-not very much; 4-not at
all; 5-hard to answer)
Freq
uenc
y
54321
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 2.714StDev 0.9224N 255
Freq
uenc
y
54321
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 2.729StDev 0.8426N 255
39
Figure 8: Confidence on Legal system: (1-great deal; 2-quite a lot; 3-not very much;
4-not at all; 5-hard to answer)
Figure 9: Trust each other in lending and borrowing (1-Do trust; 2-Do not trust; 3-Don’t
know; 4-Know answer)
Freq
uenc
y
54321
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 2.537StDev 0.8816N 255
Freq
uenc
y
43210
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 1.486StDev 0.6512N 255
40
Figure 10: People’s concern only on their family welfare not village or neighbours
(1-strongly agree; 2-agree; 3-disagree; 4-strognly disagree; 5-don’t know; 6-no answer)
Figure 11: Existence of social networks
Freq
uenc
y
4321
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 2.624StDev 0.6577N 255
19.5
20
32.9
9.81.14.3
8.9
3.5
No one w ould help Family Neighbors
Friends Religious leaders Mutual support group
Assistance group No answ er
41
Figure 12: Level of Social capital
Social capital defined as trust, norms of reciprocity, and networks, is believed to
facilitate the formation of collective action and institution. An empirical evidence
(Berkers (1985); Ostrom (1990); Grafton (2005). Common-pool resources can be used
and managed sustainably by the resource users themselves. Important feature for
long-enduring self-governance of common-pool resources is the presence of social capital.
Social capital may support collective action among individuals and reduces free-riding
problems.
Social capital contributes to;
1. Societal performance
2. Trust and trustworthiness
3. Civic engagement and cooperation
4. Social networks
0.46
0.51
0.48
0.44
0.46
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.5
0.52
Galle Matara Hambantota Baticaloa Trincomalee
42
Figure 13: Strong bonds of social relationships which are endorsed among family
members or members among of an ethnic group
Figure 14: Cross-cutting ties of social relationships among different ethnic groups
Figure 15: Connections between those with differing levels of power or social status
0.440.52 0.48
0.58 0.56
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Galle
Mata
ra
Hamban
tota
Batica
loa
Trinc
omale
e
0.42 0.44
0.32
0.520.58
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Galle
Matara
Hambantota
Baticaloa
Trincomalee
0.520.58 0.64
0.24 0.26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
GalleMatara
Hambantota
Baticaloa
Trincomalee
43
Figure16: Donor dependency index
Figure17: Donor dependency on housing
Figure 18: Donor dependency on water supply
0.380.24
0.31
0.52 0.48
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Galle
Mat
ara
Hamban
tota
Batica
loa
Trin
com
alee
Freq
uenc
y
12010590756045
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 93.37StDev 13.25N 196
Freq
uenc
y
12010080604020
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mean 88.94StDev 18.69N 160
44
Figure 19: Donor dependency on waste management
Figure 20: Donor dependency & Social capital
The regression equation is:
Donor dependency = 1.61 - 0.672 Bonding SC - 0.812 Bridging SC - 1.14
Linking S
Freq
uenc
y
1209060300-30
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Mean 47.5StDev 37.75N 4
00.10.20.30.40.50.6
1 2 3 4 5
Donor Dependency Social Capital
45
Table 2: Results of the Regression analysis
Predictor Predictor SE
Co-efficient
T P
Constant 1.6130 0.1928 8.37 0.076
Bonding - 0.6723 0.2401 - 2.80 0.218
Bridging - 0.8122 0.2098 - 3.87 0.161
Linking -1.1377 0.1196 - 9.51 0.067
(S = 0.0168565; R-Sq = 99.5%; R-Sq (adj) = 97.9%)
Analysis shows that considered independent variables, bonding, bridging
and linking social capital describes the 98% of the dependent variable, donor
dependency.
Conclusions
Study has drawn following conclusions;
Level of bonding, bridging and linking social capital and overall level of social
capital is high in South compared to East
Social capital and donor dependency have strong relationship
Communities having rich in social capital are less dependent on donors
Other side of the coin, poor social capital status make communities more
vulnerable and highly dependent on donors
Donor dependency is high on housing, electricity, water supply and waste
management
Strong community bonds, bigger social networks, trust, participation in village
level societies, community events and participation in voting make high levels of
social capital among fishers
46
High levels of social capital facilitate the entrepreneurial ventures among
farmers
Recommendations and Policy implications
Facilitating community associations, participatory work, establishment and
strengthen social networks, develop trust among community members are
essential to develop social capital among fishers
Leaders and developing leadership skills are essential to create strong
community networks
47
Economics Studies on Tsunami Affected Mangroves and Other Coastal Forests and Agriculture Areas
in the Southern Part of the Country: Phuket Phang Nga and Ranong Provinces
Apiwan Kamlang-Ek
Associated Professor, Department of Cooperatives, Kasetsart University
1. Background information
The December 2004 Tsunami killed approximately 200,000 people, making it the
deadliest tsunami in recorded history. In Thailand, the death toll was recorded at 5,305
with 3,495 listed missing. 53,203 people were affected by the tsunami with 7,053
houses destroyed and nearly 3,000 hectares of farmland affected. In addition, a large
area of natural resources such as coastal forests and mangroves were severely
destructed. The damages caused by Tsunami was widely and deeply that needed
assistance from people from all walks of life as well as from private and public
organizations.
2. Objectives
This study intends to achieve the following objectives:
1) In-depth studies on the economic damage to mangroves, coastal forests and
economical tree crop plantations.
2) Assessment of the economic values of the mitigation functions, socio-economic,
biodiversity, tourism and cultures of mangroves and coastal forests.
3. Research Methodology
This study used research method as follow:-
3.1 Area of Field Study
48
The study area covered three provinces which were attacked by tsunami namely
Phuket, Phang Nga and Ranong. The studies focus on changes in mangrove forests,
coastal forests and economic tree crop plantations. The selected sampling sites were as
follows:-
- Phuket, Sirinart National Park, Nai Yang Beach, was selected to study the
tsunami effects on tourism along the coastal forests.
- Phang Nga, 2 Districts were chosen covering 16 villages in 3 sub-districts.
- Ranong, the study was conducted in Prabhas beach where Ranong Coastal
Resources Research Center is located. Four villages in Kamphuan Sub-district,
Suk Samran were chosen.
3.2 Study Method
To study the damage cost: the study was conducted by collecting lost assessment
data from government agencies and non government agencies, including interviews
with local official such as village heads and local people. The study of lost assessment
was divided to several aspects as follow:
a. Lost value in agricultural livestock and fishery by using lost assessment information
from office of Agricultural Economic.
b. Physical lost value by using primary data from involve agencies.
c. Lost of income in term of the local fisherman by considering the marketing value lost
during the Tsunami and the recovery period after Tsunami in 2005 which is
approximately 6 months. The condition of this sample was the local fisherman must use
boat which has 5 gross-tons.
d. Lost value in forestry by using the information from faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University.
4. Results
4.1 Phuket
49
The study on the damage value of tsunami affected mangroves, coastal forests and
forest plantations was conducted in Phuket focusing at Nai Yang Beach and Sirinart
National Park.
Damage Value from Tsunami Incident
a. Loss of Tourism Facilities
It was revealed that 8 persons: 7 Thais and 1 foreigner, were dead in the Tsunami
disaster. The destruction of tourism facilities included 12 bungalows, 2 toilets, 1 office, 1
storage house, 1 flagstaff, and 1 staff house. The total value of which was approximately
Baht 5,169,794. Partial destruction included tourist information center and the gazebo
at Baht 581,933 and building equipment at Baht 3,134,940. The total damage value was
Baht 8,886,667.
b. Loss of Income
The office of Sirinart National Park collected 2002-2004 data on income from
admission and accommodation fees. The income averaged at Baht 1,595,971.67 per
annum.
c. Forestry Destruction
It was found that the damaged coastal forest totalled 44.53 rai. The volume of
coastal forest wood equaled to 56.17 cubic meters per rai. The value calculation of the
coastal forest wood was based on the conversion of woods into piling which was Baht
1,000 per cubic meter. Therefore, the total value of the damaged coastal forest was
Baht 2,501,250.00.
Therefore, the overall damage value was calculated based on the loss of tourist
services, the facilities and the park souvenirs/products. The total loss of income was
Baht 13,083,888.67 as shown in table 1
50
Table 1: Damage Value in study Area of Phuket (Baht)
Item Damage Value
1. Tourism Facilities 8,886,667.00
2. Loss of Income 1,595,971.67
3. Forestry Destruction 2,501,250.00
Total 13,083,888.67
4.2 Phang Nga
In Phang Nga province, the study of the Tsunami disaster on the mangrove, the
coastal forest, and the tree crop plantation areas covered 3 sub-districts namely Lam
Kaen, Khuekkhak and Bang Muang or all known as Khao Lak. These three areas were
densely populated in which the inhabitants had been engaged in various occupations
such as farming, livestock, fishery, marine nursery, trading and overnight services.
Damage Value from Tsunami Incident
a. Loss of Tourism
The study covered specifically Ban Muang or well known as Khao Lak. Before the
incident, it was evident that the accommodation in Khao Lak an neighboring areas had
increased from 54 to 87 hotels during 2003-2004. Unfortunately, after December 26,
those 62 accommodations with a total of 3,396 rooms including hotel, hostel,
guesthouses, and resorts were destroyed (Table 2). The damage cost of properties was at
Baht 4,961.6 million of which included 2,400 million Baht for luxurious hotels (< 300
rooms), 630 million Baht for middle sized hotels (100-300 rooms) and 1,931.6 million
Baht for small hotels (<100 rooms). Additionally, the revenue from tourism had
reduced at the amount of 1,709.89 million Baht (Table 3). The total lost value was
6,671.49 million Baht.
51
Table 2: Damage Cost of Accommodation in Phang Nga
Item Number of
Accommodation
Number of
Room
Damage Cost
(Baht)
Large ( > 300 rooms) 3 920 2,400,000,000
Medium (100-300 rooms) 4 560 630,000,000
Small (<100 rooms) 55 1,916 1,931,600,000
Total 62 3,396 4,961,600,000
Source: Phang Nga Administrative Office
, 2005.
Table 3: Lost of Income from tourism in Phang Nga
Item 2004 2005
Number of Tourist (Person) 186,070 48,563
Expenditure of Tourist (Baht/Person/Day) 1,988.13 1,489.14
Duration of Stay (Day) 5.09 2.40
Tourism Income (Million Baht) 1,882.95 173.06
Source: Tourism Authority of Thailand (1), 2005
Tourism Authority of Thailand (2), 2006
b. Damage Value in Agriculture and Fishery
The Phang-Nga provincial office of Agriculture and Cooperative reported that most
of local people have been engaged in fishery, followed by agriculture. The main
productions of the local fisheries were fishes, prawns and swimming crabs. For
agriculture, main products were cash crops and livestock. The details are as follows:-
-Loss of Agriculture and Livestock
Lost value in agriculture was divided according to types of cash crops namely
rubber, coconut, oil palm, cashew nut and mangoes teen in the said areas of study.
In Lam Kaen sub-district, a number of sufferers in agricultural sector were 79
persons. The damaged areas were 116.50 rais and the production cost per rais lost Baht
52
4,037-16,360. The total lost value was Baht 1,163,787.
In Khuekkhak sub-district, Takua Pa district, a number of sufferers in agricultural
sector were 105 persons. The damaged areas covered 485 rais and a production cost
per rai lost Baht 3,600 – 25,620. The total lost value was Baht 4,913,011.50.
In Bang Muang sub-district, Takua Pa district, a number of sufferers in
agricultural sector were 149 persons. The damaged areas were 526.50 rais, with a lost
production cost per rai at Baht 3,600 – 25,620. The total lost value was Baht
5,848,584.75.
In areas of livestock, the loss of which was divided according to types of animal
namely pig, goat, cow/buffalo, chicken, duck and goose.
In Lam Kaen sub-district, the value of lost/dead animals was Baht 38,985.00.
In Khuekkhak sub-district, the value of lost/dead animals was Baht 2,588,530.00.
In Bang Muang sub-district, the value of lost/dead animals was Baht 3,440,570.00.
In sum, the lost value in agriculture and livestock totaled Baht 17,993,468.25
(Table 4).
-Loss of Fisheries Sector
In studying the loss of fisheries sector, it was found that 449 persons lost their
asset in undertaking fisheries and marine nursery. The total lost asset in fisheries was
Baht 50,555,750.
In areas of marine nursery, it was revealed that 125 persons were affected. The
total loss in marine nursery was Baht 70,908,000.
In sum, the lost value in fishery totaled Baht 121,463,750 (Table 4).
c. Loss of Fishery Income
The study on the loss of fishery income is calculated based on the difference
between 2004 and 2005 fish production as below details:-
The comparison on fisheries net income between 2005 and 2004 illustrated that in
2004 the income in each area was as follows:
53
Baht 17,688,000 in Lam Kaen, sub-district,
Baht 5,008,375 in Khuekkhak sub-district, and
Baht 29,386,175 in Bang Muang sub-district,
While in 2005 were:
Baht 1,486,800 in Lam Kaen, sub-district,
Baht 1,182,450 in Khuekkhak sub-district, and
Baht 664,075 in Bang Muang sub-district,
In sum, the loss of fishery income totaled 48,749,225 Baht (Table 5).
Table 4: Lost Value of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries in Phang Nga
District
Agriculture Livestock Fisheries
Lost Value
(Baht)
Value of
Lost/Dead
Animal
(Baht)
Lost Value
of
Fishing
Boat
(Baht)
Lost
Value
fishing
tools/
gears
(Baht)
Lost Value
of Floating
Basket
Lost Value
of Raising
Ponds
Lost Value
of Nursery
Plants
Lost
Value of
Shell
Farming
Lam Kaen 1,163,787.00 38,985.00 3,164,350 622,700 6,034,000 580,000 - -
Khuekkhak 4,913,011.50 2,588,530.00 12,319,300 1,620,000 - 9,590,000 13,400,000 -
Bang Muang 5,848,584.75 3,440,570.00 29,738,900 3,090,500 13,419,000 8,115,000 19,550,000 220,000
Total 11,925,383.25 6,068,085.00 45,222,550 5,333,200 19,453,000 18,285,000 32,950,000 220,000
Source: Phang Nga Administrative Office
, 2005.
54
Table 5: Loss of Fishery Income
District 2004 2005
Lam Kaen 17,688,000 1,486,800
Khuekkhak 5,008,375 1,182,450
Bang Muang 29,386,175 664,075
Total Income 52,082,550 3,333,325
Total Loss 48,749,225
d. Forestry Destruction
The damaged mangrove in the target areas of Pang-nga province totaled 133.14 rai.
The volume of the damaged mangrove equaled to 9.80 cubic meters per rai. The value
calculation is based on the conversion of the mangrove into charcoal which is about
Baht 470 per cubic meter. So the total loss was Baht 613,241.90.
The total damaged coastal forests in the target areas were 1109.86 rai. The
volume of damaged costal forests equaled to 59.28 cubic meters per rai. The value
calculation is based on the conversion the costal forest wood into piling, which was Baht
1,000 per cubic meter. Therefore a total of damaged costal forest wood was Baht
65,792,500.00 as shown in table 6.
Table 6: Damage of Mangrove and Coastal Forests in Phang Nga
Item Mangrove Coastal
Forests Unit
1. Damaged by sub-districts
Lam Kaen sub-district 78.14 135.85 Rai
Khuekkhak sub-district 0 971.01 Rai
Bang Muang sub-district 55.00 3.00 Rai
2. Density 204 68.8 Tree/Rai
55
3. Average diameter 8.1 29.1 Centimeters
4. Average height 13.31 18.5 Metres
5. Volume of wood per rai 9.80 59.28 Cubic meters/rai
6. Price of wood 470 1000 Baht/Cubic meter.
7. Volume of damaged wood 1,304.77 65,792.50 Cubic meters.
8. Value of damaged wood in target
areas 613,241.90 65,792,500.00 Baht
Source: Faculty of Forestry, 2006.
4.3 Ranong
The field study was conducted at Prabhas Beach where Ranong Coastal Resources
Research Center is located
1 Assessment of Loss from the Tsunami incident
a. Physical Damage
The lost value of Ranong Coastal Resources Research Center totaled Baht
70,581,888.
b. Damage of Agriculture and Fishery
During the field survey, it was found that fishery was a prime occupation, followed
by agriculture. The main production of the local fisheries was fishes, prawns and
swimming crabs. The equipment used in fishing was a local/traditional fishing vessel
“Rue Thong”. For agriculture, main products were cash crops and livestock. The
details are as follows:-
-Damage of Agriculture and Livestock
The study showed that the communities in Kham Puna sub district grew cash crops
i.e. rubber, coconut, oil palm, cashew nut, betel nut, coffee, parkia, longong, mangosteen
and others. The most severely affected cash crop was cashew nut in 203 rais which
produced 30,450 kilograms, with a lost value of Baht 609,000.
56
For the livestock, the animal raised in Ban Talaynog affected most followed by Ban
Nua. In these two villages, there were 98 raisers who lost a total of 1,418 animals
including chicken, duck buffalo pig, goat and cow. The total lost value of livestock
equaled to Baht 3,800,480.
In sum, the lost value of agriculture and livestock had a total of Baht 4,409,480 .
- Damage of Fishery
The study on the damage of fishery focus on lost asset in fishing and marine
nursery activities. A total of 219 fishermen lost 219 fishing boats. So the lost value
totaled Baht 27,433,478.
In areas of marine nursery, it was revealed that there were 73 affected persons.
There were 578 damaged floating baskets for red snappers, white snappers and grouper.
The total damage cost Baht 10,219,200.
In sum, the lost value of fishery and marine nursery totaled Baht 37,652,478 Baht
(Table 7).
Table 7: Lost Value of Agriculture, Livestock and n Ranong
Sub-district
Agriculture Livestock Fisheries
Lost Value
(Baht)
Value of
Lost/Dead
Animal
(Baht)
Lost Value of
Fishing Boat
(Baht)
Lost Value
fishing
tools/gears
(Baht)
Lost Value of
Floating
Basket
(Baht)
Moo1
Ban Talaynog 330,000 1,903,620 1,252,000 1,277,000 236,000
Moo 2
Ban Neau 225,000 1,870,970 2,086,900 2,132,900 1,960,000
Moo 4
Ban Taklang 54,000 9,380 1,382,400 2,275,600 4,892,750
57
Moo 7
Ban Had Sai Khao - 16,510 8,361,789 8,664,889 3,130,250
Total 609,000 3,800,480 13,083,089 14,350,389 10,219,000
Source: Ranong Administrative Office
, Ranong, 2005.
c. Damage from Loss of Fishery Income
The study on the loss of fishery income was calculated based on the difference
between 2004 and 2005 fish production as below details1
The comparison on fisheries net income between 2005 and 2004 illustrated in each
area is summarized as follows:
:-
Baht 4,323,450 in Ban Talaynog sub-district,
Baht 6,661,550 in Ban Neau sub-district, and
Baht 12,329,250 in Ban Tha Klang sub-district, and
Baht 5,523,075 in Ban Had Sai Khao sub-district
While in 2005 were:
Baht 236,550 in Ban Talaynog sub-district,
Baht 1,466,925 in Ban Neau sub-district, and
Baht 11,568,300 in Ban Tha Klang sub-district, and
Baht 1,611,400 in Ban Had Sai Khao sub-district
Thus, the loss of fishery income was Baht 13,954,150 (Table 8).
Table 8: Loss of Fishery Income
Sub-district 2004 2005
Moo1 Ban Talaynog 4,323,450 236,550
1 Sompoch Nimsanticharoen, Head of Ranong Coastal Resources Research Center and
Suchet Hanjit, Head of Ban Neau Fishermen Group and Others. Interview. 24 Febuary 2006.
58
Moo 2 Ban Neau 6,661,550 1,466,925
Moo 4 Ban Taklang 12,329,250 11,568,300
Moo 7 Ban Had Sai Khao 5,523,075 1,611,400
Total Income 28,837,325 14,883,175
Total Loss 13,954,150
d. Damage of Forest
The damaged mangrove in the target areas of Ranong province totaled 116.38 rai.
The volume of the damaged mangrove equaled to 19.77 cubic meters per rai. The value
calculation is based on the conversion of the mangrove into charcoal, which is about
Baht 470 per cubic meter. So the total loss was Baht 1,081,390.10.
The total damaged coastal forests in the target areas were 46.48 rai. The volume
of damaged costal forests equaled to 31.43 cubic meters per rai. The value calculation
is based on the conversion the costal forest wood into piling, which was Baht 1,000 per
cubic meter. Therefore a total of damaged costal forest wood was Baht 1,460,870 as
shown in table 9.
Table 9: Damage of Mangrove and Coastal Forest Resources in Study Area of Ranong
Item Mangrove
Coastal
Forests Unit
1. Total damaged areas 116.38 46.48 Rai
2. Density 209.00 80.00 T rees/ Rai
3. Average diameter 11.42 25.79 Centimetres
4. Average height 13.19 10.74 Metres
5. Volume of wood per rai 19.77 31.43 0BCubic metres/Rai
6. Prices of wood 470.00 1,000.00 Baht/Cubicmeter
7. Volume of damaged wood 2,300.83 1,460.87 2BCubic meter
8. Value of damaged wood in target areas 1,081,390.10 1,460,870.00 1BBaht
59
Source: Faculty of Forestry, 2006.
5. Conclusion and Suggestion
5.1 Conclusion
The loss of property, forestry destruction and income from providing services to the
tourists who visited Sirinart National Park at Phuket totaled Baht 13,083,888.67.
The damages in Takua Pa and Tai Meuang districts in Phang Nga were found in
several sectors such as agriculture, fishery and tourism. In details, the loss of the
tourism stemmed from the damages of the hotels and lost income which amounted to
Baht 6,671.49 million Baht. In the areas of the fishery, the loss comprised the damages
of the asset including fishing vessels and gears and nursery ponds, totaling
121,463,750 Baht. In addition, the fishermen lost income from fish productions worth
48,749,225 Baht. The total loss of the agriculture and livestock was 17,993,468.25
Baht.
The Coastal Resources Research Center in Ranong lost its buildings, equipment
and a public utility system worth 70,581,888 Baht. For the agriculture, livestock and
fishery sectors, it was observed that the loss of fishery was higher than that of the
agriculture and livestock. The damages of fishing assets and the loss of income from
net fish catches totaled Baht 37,652,478 and Baht 13,954,150 respectively. The total
loss of agriculture and livestock was Baht 4,409,480.
5.2 Suggestions
1) Systematic assistance to disaster affected victims should be established in order to
deliver aids in a timely and appropriate manner. This includes setting up data on
population characteristics and occupation, and contact list of community leaders. The
contact list will enable the outsiders to communicate and to disseminate information on
the situations in the community.
2) Dissemination of knowledge related to disasters and ways of protection should be
60
undertaken as well as mental/traumatic treatment should be continuously provided.
3) Alternative careers and/or development of current careers should be suggested to the
members of the community.
4) Creating the community and the tourist awareness in the value of natural resources
and balance of eco-system should be promoted. For example, mangroves and perennial
trees plantation along the coast are to promoted so as to reduce any possible damages
and loss which may occur in the future. Such promotion should be correspondent to
the community development master plan which will enable participation from all
related persons and agencies. For the time being, the campaigns should be carried out
as many still remember the loss that happened on 26 December 2004.
5) Setting up a measure to periodically alert the local people about disaster and to
build natural conservation awareness. This also includes developing lessons learned
for the younger generation to enable them to implement sustainable development
activities.
6. References
[1] Chatri Lheejia, Chief Executive Officer of Khuekkhak Sub-district Administrative
Office
[2] Chaiwit Kamviset,
. Interview. 13 January 2006.
Chief Executive Officer of Lam Kaen Sub-district Administrative
Office
[3] Datchanee Aimpun, Associate Professor, “Sustainable Tourism Development and
Rehabilitation Project: Khao Lak Phang Nga”, Kasetsart University, 2006
. Interview. 13 January 2006.
[4] Faculty of Forestry, “Final Report on Scientific Studies on Tsunami Affected
Mangroves
and Other Coastal Forests in the Southern Part of the Country”, Kasetsart
University, 2006
[5] Manatsak Yaunkhew, Member of Board of Bang Muang Sub-district Administrative
Office. Interview. 14 January 2006.
61
[6] Montri Udomsawad, Head of Ban Nam Khem Fishermen Group and Others.
Interview. 14 January 2006.
[7] Noparat Bamrungrat, Associate Professor, “The Study on ecosystem and changes of
coastal forests affected by the 2004 Tsunami”, Prince Songkla University, 2006.
[8] Phang Nga Administrative Office
[9] Public Relation Section, “Kasetsart University Newsletter”, December 27, 2004.
, “Damage Report of Phang Nga Provice affected by
the 2004 Tsunami”, Phang Nga, 2005.
[10] Radchanok Nilrat, Sirinart National Park Officer. Interview. 12 January 2006.
[11] Ranong Administrative Office
[12] Sittichai Kaikamon, Front Office Manager of Khaolak Merlin Resort. Interview.
14 January 2006.
, “Damage Report of Ranong Provice affected by the
2004 Tsunami”, Ranong, 2005.
[13] Sompoch Nimsanticharoen, Head of Ranong Coastal Resources Research Center.
Interview. 24 February 2006.
[14] Suchet Hanjit, Head of Ban Neau Fishermen Group and Others . Interview. 24
February 2006.
[15] Tourism Authority of Thailand (1), “Thailand Statistical Report 2004”, Bangkok,
2005.
[16] Tourism Authority of Thailand (2), “Thailand Statistical Report 2005”, Bangkok,
2006.
[17] Sirinart National Park (1), “Tourism Statistical Report”, Phuket, 2004.
[18] Sirinart National Park (2), “Damage Report of Sirinart National Park affected by
the 2004 Tsunami”, Phuket, 2005.
62
Damages and Restoration of Fisheries Livelihood in South Thailand
Phattareeya Suanrattanachai1, Pornprapa Sakulsaeng2, Wantana Chenkitkosol3 and Masahiro Yamao4
1Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center-Training Department
2Department of Fisheries, Thailand
3Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University
4Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University
Introduction
Tsunami explosion severely shocked to six provinces of southern part of Thailand
located along the Andaman Sea side on 26th December 2004. This destruction caused to
both hundreds of fishing communities and thousands of victims lost either lives or
means of livelihoods. Particular, small-scale fisheries sectors were assessed that fishers
and fish-farmers seriously lost their fishing capacities as means of fishing operations.
Some of either fishers or fish-farmers completely lost all of fishing assets. In addition,
there were many of fishers just ruined a part of fishing boat, fishing gear and boat
engine. These lost and ruins of fishing capacity became a barrier to obstruct both fishers
and fish-farmers earning daily income.
Soon after the devastation exploded, fishers faced a problem of low demand of fish
products in urban market. Consequently, the problem was main constraint perilously
affected to fishing community economic development. In addition, tsunami also
destroyed public assets such as basic infrastructure liked fishing jetty, road, water
supply and electricity. These destructions were against tough rehabilitation and
revitalization of wrecked communities. To mitigate serious shock, both Thai government
and international organization formulated relief programs implemented in ruined
communities. The relief programs had the same aim to rehabilitate and revitalize
63
capacity of victims accessing basic needs and means of livelihood. A transfer of relief
program was in term of financial assistance, equipment, material, shelter construction,
etc.
This report consists of a review of damage assessment particular in disastrous
fisheries sectors and affected fisheries communities. In this connection, key relief policy
and implementation is also clarified to fundamentally understand an implication of the
shock mitigation at national level. Assistance for both shelter construction and fisheries
sectors is reviewed. In addition, findings of the monitoring study were on restoration of
destructive fishing communities, which conducted a sampled survey of seven villages of
PhangNga and Krabi Provinces.
Focusing point of the survey was on type of assistance transferred to victims;
accordingly, they could revitalize their capacity and means of livelihood to access basic
needs for securing well-being. Findings have two major interpretations of collected data
analysis. One is on total assistance mitigated to seven studied villages. Another is on
assistance transferred to each village. Applicability and management is described
means of utilizing the assistance rehabilitated victims from both lost and damage of
housing and revitalized livelihoods.
Conclusion of the findings in seven villages is tangible lesson learn and practical
experience to recognize effective and efficient means of assistance utilization and
allocation. Recommendation is presented based on findings and reality of implication of
relief program implementation and management.
Review of damage assessment
Devastation of tsunami caused to both completely lost and damage proportion of
assets, capacity of employment such as equipments. Completely lost were meant to lost
life, house assets and capacity of employment on one hand. On the other hand was
damage proportion of assets, capacity of employment such as fishing gear, fishing boat
combining with engine and fish cage.
64
Damage to shelter was the most serious destruction; consequently, victims could
not secure their basic needs to protect their lives. The DDPM reported that PhangNga
province faced the most disastrous shelter. Table 1 illustrates the report on damage to
shelter in six affected provinces, which composed of two columns were on destroyed and
damaged assessments. According to the data assessment of the table 1, shelter of
PhangNga province was destroyed and damaged numbered of 1,904 and 604 house
units, respectively. Meanwhile, total damage to shelter was 3,302 house unit of
destruction and 1,504 house units of damage. Thus, the affection of lost shelter made
victims both vulnerable on place to live and social security.
Table 1 damage to shelter
Province Number of house units
Destroyed Damaged
Krabi 396 262
PhangNga 1,904 604
Phuket 742 291
Ranong 224 111
Satun 2 80
Trang 34 156
Total 3,302 1,504
Source: DDPM website, www.unisdr.org
Fisheries communities, which located along six destructive provinces, were severely
disastrous. Tsunami shocked fisheries sectors both capture and aquaculture sectors of
the affected fisheries communities. The Department of Fisheries, Thailand took a
65
responsibility as leading agency to assess damage to fisheries sectors. Chart 1 shows
wrecked fishing boat in December 2004. This column chart basically composed of two
pieces, which are number of fishing boat in year 2000 and number of wrecked fishing
boat in December 2004. Wrecked fishing boats were found in PhangNga Province, which
were the largest ruin of 1,232 fishing boats. In Phuket Province, number of wrecked
fishing boat was higher than number of fishing boats recorded in year 2000, which was
1,178 and 964 boats, respectively. This is because both boat owners and fishers always
moved around the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea site. In December 2004, it was
good season for fishing at Andaman Sea site, so this was reason why number of wrecked
fishing boat was higher. The wrecked fishing boat assessment was very less found in
Ranong Province, which merely numbered of 20 boats.
Chart 1 wrecked fishing boat in December 2004
Source: DOF, Thailand, 2005
Additionally, the DDPM also reported damage to fishing gear and fish cage found in
six affected provinces as shown in table 2. The table illustrates victims lost both fishing
gear and fish cage, which was the highest lost happened in Satun Province with number
of 1,438 persons and 960 persons, correspondingly. Secondly, destruction was found in
66
Krabi Province that numbered of 1,390 persons also lost fishing gears.
Table 2 damage to fishing gear and fish cage
Province Fishing gear
(per persons)
Fish cage
(persons)
Krabi 1,390 359
Phang Nga 991 (87, 194 m2)
Phuket 721 315
Ranong 845 583
Satun 1,438 960
Trang 1,283 393
Total 6,668 2,610
Source: DDPM website, www.unisdr.org
Thus, damage assessment of shelter, fishing gear and fish cage are affirmed that
victims suffered from the shock. They were facing vulnerability of shelter for living and
scarce means of livelihood to safeguard their well-being. To mitigate this shock, Thai
government formulated relief policy consisted of both immediate recovery and
restoration on securing living condition and means of livelihood.
Relief policy
Shelter construction policy implemented an immediate recovery by means of
constructed temporary shelter to victims. The victims could stay at least six months
prior to receive new permanent house construction. In addition, resettlement policy also
created, which had two types. Type I was resettlement of new house on the national
67
park. Type II was resettlement of new house on the tourism areas. Type I was
implemented on a small island, which had people lived. This type was practiced on Koh
Muk Island in Trang Province. Type II was implementation of new house relocation on
tourism areas. This type genuinely executed in PhangNga, Phuket and Krabi Provinces,
which had advantageous and geographic areas for promoting tourism industry. An
implementation of type II mainly facilitated recovery of marine tourism by constructing
beach resorts. An implementation of shelter construction policy had both government
agencies and private sector, which named the Defense Ministry, Army Force, Navy
Force, Air Force, Provincial Office, National Housing Authority and private companies
supported.
In fisheries sector, an immediate relief policy was emphasized in order to revitalize
capacity of fishing and aquaculture as quick and equal as possible. Dominant victims
were small-scale fishers and fish-farmers, then an immediate relief action for
revitalization to small-scale fishers was worked out as seen at table 3. Regarding table 3,
type of victims categorized by registration card holder, non-registration card holder and
eco-tourism boat. A registration card holder was placed a priority at first, meanwhile,
non-registration card holder was placed at second priority. The reason why victims were
a registration card holder was placed first priority because the Department of Fisheries
would convince fishers and fish-farmers made registration. Then, the agency could
make use of registration record for further development and management of small-scale
fisheries. Furthermore, the DOF has a record of fishers and fish-farmer in numbers to
allocate and transfer technical assistance, knowledge and improvement.
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Table 3 an immediate relief action for revitalization of capacity in fisheries
Type of victims Priority Fishing
boat
Boat
engine
Fishing
gear
Fish
cage
Registration
card holders
1 Not >
20,000
Baht
Not >
10,000
Baht
Not >
10,000
Baht
Not >
20,000
Baht
Non-registration
card holders
2 70% of the amount formulated
Eco-tourism
boat
3 On-going consideration on damage
assessment
Four categories were fishing boat, boat engine, fishing gear and fish cage mainly
considered to transfer financial assistance to small-scale fisheries victims. The amount
of financial assistance was not more 20,000 Baht for fishing boat and fish cage culture,
meanwhile, financial assistance mitigated to wrecked boat engine and fishing gear was
amounted of not more than 10,000 Baht. These defined amounts were for victims, who
had registration card. Non-registration card holders were second priority to be
considered for receiving financial assistance. In addition, they received financial
assistance only 70% of the amount of financial assistance was formulated. Victims, who
faced ruined eco-tourism boat, were third priority to access financial assistance for
recovering their capacity. To restore fisheries sectors from the shock, the Office of
National Resources and Environment Policy and Planning was also key agency to help
in mitigation.
There were not only national government agencies, but also international
organization provided relief program to release victims’ suffering from the destruction.
Table 4 contains assistance from international organization. UNICEF spent 12 $US
millions for children and education. World Vision Foundation provided 8.2 $US millions
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to mainly construct shelter to victims. Relief on shelter construction and restoration of
small-scale fisheries sectors were means of releasing victims’ suffering to access
dwellings and capacity of employment; according, the victims could turn to enabling
environment of lives and food securities.
Table 4 Assistance provided by international organization
Agency Assistance ($US)
UNICEF 12 Mil
World Vision 8.2 Mil
UNDP 5 Mil
World Bank 5 Mil
USAID 3 Mil
WHO 3 Mil
Swiss Development Agency
SDC
1.5 Mil
DANIDA 1.5 Mil
Embassy of Italy 1.3 Mil
UNFPA 1 Mil
Finding results
Whereas a monitoring survey was conducted, an implication of assistance mitigated
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the shock was understood. Similar to introductory part, the monitoring study was to
recognize a restoration of destructive fishing communities, which conducted a sampled
survey of seven villages under territorial areas of PhangNga and Krabi Provinces.
Focusing point was on type of assistance transferred to victims; consequently, they
could revitalize their capacity and means of livelihoods to access basic needs for
securing their well-being.
Five villages were selected from three sub-districts in Phang Nga Province.
Additionally, two villages were chosen from two sub-districts of Krabi Province. Finding
result are presented a whole scene of total assistance sorely mitigated the shock to the
seven studied villages. At village level, a studied village, which was separately receiving
of assistance for revitalizing basic need liked house construction, sanitary equipment,
fishing capacity and food assistance, was additionally presented the implication.
Applicability and management is lastly explained how victims made use of assistance to
restore an enabling environment of lives and employment in a village.
Respondents were interviewed and gave information on an amount of financial
assistance concerned house construction, capacity of fishing and aquaculture, etc. Total
assistance was summation of total amount transferred to victims of seven villages.
Then, each categories of mitigation was rated as percentage. At village level, means
of calculation was similar to the ratio of total assistance. So, summation of total amount
of financial assistance handed down to each village, then calculated ratio of assistance.
Total assistance mitigated to seven studied villages
Implication of total assistance found in various purposes of mitigation to
devastative communities. Chart 2 is column chart illustrated rate of assistance from
donor for recovering in different purposes. According to the finding of the chart 2,
top-three of the largest part of total assistance was for house construction (57.7%),
fishing boat (19%) and fishing equipment (11.5%). By the observation, an amount of
assistance, which was for house construction, was the highest due to cost of materials
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and equipments. Among 57.7 % of total assistance, Ban Namkhen Village and Ban
Nairai Village were received huge amounts of the assistance, which was rate of 22% and
19.5%, respectively, as seen in chart 3. Ban Namkhem Village was the most serious
destroyed by tsunami, which shocked both local residences’ lives and habitats. New
dwellings were built with funding from local private company named Thai Television
Broadcast and international organizations. Ban Nairai Village is small-scale fishing
communities located along the coast. At this village, fishers’ houses and fishing efforts
were destructive. By the observation found from the village, new houses were funded by
the Rotary Club, World Vision Foundation, Sirinthon Foundation, etc.
Chart 2 Total assistance mitigated to seven studied villages
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Chart 3 Assistance for house construction
Other two basic needs are sanitary equipments and food assistances transferred to
wrecked communities were found very few as illustrated in chart 4 and chart 5. Chart 4
is finding of sanitary equipment, which was total assistance of seven villages (2.6%).
Under this amount, the assistance was found 1% and 0.9% at Ban Namkhem
Village and Ban Nairai Village. Similar trend to food assistance was very small as
shown in chart 5, which was 0.25% of total food assistance. These two types of
assistance might immediately need after the wave hit. When victims had full conscience,
they reported their lost to local government agencies to receive mitigation. This meant
that victims fully received relief on food and sanitary to initially safeguard their living
conditions.
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Chart 4 Assistance for sanitary equipment
Chart 5 Food assistance
Restoration of fisheries sectors was emphasized on rebuilding of fishing equipment
and fishing boat. Chart 6 is an assistance of fishing boat. Regarding finding found in
chart 6, assistance of fishing boat was 6%, 5.4% and 4.2% of 19% of total assistance
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handed down to Ban Namhkem Village, Ban Tanarak Village and Ban Bangkaya
Village, respectively.
Chart 6 Assistance for fishing boat
In addition, assistance of fishing equipment was not exceptional as seen in chart 7.
11.5% of total assistance of fishing equipment was composed of 3% of Ban Namkhem
Village and equal 2.1% of Ban TanarakVillage and Ban Klongchareon Village.
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Chart 7 Assistance for fishing equipment
Fishing boat and equipments are important tools to support destructive fishers
enable re-entering into fisheries sectors. Whereas rebuilding of fishing boat and
equipment was executed, destructive fishers could contribute restoration of community
fisheries economics. These assistances do not only rehabilitate community economics,
but also primarily safeguard societal communities from vulnerability of
underemployment in fisheries.
Summary of total assistance
Finding is affirmed that the largest amount of assistance, which transferred to
seven studied sites in order to mitigate the shock, was spent for house construction.
Consequently, victims received physical security. In addition, these assistances ensure
victims accessing dwellings to protect their lives from bad condition of weather and
crime. Moreover, assistance spent for fishing boat and fishing equipment was second
and third ranks of assistance, respectively. These two types of assistance secure victims
for revitalizing their means of livelihood and accessing opportunity of employment in
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fisheries. Lastly, other two basic needs are sanitary equipment and food assistance
spent very small amounts. This may assume that large amount of revitalization of
fishing capacity and efforts can minimize the impact of the shock as well as maximize
livelihood.
Assistance conveyed to wrecked villages
Findings of the survey consist of analysis of assistance at village level in order to
realize the implication of recovery performed at each village, which had a difference of
destructive level. Chart 8 shows percentage of communities received assistance. This
column chart reveals that three villages named Ban Namkhem Village, Ban Nairai
Village and Ban Tanarak Village were top-three villages received assistance rated of
33%, 23% and 17% respectively. Details of village’ recovery was separately analyzed and
interpreted as follows:
Chart 8 Assistance transferred to each village
Ban Namkhem Village, Bangmuang Sub-district, PhangNga Province
Whereas Ban Namkhem Village was the most destructive village shocked by
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tsunami, a ton of assistance was massively transferred to mitigate the destruction from
both national and international agencies. Chart 9 contains categories of assistance
conveyed to the village. The chart identifies that the biggest amount of assistance spent
for categories of house construction, which is 64% of total assistance in village. Other
17% and 10% of total assistance in village were spent for rebuilding up fishing boat and
buying new fishing equipment, respectively.
Chart 9 Assistance delivered to Ban Namkhem Village
Applicability and management of assistance (1)
Re-construction of shelter done at this village had made physical structure of
village become more urbanized style. Whereas there were many local and international
agencies supported, a cluster of new shelter construction was marked by affiliation of
supported agencies. Land for re-constructed new houses was more inner areas
compared with the previous location. This was for reason of safety.
Survival victims of this village received assistance of fishing boat and equipment;
according, they have engaged in fisheries to revitalize community economics. In
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addition, they are maximizing financial assistance as revolving loan service to sustain
and improve their capacity in fishing. This practice is not new innovation to them. At
previous time, the Department of Fisheries suggested and funded this practice to
fishing communities. Thus, they can make use of their accumulated experience to
organize the activity of loan service allocated to members.
Ban Nairai Village, Natoei Sub-district, PhangNga Province
Local residences of Ban Nairai Village are Thai-Muslim people. Major career is
small-scale fishers and fish cage culture. Location of the village is on a beach opened to
Andaman Sea. This is no doubt how many of habitat were destroyed by the big wave.
Certainly, local residences also lost capacity of fishing and aquaculture operation. Chart
10 illustrates a relief conveyed to the village. This chart reveals that Ban Nairai Village
massively received the largest amount of assistance for mainly constructing new houses,
which is 84.4% of total assistance in village. Assistance of rebuilding fishing boat is very
small amount, which is just 6% of total assistance in village.
Chart 10 Assistance delivered to Ban Nairai Village
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Applicability and management of assistance (2)
Village committee composed of village head, assistant of village head and others
took responsibilities to transfer relief help and assistance by ranking of destructive level.
This meant that first priority defined to totally loss houses; meanwhile, second priority
meant to loss fishing gears.
This village received re-construction of shelter from various donors were namely
the PhangNga Provincial Office of Community Development (5 houses), UNICEF (10
houses), Blue Canyon (10 houses), Rotary Club (60 houses) and World Vision
Foundation (20 houses). Sirinthon Foundation and ADRA helped repairing partially
damaged houses. The new houses were constructed on the previous place of the lost.
This is because this village is small. In addition, village’s land use is limited to move to
inner land as shelter construction of Ban Namkhem village did. New houses are modern
both style and structure. So, the landscape of this village is mixed between traditional
and modern style and structure of habitats.
Moreover, Bureau of Royal Palace suggested alternative job to local residences. This
agency trained villagers, which numbered of 20 persons to engage in making batik
clothes and marketing the products to Phuket Province. The agency additionally
introduced activity of unsoiled vegetable plantation to local villagers. Still, this activity
had no longer to implement.
Ban Tanarak Village, Kuekuk Sub-district, PhangNga Province
Victims of this village lived at Leam Pakarang Beach. Most of them engaged in
small-scale capture fisheries. At post-tsunami, chart 11 exemplifies that the village
obtained assistance mainly on house construction and fishing boat rebuilding, which is
35.8% and 32.7% of total assistance in village.
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Chart 11 Assistance delivered to Ban Tanarak Village
Applicability and management of assistance (3)
Takaupa District office implemented the shelter construction policy-type II, which
is resettlement of new house on the tourism areas. According to this policy, victims of
this village delivered new houses on inner land provided by the District Office. This
meant that victims were moved out from Leam Pakarang Beach. At new houses place,
the victims received basic infrastructure such as water supply, electricity, concrete road,
fire safety tank, etc. to facilitate their living. However, the victims have to pay 500 Baht
a year as annual rental fee with 30 years contract for living on new shelter. Some
victims said that they are not familiar to live in a new house, which shared the same
ceiling with their neighbor. They feel lost privacy and noisy compared with the previous
house and society.
However, the new settlement place is far from the Leam Pakarang Beach with
distance of 3 km. This far distance causes to victims changed their means of sustaining
livelihood. Some fishers skipped fishing activities and moved to work as cleaner at a
nearby hotel. Whereas new house is far from the beach, fishers have to pay more costs
for transporting fishing gears from house to beach. They added more information that
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they come to the beach to take a look at their fishing boats whether the boats are still
safe from strong wind and heavy rain condition.
Ban Bangkaya Village, Kuekuk Sub-district, PhangNga Province
Local residences of this village are Morgan ethnic people. At pre-tsunami, this
village composed of 40 households. They use Morgan language for communication. Some
residences had tenured land for conducting coconut trees and palm trees plantation.
The land tenure were merited from grandfather to grandson generation. Chart 12
shows relief delivered to this village to mitigate destruction.
Chart 12 Assistance delivered to Ban Bangkaya Village
Applicability and management of assistance (4)
Similar to Ban Tanarak Village is that assistance is financial to house construction
(50.5%) and rebuilding fishing boat (39.1%). World Vision Foundation constructed new
permanent houses which were totally 136 for victims come from three different villages.
Morgan ethnic victims moved to new settlement at recent place because of fear of
tsunami. New houses were permanently constructed on inner land and far from shore
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as they were used to. Whereas new houses are located, this is not convenient for
particular Morgan fishers to employ in fisheries. Some victims criticized that new
settlement is noisy due to crowded people.
Morgan ethnic victims received a suggestion to organize local residences into a
group. CO-OP was established and provided service on selling grocery goods to members.
In addition, the Department of Fisheries contributed local residences to establish and
organize fisher group. Then, the DOF supported net materials to the group for
occupying in squid trap, crab trap, fish gill net and shrimp trammel net. The group
received financial assistance, which was amounted of 90,000 Baht. So, the group
manages and provides revolving loan service to both fisher and non-fisher members.
Nevertheless, some victims indebted with fish trader come from Bangmuang
Sub-district to buy new boat.
Ban Klongchareon Village, Tungmapraow Sub-district, Phang Nga Province
This village composes of three clusters namely Ban Klongchareon, Ban Ko Nok and
Ban Huay Mai Pai. Each cluster itself has established and organized people group. At
Ban Klongchareon Cluster, fish-farmers gathered together 30-40 farmers to establish
fish-farmer group. Member of the group are friend and cousin. They shared common
interest to build up a small road for transporting fish farmed products. A member
averagely carried out 30 fish cages. Large number of fish cages was 40-50 cages. Chart
13 reveals assistance to the village.
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Chart 13 Assistance delivered to Ban Klongchareon Village
Applicability and management of assistance (5)
Assistance is not different from the previous villages, which was largely paid for
house construction with 48% of total assistance in village. Secondly, assistance was paid
for fishing equipment about 22.6% of total assistance in the village. The assistance from
Kuwait was providing of fish fingerlings. Additionally, the Department of Fisheries
delivered net, rope and fish trap and included provision of immediate relief in cash with
amount of 10 per cent of lost.
Local victims made use of assistance in cash and in kinds to revitalize fish cage
culture. They re-started fish cage culture with 2-4 cages. They established fish-farmer
group and named “Community Enterprise”. In addition, the DOF delivered both
financial assistance and materials. Financial assistance was amounted of 120,000 Baht,
which was set as revolving loan and saving system to improve capacity of the group
members.
At Ban Ko Nok Cluster, fish-farmer group composes of three different ethnic people,
which are Buddhist, Muslim and Morgan people. They join together to organize the
group activity of revolving loan service. They have shared similar common interests on
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economic aspect that they need more capital for improving fish cage culture. On social
aspect, each ethnic member continues their ways of lives based on their respective
religious belief and faith.
At Ban Huay Mai Pai Cluster, this differs from two previous clusters. Local
residences mainly engage in capture fisheries. Relief delivered to this cluster was
fishing boat rebuilding and certainly house construction. Competition of access relief
occurred here between local and non-local residences. According to this cause, second
tsunami might be conflict of society against this cluster.
Ban Khaothong Village, Khaothong Sub-district, Krabi Province
This village has total households are 154 households. Number of households is 144
households occupied in agriculture combining with fisheries, fisheries, and labor. Major
issue was lost of fishing gear particular shallow water set net and fishing boat ruined.
Chart 14 shows relief conveyed to the village.
Chart 14 Assistance delivered to Ban Khaothong Village
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Applicability and management of assistance (6)
According to the findings found in this column chart, relief was chiefly financial for
fishing equipment, which was 37.5% of total assistance in village. Meanwhile, house
construction implemented in this village was third ranked. Local victims are main
empowerment to revitalize and manage fisheries sectors. Whereas large number of
financial assistance spent for fishing equipment, number of shallow water set net is
increasing. They invested financial assistance to settle new unit of the fishing gear.
However, areas for occupied the fishing gear are limited. Local residences also
adopted crab bank management activity to enhance crab resources. This activity started
in year 2005. Gravid crab is bought and then put into crab cage, which is size of 800 m2.
In addition, some residences engage in fish cage culture and sell fish cage product to
restaurants in community.
There were many sources of financial assistance provided fund to the village. The
village received financial from PDA, Rak Thai Foundation, World Vision Foundation
and Thai government. The village has collective experience gained from organizing
Village Fund Group (Kongthunmooban) as community-based credit system. Whereas
the village plans to sustain financial assistance, it plans to develop community-based
credit system to be Village Bank. Village committee and villagers have an agreement to
combine all source of finance into one management system of Village Bank. The Village
Bank is a lesson-learned from adjacent district named Khao Kram District in the same
province. Ban Khaothong Village plans to adopt all services such as savings, revolving
loan, personal loan and financial training provided to members. The Village Bank
Committee will be set up as mechanism for managing and administrating the bank.
However, the village has a condition that member of all funding groups should clear
all debts before it sets up the Village Bank. Therefore, committee of a group has
agreement to declare name of member, who indebted with group, but they did not repay
debt back to the group. This declaration was social enforcement in order to stimulate
indebted member to make repayment.
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Ban Bagun Village, Ao Luknoi Sub-district, Krabi Province
The village composes of varieties of people’s group that they have a similar interest
liked occupying the same fishing gears, fish farm culture, fish processing and grocery.
Hundred per cent of villagers are Thai-Muslim. Chart 15 illustrates relief help
transferred to this village. The chart affirms that assistance was the same as Ban
Khaothong Village, which greatly paid for fishing equipment of 45.4% of total assistance
in village.
Chart 15 Assistance delivered to Ban Bagun Village
Applicability and management of assistance (7)
At post tsunami, three different groups are playing an important role to revitalize
the community economics. First is fish cage culture group. The Rak Thai Foundation
established and funded the group. Then, the main activity of the group is revolving loan
service. The group majorly allocates loan service to its member to restore fish cage
affected by tsunami. However, fish cages are not largely occupied due to low demand of
fish as well as low price of fish product.
Second is women’s group in marine processing products. This group initially
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established by local women themselves. They shared their own pocket money to invest
processing group’s products. This group sought support budget from Ao Luknoi
Sub-district Administrative Organization to develop fish processing activity and
investment. In addition, the group received a support from the Krabi Provincial
Agricultural Office to build up new group processing plant. The Office gave an official
name to the new processing plant as “Agricultural Demonstration Center”.
Final is women’s group in producing Batik clothes. The group gathered women and
youth in the village to train and produce batik clothes. This group received supports
from various national and international organizations. Whereas the group activity
mainly produces batik clothes, member of the group can access job opportunity and earn
income.
Conclusion and recommendation
Finding of data survey analysis illustrates an implication of assistance on shelter
construction and revitalization of livelihood. Assistance on shelter construction helps
revitalized community, society and economy. A new shelter construction ensures
maximized victims comfortable and security from crime and weather conditions. In
addition, building of new habitat revitalizes physical structure of fisheries community
accessing basic infrastructure such as clean water supply, electricity, garbage collection
and management for better hygiene and sanitary. Nevertheless, new settlement of
shelter in accordance with shelter construction policy is not fulfilling victims to sustain
traditional means of livelihood. According to this criticism, some fishers stop employing
in fisheries by moving to new career as cleaner in a hotel. In addition, far distance is
between shore and new settlement causes to high cost of transportation to carry out
fishing gears from home to the sea. Moreover, pattern of shelter construction is shifted
from rural to urbanized style.
Assistance on revitalizing livelihood performs to restore capacity and practice in
fisheries. Rebuilding of new fishing boat, fishing gear and equipment are vigorously
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helping victims particular fishers and fish-farmers re-entry employing in both capture
and aquaculture sectors. Furthermore, women and youth in community are given high
priority to empower community economics. An improvement of women and youth
acknowledges and practices their skills on producing, processing, marketing and
business management to empower both households and community economics. Lastly,
assistance is both in kind and in cash encouraging either ethnic group or cluster
gathering together to both share and secure group interest.
To ensure equality and equity of accessing assistance, committee, which composes
of leader, representative of victims and government officials should be set up. These
committee members should brainstorm making a plan of shock mitigation in immediate
term and design future direction of community development in long-term. These
committee members should be responsible for protecting the community from improper
policy of mitigation.
References
[1] www.unisdr.rg
[2] The Department of Fisheries, Thailand,2005
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Rebuilding People’s Network on Coastal Resources Management
Wantana Chenkitkosol1, Phattareeya Suanrattanachai2,
Pornprapa Sakulsaeng3 and Masahiro Yamao4
1Department of Fisheries, Thailand
2Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center-Training Department
3Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University
4Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University
1. Introduction
After the Tsunami disaster in 2004, Thai fishery industry was damaged. Fishers
and their families faced the problem to maintain their livelihood and income
opportunities after the disaster, this might reduce fishers’ awareness on coastal
resource utilization. People fell in poverty and excused to use natural resources without
considering environmental consequences (Adger et al., 2005; FAO, 2005). There was
feasibility to modify fishing technique to get more catches without sustainable resources
concern. Moreover, the social relationship of local people might lose during the recovery
period since they tried to secure their livelihood.
The Post-Tsunami Rehabilitation was done in every sector. The results of four years
of rehabilitation were visible along the coastal community of Thailand. Most of
infrastructure or physical facilities have been fully reconstructed. However, current
attention is shifting to create jobs and social networks for affected-people (APFIC, 2005).
The rebuilding of people network will assist them to maintain their livelihood. The
contribution of this people network will be an efficient tool to rehabilitate the coastal
resources in sustainable management.
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2. Research objectives
The objective of this research is to evaluate the social relationship of the local
people in Tsunami affected communities as followed;
1) To evaluate on the strengthening of people network after Tsunami disaster
2) To monitor on restoring activities concerned coastal resources management
3. Methodology
The survey has been conducted in November 2009. It covered 7 communities of 2
provinces severely affected by the tsunami; Phang-Nga and Krabi Provinces (Figure 1).
Survey in Phang-Nga Province
1. Ban Namkhem, BangMuang Sub-district, Thakuapa District
2. Ban Bangkaya, Kuekkuk Sub-district, Thakuapa District
3. Ban ThanaRak, Kuekkuk Sub-district, Thakuapa District
4. Ban KlongChareon, TungMaPraow Sub-district, TaiMueng District
5. Ban NaiRai, NaToei Sub-district, TaiMueng District
Survey in Krabi Province
6. Ban BaGan, AoLukNoi Sub-district, AoLuk District
7. Ban KhaoThong, KhaoThong Sub-district, Muang District
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Figure 1 Map of research sites
The survey was designed to gain insights into aspects of the disaster aftermath as
seen from the viewpoint of affected communities. In particular, we were interested in
obtaining community perceptions regarding the daily-life activities, civic actions, and
social relationships. Moreover, the community perception on conversation of natural
resources, especially fisheries resources was also explored. Primary data was obtained
from a sample survey of 137 households. Questionnaires were prepared to interview the
re-settlers in the study areas to measure the development of social networks in the
tsunami-affected communities by using selected indicator of social capital.
4. Results of research
General information of research sites
1) Ban Namkhem, BangMuang Sub-district, Thakuapa District, Phang-Nga Province
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Ban Nam Khem is a coastal village located in the Bang Muang subdistrict of the
Takua Pa district. The village overlooks the Andaman Sea on the west coast of
Thailand’s southern peninsula. Ban Nam Khem grew from a small community
consisting of only 4 or 5 families to a thriving village with a population of over 5,000
people. The village’s growth was the result of the emerging tin mining industry, fishing
and more recently, tourism. Of the 6 affected coastal provinces of Thailand, Ban Nam
Khem, a tourist area with numerous beach resorts in the Phang Nga Province, was the
most severely affected area (Department of Fisheries, 2005). The crowded settlements,
including tourism facilities and fishing communities, were in close proximity to the
shoreline and were on flat land exposed to the wide bay. With this inadequate land use
and no high grounds to run to, Ban Nam Khem lost half of its population.
2) Ban Bangkaya, Kuekkuk Sub-district, Thakuapa District, Phang-Nga Province
The village is Morgan community composed of 40 households (pre-tsunami). Ten
households are fisheries households. Some had land for conducting coconut trees and
palm trees gardens. When Tsunami hit, their fishing boat parked along the beach were
lost. Most houses were collapsed, remained only 3-4 houses that could be repaired. They
have moved to new settlement where constructed in inner land and far from shore, this
is not convenient for particular fishers.
3) Ban ThanaRak, Kuekkuk Sub-district, Thakuapa District, Phang-Nga Province
Local villagers are Thai-Buddhist which numbered of 50 households. These people
are fishers engaged in squid trap, gillnet. The local residences have moved their houses
from Leampakarang Beach to new place on inner land where provided by the district
office. The village also received basic infrastructure to facilitate their living. The fishers
have anchored their fishing boat at Ao Poh Beach. This beach has a distance of three km.
far from the new settlement. Fishers here are not convenient in raining season to secure
their boat.
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4) Ban KlongChareon, TungMaPraow Sub-district, TaiMueng District, Phang-Nga
Province
Fish-farmers gathered together 30-40 farmers to establish fish-farmers group.
Member of the group are friend and cousin. They shared common interest to build small
road for transporting fish farmed products. A member averagely carried out 30 fish
cages, large number of fish cages was 40-50 cages.
5) Ban NaiRai, NaToei Sub-district, TaiMueng District, Phang-Nga Province
This village had 400 households. There were 186 partially damaged households and
107 completely destroyed households. Major occupations are fisheries (60%), rubber
garden (25%) and hiring labor in construction (15%).
6) Ban BaGan, AoLukNoi Sub-district, AoLuk District, Krabi Province
BaGan Village was located along the canal named ‘Klong Bagan’ that was
connected to Andaman Sea. It was quite a large village with 396 households and about
1,900 persons. Most of the houses were constructed nearby the canal. Main occupations
were fisheries and their related activities, including both capture fisheries and
aquaculture. About 20% of households had rubber and palm plantation as major income
sources. Cage culture in this village was classified into two groups according to the scale
of production: small-scale culture with 4-40 cages and large-scale culture with more
than 40 cages up to 132 cages. Ninety percents of the cage farmers belonged to the
small-scale group that needed less investment cost. Almost all fishers and cage farmers
in BaGan village got affected from the disaster. Many boats were partially broken. Most
of the fishing gears such as shrimp trammel net and fish gill net that left on boats or in
the temporary huts near shore were swept by the waves. Comparing with other types of
fishery activities, aquaculture got the most serious damage in terms of value. Entire
stocking fishes disappeared after the wave swept all cages.
7) Ban KhaoThong, KhaoThong Sub-district, Muang District, Krabi Province
Capture fisheries in this sub-district were divided into two groups. The first
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employed stationary fishing gear, namely shallow water set net. They were situated
along the beach, since it is convenient for people to install shallow water set nets. The
second group employed movable fishing gears like the squid trap, collapsible crab trap,
fish gill net, hook and lines. Fishers moved fishing grounds depending on the schools
of fish. KhaoThong Sub-district was attacked by the Tsunami. Most of the fishers in this
sub-district got affected from the disaster. The fishing boats were normally anchored
near shore or near a fishing pier. They were hit and crashed to fishing pier or crashed
with other boats.
General information of respondents
The Survey intended to interview the head of family who affected by Tsunami hit.
Most respondents were male (56.2 %). Ages of the majority respondents were on range
between 45 and 59 years old (36.5%) and mostly, they had a primary school education
(78.9%). Half of them are living with their own house (55.4%) and others, they are living
in Disaster assistance home (38%) and rental house (3.6%), relatively.
People’s main occupation was mainly fishery (68.6%). Other occupations were
classified into hireling job (17.5%), retailer (8%) agricultural (2.9%), respectively. In
addition, they engaged in sub-occupations mostly in agricultural and hireling job. After
the tsunami disaster, most of them were still running their occupation in their own
village up to 95 percent and a few household changed their working place outside their
own community (5%).
Daily-life activities
Daily-life activities were one of an indicator to explore the fishers and their family’s
activities in normal time after attacked by Tsunami. The result of survey showed that
people in affected area have spent their daily activities as usual. The activities of their
daily-life have not changed after Tsunami effects (Table 1). Most of people have
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travelled outside villages with family. They have joined a meeting or party of their
relatives and neighbors. They have attended a social meeting where they can express
their opinions. Culturally, religious practices helped maintain people’s connection. They
have to do charity activities at temple or mosque together that made strongly
cooperation. They still have highly active in daily life activities (Figure 2).
Table 1 Daily activity
daily activities Percentage of respondent
often sometimes never
always go outside village for traveling 41.91 42.65 15.44
always receive an information for decision making 36.76 43.38 19.85
always attend social activities 84.56 14.71 0.74
always present your opinion in the meeting 29.41 27.94 42.65
always have stranger move into your village 26.47 51.47 22.06
ever argue with neighbor about career/welfare 2.94 20.59 76.47
able to leave your house with your neighbor 67.65 22.06 10.29
Daily life ac tiv ities
47.06%
52.21%
0.74%
low active moderate highly active
Figure 2 Daily-life activities
Civic Actions
The civic actions in this study meant the activity related to society or community of
96
affected fishers. The study showed that most of the people in study area still have
moderately active civic actions after 4 years of Tsunami disaster (Figure 3). Cooperation
and collective action is a channel through which social capital was expressed. In this
study, cooperation among people referred to the voluntary gathering of villagers to
address common issues, solve problems, or improve the quality of life (Table 2). As the
duty and responsibility of Thai people, they still have attended every level of political
election. After Tsunami, Most of people (87.41%) have participated in any association in
village or higher level such as Sub-district association. The reason of their participation
was the need of mutual help among members. They could share their problems on
occupation or household aspects. Moreover, 85.93% said they have made donation by
giving money or give help to other members.
c iv ic actions
59.56%
28.68%11.76%
low moderate high
Figure 3 Civic actions
Table 2 Civic actions
Civic actions Percentage of respondents
yes No
voted in election 97.79 2.21
participated in an association 87.41 12.59
made personal contact with influential person 57.04 42.96
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made newspapers interested in a problem 28.79 71.21
participated in an information campaign 85.82 14.18
participated in an election campaign 71.85 28.15
taken part in a protest march 14.18 85.82
contacted elected representative 39.26 60.74
talked with other people about a problem 83.09 16.91
notified police about a problem 39.26 60.74
made a donation of money or in-kind 85.93 14.07
volunteered for a charitable organization 52.21 47.79
The score of civic actions by village show that people in Ban KhaoThong has
moderate and high civic actions. They always have participated in several actions such
as voting the election in every level of politic. The average score of participating in civic
action convey the same direction that Ban KhaoThong have highest ranking as same as
Ban NaiRai (Figure 4).
Average score of civic actions by village
7.39
6.91
6.81
7.55
7.90
7.90
7.10
7.38
6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00
BangKaYa
TanaRak
NamKhem
KlongChareon
NaiRai
KhaoThong
BaGan
Total
Figure 4 Average score of civic actions by village
Social relationships
Theoretically, existing networks and linkages are relational assets that allow
communities to share information, build trust and work together. The social
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relationships in the communities of study areas showed moderately and highly strong
networks that imply their good relationships among neighborhood (Figure 5).
Figure 5 social relationships
Financial assistance from friends and relatives—from social networks—can be very
important for cash-strapped tsunami victims experiencing income shortfalls. In our
survey, assistance from friends and relatives were the first source of help. The opinion of
respondents showed that they have good relations among neighborhood. Most of them
(91.97%) believed that neighborhood is more trustworthy than others (Table 3). They
were agreed and strongly agreed that their neighborhood are willing to help if they need
it.
After four year of Tsunami, More than half of respondents (68.38%) felt that their
village has prospered. The village has been developed in physical infrastructure such as
houses, roads, school etc. They felt accepted as a member of the village so they should
look after the safety of village.
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Table 3 Social relations
Percentage of respondents
Social relations strongly
disagree
disagree agree strongl
y agree
Total
neighborhood are more trustworthy than
others - 8.03 56.20 35.77 100.00
someone is likely to take advantage of you 7.30 40.88 45.99 5.84 100.00
there is always someone to help you 2.19 11.68 59.12 27.01 100.00
pay attention to the opinions of
neighborhood 1.47 11.76 68.38 18.38 100.00
neighborhood are willing to help if you
need it 2.19 10.22 57.66 29.93 100.00
this village has prospered in the last five
years 5.88 25.74 36.76 31.62 100.00
feel accepted as a member of this village 5.84 7.30 32.12 54.74 100.00
if you drop your wallet, someone will
return it 19.71 27.74 32.85 19.71 100.00
However, this was not evenly spread across the different communities. Ban
TanaRak and Ban NamKhem showed the least average score on social relations among
people in village accounted as 20.50 and 21.77 respectively (Figure 6).
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Figure 6 Average score of social relationships by village
Indeed, they got a high percentage of perception on less assistance among
neighborhood (Figure 7). The main reason came from the size of community. NamKhem
is very large village with high population. Many villagers migrated from elsewhere to
operate fishing here. Beside this, an unequal relief help from outside donor has occurred
during the disaster recovery period. This made loose relationships among people in
NamKhem.
For Ban TanaRak case, people have been allocated new place to settle new house
after their houses were destroyed by Tsunami. They got the new houses from several
donors. Many people accepted this help but they feel inconvenient to stay in new place
that quite far from sea. The study found that many houses were leased by other
non-affected people. They did not accept that there was integrity in their community.
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0%20%40%60%80%
100%
BangKaYa
TanaRak
NamKhem
KlongChareon
NaiRai
KhaoThong
BaGan
Assistance among neighborhood
strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree
Figure 7 Assistance among neighborhood
Fishery situation after Tsunami
The fishery situation after Tsunami attempted to evaluate the opinion of affected
fishers on fishery matter such as status of fishery resources, status of fishing effort,
awareness on fishery resources conservation etc. The previous part of this study was
conducted in fishing communities which affected by Tsunami but the respondents were
all career in those communities. In this part, the respondents who involved in fishery
were selected to answer this set of questionnaire. The question comprise of the opinion
on fishery matter after Tsunami effects.
From the survey, many people (42.11%) have got more households assets such as
electricity appliances, motor-cycle, car etc. Some family (33.33%) has more fishing
vessel both by their own effort and by support from donors. There was 38.04% of
respondents said they have much more fishing gears than before Tsunami and 37.36%
of respondents have more type of fishing gears (Table 4). This situation happened in
many villages since there was duplicated help from several donors.
The opinions of respondents on situation of fishing activities were worse. The
64.52% of respondents got less catches, meanwhile there was only 39.13% of
respondents said they got higher fish’s price. The 68.09% of respondents expressed that
102
there were more fishers after Tsunami. They opined the reason of getting more fishers
because the affected fishers got new boat from donor even boat was not fully destroyed.
The new boat was given to their son to separately operate fishing. That became
increasing fishing effort. Anyway, fishers did not have more conflict among them. They
did not want to argue with their neighborhood.
The fishers have participated in many associations more than they did before
Tsunami. Most of donor gave assistance to group of people. So fishers tried to form their
group to receive assistance. They still wanted to get help from donors. They felt that
they could not find the source of investment by themselves. There were 37.23% of
respondents wanted to change the career outside fishery sector.
Beside the opinion on fishery activities, most of fishers (92.55%) have more
concerned on resources conservation because the fisheries resources were getting worse.
They thought the fisheries resources need more systematic management. The
government should provide opportunity to people to participate in the management.
The people would like to increase their participation in management process even
though they got much participation than before. For instance, they preferred to involve
in determination of management measure and implement the resources rehabilitating
activities.
CHARM Project (Coastal Habitats and Resources Management) was one example
that took a leading role, jointly with Department of Fisheries (DoF), to introduce
community-based coastal resources management involving local stakeholders and
community people. People participated in planning, managing and monitoring use of
coastal resources, while CHARM provided technical assistance and guidance. CHARM
also formed and trained volunteer reef monitoring groups, most of them from local dive
businesses, who volunteered to work as long-term underwater monitors using the Reef
check methodology.
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Table 4 Opinion on fishery matters
Opinion on fishery matters Percentage of respondents
Yes No
same
status Total
you have more assets 42.11 23.16 34.74 100.00
you have more fishing vessel 33.33 16.13 50.54 100.00
you have bigger vessel 22.58 26.88 50.54 100.00
you have more fishing gears 38.04 20.65 41.30 100.00
you have more type of fishing gears 37.36 25.27 37.36 100.00
you get much more catches 9.68 64.52 25.81 100.00
you get higher fish's price 39.13 33.70 27.17 100.00
you think there are more fishers 68.09 21.28 10.64 100.00
you think there are more fishes 15.96 58.51 25.53 100.00
you think there are more conflicts among fishers 12.77 73.40 13.83 100.00
you join more association/group 61.96 22.83 15.22 100.00
you still need aids from others 79.79 15.96 4.26 100.00
you want to change your career 37.23 46.81 15.96 100.00
you can afford more income 48.94 27.66 23.40 100.00
you think fisheries need more systematic
management 93.68 6.32 100.00
you concern more on resources conservation 92.55 4.26 3.19 100.00
you think people get better participation in
management 93.60 2.11 4.21 100.00
you want to participate in management
increasingly 95.79 2.11 2.11 100.00
you want to determine management measures 88.42 8.42 3.16 100.00
you want to do more rehabilitating resources 96.84 1.05 2.11 100.00
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5. Conclusions
After four years of Sumatra Tsunami, there were both negative and positive effects.
The affected fishers thought that fisheries resources got negative effects, meanwhile the
positive effect also occurred in fishing communities (Chenkitkosol et al., 2007). For
example, fishers got low income and high expenditure in fishing activity as the effect in
economic aspect. So it happened that some fisher catch the small size of fish or cut the
mangrove tree to make fishing gear. That might cause the reduction of fish stock. In the
same time, the social network of fisher was strengthening. To pass the problem, they
gave the mutual help to each others.
The institution is the important factor of sustainable coastal resource. Each
organization has advantages and disadvantages in regards of ability. Leader and
committee of village have power to govern people and their police function authority
supported the monitoring mission. Fisher group who directly involves in coastal
activities has knowledge and up-to-date information about resources that is important
for management planning. Meanwhile, the local organization is an important facilitator
to help people relieved from critical situation both in economic and coastal resource
management. The people along the coast have concerned more on resource conservation.
People network is the powerful link among local people to solve economic problems that
may reduce the pressure of unsustainable resource use. They want to assure the
sustainable coastal resources for their family and next generation.
6. References
[1] Adger, W.N., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S.R. and Rockstrom, J. 2005. Social
ecological resilience to coastal disaster. Science 309: 1036-1039
[2] 1Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission. 2005. Regional Strategic Framework:
Rehabilitation of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Tsunami Affected Countries in Asia.
FAO, RAP Publication 2005/09
105
[3] Chenkitkosol, W., Yamao M., Suanrattanachai P. and Sakulsaeng P. 2007. Impacts of
Tsunami disaster on Thai fishing communities and their coastal resource management.
Journal of the Regional Fisheries, Japan.
[4] Department of Fisheries. 2005. Report of damage assessment in fisheries sector from
Tsunami 2004. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai).
[5] FAO, Committee on Fisheries. 2005. Rehabilitation of the fishing communities and
the fisheries and aquaculture sectors affected by the Tsunami in the Indian Ocean.
Rome, Italy, 7-11 March 2005. COFI/2005/Tsunami.
106
How people cooperate in restoration: Role of microfinance and its impact
Pornprapa Sakulsaeng1 ,Phattareeya Suanrattanachai2,
Wantana Chenkitkosol3 and Masahiro Yamao4
1Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University
2Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center-Training Department
3Department of Fisheries, Thailand
4Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University
1. Introduction
Sumatra earth quake and Great Indian Ocean Tsunami in December, 2004, cause
immense social, economic and environmental devastation. Those people affected by the
disaster lost everything and/or fell into vulnerability. The impacts in Thailand were
found in six provinces where tourism and fishing were prosperous: Phang Nga, Ranong,
Krabi, Phuket, Trang, and Satun. In January 2005, the Thai government reported that
5,395 people died, 8,457 people were injured and 2,822 people were missing including
properties, public resources and natural environment were also damaged (DPM, 2005).
Economic damages resulting from the tsunami were focused chiefly on the fishing
industry. It suffered an estimated $12.5 million (500 million Baht) in losses. Based on
the statistics of the Department of Fishery (2005), there are 6,799 houses of small-scale
fishers destroyed, and over 6,783 boats, 110,129 fishing gears of different types and 40
hectares of fish cages have been destroyed. In all, the livelihoods of and estimated
100,000 to 120,000 Thais were affected in a negative way by the tsunami. They have
found it very hard to recover their livelihood to repay their loan and severe indebtness.
Climate and environmental changes as well as the tsunami have often become a cause
of poverty and vulnerability in this region. Especially, women have more difficulties
107
than men to receive food, health, education, and other social services. In addition, aid
agencies often work without giving enough attention to women to access to financial
services and establishing businesses.
In parallel, commercial banks do not provide any meaningful service to fulfill the
needs of rural poor because of the perceived high risk and the high transaction costs. In
comparison with rural areas, financial services delivery in urban areas can meet lower
costs owing to higher population density as well as better infrastructure and economic
opportunities. Affected coastal communities are heavily depended on donors in
aftermath of tsunami disaster.
Several sources of donor agencies and the government have supported large
amounts of funds through microfinance activities in channels of microfinance (World
Bank, 2005). The implementations of microfinance programs are now considered as a
useful reconstruction tools in order to and raise their quality of life and reduce donor
dependency. Microfinance can play an important role in rebuilding local communities
by providing financial services to micro and small enterprises as well as households
(Promotion of the Microfinance Sector, 2005). A number of microfinance programs are
now increasing and empowering local people (Global Green grants Fund, 2010).
2. Concept of microfinance and microfinance in Thailand
Microfinance has evolved as an economic development approach that would benefit
low-income women and men. Legerwood (1997) defined that microfinance is a
meaningful financial service, generally including saving and credit; however, some
microfinance organizations also provide insurance and payment services. In addition to
financial intermediation, many microfinance institutions (MFIs) provide social
intermediation service such as group formation, development of members’
self-confidence, and training in financial literacy. Thus the definition of microfinance
includes not only financial intermediation but also social intermediation. Therefore,
microfinance is not simply banking, but it is a development tool.
108
Microfinance can offer their clients a variety of products and services. MFIs by
definition provide financial services. However, many MFI also offer other services as a
means of improving the ability of its clients to utilize financial services. There is much
debate in the field of microfinance as to whether MFIs should be minimalist, that is
offering only financial intermediation or integrated, which offering both financial
intermediation and other services (Figure 1) (Ledgerwood, 1999).
Minimalist approach normally offer only financial intermediation such as credit
and saving, but they may occasionally offer limited social intermediation services to
reach a microfinance activity such as group formation or leadership training. This
approach provides one service (financial intermediation) to clients and offers cost
advantages for MFIs.
Integrated approach takes a more holistic view of the client. It provides a
combination activity of financial and social intermediation, enterprise development, and
social services. MFIs using integrated approach take advantage to close to clients and
moreover, clients in their community come close together by those activities.
They are essentially a subset of the wider group of nonprofits. Like other nonprofits
they are often run on a voluntary basis and are self funding. Within microfinance
programs there are many variations in terms of size and organizational structure. Some
are formally incorporated, with a written constitution and a board of directors (also
known as a committee), while others are much smaller and are more informal (Harvard
International Review, Retrieved 2009).
109
Figure 1 Minimalist and integrated approach to microfinance
Source: Ledgerwood, 1999
Microfinance in Thailand has been given a high priority since the 1970s. (Jitsuchon,
1989). Political and managerial structure had been very centralized by adopting
top-down approaches. Thailand is largely a government-sponsored activity, mostly in
the form of agricultural loans. There are a number of government programs which
Microfinance Approach
Minimalist approach Integrated approach
Financial intermediation
• Credit – working capital
• Fixed asset loans
Social intermediation
• Group formation
Enterprise development
services
• Marketing
Social services
• Education
110
support microfinance at grass root level. Government financial institutions provide
microfinance services to reach clients through provincial level, district level and
sub-district level. Another way is implementation of microfinance’s programs though
allocating budget and forming community-based organization (CBO).
The government has paid more attention to microfinance in the grass root economy
(village level) by implementing microfinance programs with people’s participation.
The microfinance programs such as revolving fund program make village people have
own management to sustain their community. By taking instruction from
governments or NGOs, they are able to form self-help groups and manage their own
business. Self-help groups can be registered or non-registered with government
agencies or NGOs.
4. Microfinance development programs for tsunami recovery
An effort to eradication and poverty alleviation, particular in the worst affected
areas from the tsunami 2004, is of enormous concern to the Thai government. The
development of microfinance program is one alternative by adopt group-lending
methodology. People are largely inspired by the belief that such programs reach the poor
and have a positive impact on rebuilding lives in post-tsunami.
Loans, saving and other financial services will help poor families rebuild their lives
in a post-disaster by giving them, means to start or grow their own businesses. Recovery
initiative during several months has formed partnership with government,
non-government organization and local people by participation in community-based
revolving funds (Counts., el at., 2005). These schemes are characterized by relatively
small loans. The repayment period is relatively short, about year or so. The
administrative structure is generally light and the entire process is participatory in
nature. Borrowers are organized into groups, which reduces the risk of default. Fund
allocated will be disbursed to a community-based revolving fund. It will be ensure that
the funds are disbursed to individual household based on people participation.
111
Preparation of guideline is also to support other economic activities of fishers such as
training in marketing or skill development. The working capital will be made available
for further use.
These are also effective mechanisms which disseminate valuable information in
order to improve the health, legal, rights, sanitation and other relevant concerns of the
poor. These programs have significantly increased women’s security, autonomy,
self-confidence and status with the household. The microfinance program is firstly to
provide much needed loan to members, and the second main component is livelihoods
training and income generating activity. This mechanism is to measure the
development of household economics and strengthen self dependency of coastal
communities.
5. Objectives of the study
5.1 To find out the role of microfinance in livelihood recovery from the tsunami disaster
5.2 To identify the ways to reduce donors dependency and strengthen self-dependency
5.3 To investigate the people’s opinion and microfinance network in tsunami affected
areas
6. Methodology of the study
6.1 Study areas information
In this research, the study areas included Phang Nga and Krabi Provinces which
located in phang Nga Bay (Figure 2). Since these two selected sites were affected by the
Tsunami, any CBO types of local organizations and local people have tried to recover
their activities and maintain their management measure.
112
6.2 Data collection and analysis
Primary data will be collected by using questionnaires and focus group discussions
during February 2010 and pervious survey (2006) will be used as based line data. The
survey was conducted with interviewing of 137 households in study sites. The set of
questionnaire was used to interview affected people, which included many sections such
as general household’s information, participation in microfinance programs, household
economic development and satisfaction in microfinance activities. Both qualitative and
quantitative techniques will be used to assess the data. Statistical tools employed in
data analysis were percentage and mean. The answers of people opinion toward
participation in microfinance program were ranked in percentage. On the other hand,
satisfaction statements were arranged in five point scale to investigate the level of
satisfaction as follows.
Figure 2. Areas map and main sited visited
Krabi
Phang Nga
Phang Nga Bay
113
Category
Very satisfied 5
Score
Satisfied 4
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied 3
Dissatisfied 2
Very dissatisfied 1
Each statement was summarized to mean score and categorized into five level of
measurement by assigned a formula as follow to aid data ranking in analysis:
Interval range = (Maximum score – Minimum score)
5
Level score of measurement
1.00-1.80 Very dissatisfied
Meaning
1.81-2.60 Dissatisfied
2.61-3.40 Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
3.41-4.20 Satisfied
4.21-5.00 Very satisfied
7. Findings and discussion
7.1 Characteristics and Basic Households Information
The survey in tsunami affected area was conducted by interviewing of 137
respondents that most respondents were male (56.2%) The family size was on average 5
persons, consisting of husband, wife and 2 or 3 children. Ages of many respondents in
these villages ranged between 45-54 years old, accounted for 36.50%. The education
level of a large part of them was educated at primary level (Table 1).
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Table 1 General information of respondents
General information Amount Percentage
Gender Male 77 56.2
Female 60 43.8
Total 137 100
Age 18-24 years old 8 13.0
25-34 years old 35 31.2
35-44 years old 33 39.0
35-44 years old 50 16.9
More than 55 years old 11 100
Total 137 100
Family member 1-4 persons 100 72.8
5-8 persons 37 27.3
Total 137 100
Education level Primary school 108 78.9
Secondary school 21 15.3
Bachelor 1 0.7
Non- education degree 7 5.1
Total 137 100
Source: Field survey, 2010
7.2 People Occupation in Pre and Post Tsunami
People occupations are shown in Table 2. Before tsunami disaster, people in affected
communities depended on fisheries. After disaster, fishing remains the main occupation
of the people. However, some of affected people changed from fishing activities because
of they still fear to go to the sea and new housing reconstruction located far from the sea.
Moreover, it is because of sharp decline fisheries resources and also increasing cost for
fishing operation. Changes in main occupation after the tsunami disaster, fishery
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decreased its percentage from 78.8% to 61.4% in 2006 and 59.6 in 2010, respectively.
The numbers of those affected people changed to other occupations such as agriculture,
petty trade and shop, and hireling/employed job. Income diversification dominated by
increasing petty trade and shop in all villages after the disaster.
Table 2. Occupation of people before and after tsunami
Unit: %
Occupation Before
tsunami
After
tsunami in
2006
After tsunami
in 2010
Direction of Occupation
(Pre and Post tsunami)
1. Fishery 78.8 61.4 59.6 Decreasing
2. Agriculture 9.1 6.8 2.6 Decreasing
4. petty trade,
shop
9.1 18.2 16.7 Increasing
5.hireling/emplo
yed job
3.0 13.6 15.4 Increasing
6. other 5.7 -
Total 100 100 100
Source: Field survey, 2006 (129 samples) and 2010 (137 samples)
7.3 People’s participation in microfinance programs
Majority of affected people have participated in a program that make them access
to loan. The term of repayment and interest rate are decided by the revolving fund
committee. A small amount of loan will be provided to each individual household to
restart their livelihoods. The repayments will be continued to be a source of revolving
fund for future operation. A good operational system also leads to better financial
sustainability. The operations of revolving fund activities at present are extending to
income generation activity and women increasing in participation in self-help groups
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(Table 3).
Table 3. People’s participation in microfinance membership
Unit: %
CBOs Year 2006 Year 2010
Saving groups 56.4 62.2
Fishers groups 30.8 14.3
Women groups 10.2 15.5
Youth groups 2.6 -
Others (tourism, home stay,
village’s store) - 8.0
Total 100 100
Source: Field survey, 2006 (129 samples) and 2010 (137 samples)
7.4 Livelihood recovery by microfinance development
People’s livelihood improvement through microfinance activities, revolving fund
would be used to provide access to financial service and skill training to people lifts
themselves out of the vicious circle of poverty. Most of affected-villagers invested their
loan in their occupations. Major loans spent were fisheries. Some loans spent to support
household expenditure such as consumption, transportation and sundry expenses.
Besides, revolving fund extended project to establish new groups for long term
rehabilitation in business groups or small enterprises. Currently, affected people use
loan from revolving fund program to invest in group business and promote child
education.
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Table 4. The purpose of rehabilitation by participation in revolving fund program
Unit: %
The purpose of rehabilitation Year 2006 Year 2010
1. Repairing/buying boats and
fishing gears 66.3 44.4
2. Business investment 19.6 28.9
3. Household consumption 7.6 8.7
4. Asset investment 5.4 7.4
5. Child education 1.1 10.6
Total 100 100
Source: Field survey, 2006 (129 samples) and 2010 (137 samples)
7.5 Recovery of household economy
Tsunami may lead people into poverty. Many of the fishery households lost their
boats, nets and engines. The loss of fishing boats and equipments also affected boat
crews and fisheries laborers. It is also the result of a sharp drop in number of tourist
and the tourism industry as a whole. Eighty-two percent of household in affected areas
earned monthly income in post tsunami less than 10,000 baht (Figure 3)1
1
Average monthly income per household in 2004 is 14,617 Bath (
. The
respondents felt their amount of income in post tsunami is decreased due to the loss of
boats and gears, declining catch and decreasing price of products. After five years of the
National Statistical Office of
Thailand,2004)
118
disaster, physical and social infrastructure facilities are almost completed and
communities having better facilities than the past. Comparing at present, their income
move to range 10,001 -20,000 baht. It is not only because of helping from government,
international agencies, but also because of their heavy pains empowering them to long
term recover normal life, secure stable income sources and try to dependent from donors
help by forming group and develop business activities.
7.6 People’s opinion in participation in microfinance activities
People’s participation in microfinance activities has been considered an important
element for community development. The responses as regards participation in
revolving fund program are summarized in Table 5. The data gathered from villagers
revealed that a work with group was a good practice in capacity and resilience building
to raise employment and livelihood improvement.
The first rank (91.07%) showed that the respondents often join in the
meeting/voting of their group. They thought that meeting and voting were the first step
to access need and to develop their own understanding about decision-making in the
next process. Moreover, the second rank (86.17%) showed villagers were able to
participate in training programs and workshops and have brain storming to find
Figure 3 Monthly incomes after tsunami in 2006 and 2010
Baht
119
solution when the problems occurred. Practicing and learning in the activity
continuously explored their livelihood development. The third rank (85.68%) showed
about people have mental help to gather friends and neighbors in their community for
establishing new activities and create the management system for their own
organization. This is a good sign showing that the organization and activity of local
groups can be controlled, solved problems and managed by people themselves. It showed
at the fourth and fifth rank with being 81.43% and 76.88, respectively.
To distribute the information, village committee always announces all news about
microfinance activity by megaphone that is set up in several points in all villages.
People invited their neighbors to join the programs again after hearing an
announcement. It was a reaction of people to show how they alert to participate in the
microfinance activity to recovery their livelihoods, showed at sixth rank with being
68.07%. Finally, the investigation found that microfinance approach provided activities
to people for practicing inside their community. People have not much joined training or
observation activity outside their community. Only a group of committee has experience
to make a trip of inspection (34.13%).
Table 5 People’s opinion in participation in microfinance development
Statements Rank %
1. Meeting/voting 1 91.07
2. Participation in training skills 2 86.17
3. Establishing new groups 3 85.68
4. Solving the problem 4 81.43
5. Recommend for group development 5 76.88
6. Invited neighbors come to involve in microfinance program 6 68.07
7. Outdoor visit for training/observing 7 34.13
Source: Field survey, 2010
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7.7 The level of people’s satisfaction toward participation in microfinance activities
Forming community-based revolving fund is a development tool that provides
financial services and many types of business to affected people. In particular, credit is a
main service to improve people’s incomes, self-employments and small enterprises. To
know how the activity suits for affected communities, people’s satisfaction is one aspect
to measure the performance of community-based development.
The study classified level of satisfaction in five category; very satisfied (5), satisfied
(4), neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (3), dissatisfied (2), and very dissatisfied (1). Data
in Table 6 shows six statements of people’s satisfaction. Most of the interviewed people
showed as highest satisfied on microfinance activities and their management. Only one
statement mentioned about budget for development did not show high satisfaction
because many groups do not register to government and still lack of capital to manage
their group.
Table 6 The level of people’s satisfaction toward participation in microfinance activities
Statements
Level of satisfaction
(%) Total
(%) Mean S.D. Meaning
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. leaders are
effectiveness
64.9 11.7 16.9 3.9 2.6 100 4.32 1.05 (5)
2. People trust
among members
59.7 18.2 18.2 2.6 1.3 100 4.32 0.95 (5)
3. Microfinance
activities can be
applied in the
personal
occupational
64.9 18.2 13.0 2.6 1.3 100 4.42 0.90 (5)
4. members always 68.8 15.6 9.1 2.6 3.9 100 4.42 1.03 (5)
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exchange their
knowledge and ideas
5. Enough budget for
development
45.5 16.9 16.9 15.6 5.2 100 3.81 1.30 (4)
6. satisfaction in
regulation and
management way
64.9 16.9 11.7 2.6 3.9 100 4.36 1.05 (5)
Source: Field survey, 2010
Meaning: (5) Very satisfied, (4) Satisfied, (3) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied,
(2) Dissatisfied, (1) Very dissatisfied
8. Conclusion and recommendation
8.1 Conclusion
8.2 Recommendation toward further development of microfinance
Developing a system of microfinance for the poor can be suggested through the
following implications.
1) Capacity building on disaster risk management
Risk management is major concern for tsunami disaster. Since, ADB's Disaster and
Emergency Assistance Policy (DEAP) was approved on 1 June 2004. DEAP Action Plan
was succeeded in operational practices. The DEAP is a comprehensive policy
encompassing natural, technological, and environmental hazards; health emergencies;
and country conflict situations (ADB,2010). Hence, the Action Plan fowling DEAP
should be supported for reducing disaster risk in all coastal communities in Thailand.
2) Appropriate governance for internal management
Microfinance development grow to serve thousands of people, the needs of policy
and monitoring regulation are required as an importance role. Therefore, build and
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improve a good governance is an important element of the growth of development
system. Good governance would be able to serve their target groups without any
disruption to their own activity. It is the process of guiding an institution to achieve its
organization’s goals and also protect their investments/assets.
3) Increase number of microfinance activities and create network
The strategy to reach a goal of sustainable development should focus on community
level. The case study showed that microfinance approach and self-help groups were
successful to lift members out of poverty and vulnerability. It can be suggested the
related agencies put the effort to increase the number of microfinance activities and
create network between local organizations (CBOs, local government, NGO, etc.) for
sharing idea, skill and knowledge on their experiences. It is important that a number
of communities establish a cooperative financial network. This may give a significant
impact on many aspects of community life
4) Increase in government support of financial assistant and training program
Toward more efficient and effective community development, government and
related agencies are responsible for delivery of financial assistant and training program
to develop capacity and occupation of rural people. It also includes training on
managing capital planning, operation, and maintenance of community infrastructure
and equipment, through which appropriate coordination between local communities and
the rural development agencies may be established.
5) Building culture of resilient communities
As regards for building disaster resilient communities, the indigenous knowledge of
fisher folks and local people is worthy for protection. Strengthening community in social
and economic aspects can be ensured the sustainable recovery of people in
affected-areas.
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6) Encouraging integrated and diversified activities
Government should further prepare to provide addition assistance in term of
appropriate modern technology and new management technique to support marketing
channels through domestic and international outlets with a good retail network.
According to community based development in Thailand has been developed into
integrated approach, diversified economic activities should be emphasized more.
9. References
[1] ADB, 2010, ADB and Disaster Risk Management, Available online at:
[2] Counts A., el at, 2005, Recovery from the tsunami Disaster: Poverty and Sustainable
http://www.adb.org/Disaster/glance.asp
Development through Microfinance, Grameen Foundation USA.
[3]Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DPM), 2005, The report from the
Ministry of Interior of Thailand for the rehabilitation of Tsunami affected area (as of 13
May 2005), Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Ministry of Interior,
Bangkok, Thailand.
[4] Harvard International Review, 2009, Retrieved 2009-03-23, Available online at:
http://www.harvardir.org/index.php?page=article&id=1103
[5] Jitsuchon S., 1989, Alleviation of Rural Poverty in Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
Development Research Institute.
[6] Ledgerwood, J. (1997). Microfinance hand book. An Institutional and Financial
[7] Perspective. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
[8] National Statistical Office of Thailand,2004, Average monthly income per household,
Available online at:
[9] Promotion of the Microfinance Sector, 2005, Sustainable microfinance for tsunami
service.nso.go.th/nso/data/data05/eco01-12/chart.../tab9-31.pdf
affected areas, Available online at:
[10] World Bank, 2005, Update on the World Bank response to the Tsunami disaster,
http://www.microfinance.lk/
124
Vol. 1 of 1, Available online at: http://www-wds.worldbank.org
[11]National Statistical Office of Thailand,2004, Average monthly income per
household,Available online at:
service.nso.go.th/nso/data/data05/eco01-12/chart.../tab9-31.pdf
125
Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program as a Case Study in Krueng Raya Aceh Besar District
Zulhamsyah Imran
Lecture in Aquatic Resources Management and Resercher in Center for Coastal ang Marine
Resources Studies, Bogor Agricultural University
1. Introduction
On December 26, 2004, an earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale (Source:
United States Geological Survey) struck off the coast of Aceh, Indonesia. This natural
disaster has resulted such as great impacts both in terms of physical infrastructures,
lives as well as community livelihood, mainly the people who lives in coastal areas.
Krueng Raya where is located in Aceh Besar District is one of area affected by tsunami
disaster.
Aftermath tsunami disaster almost the coastal area in was damaged, including the
fisheries facilities, such as boat, fishing gear, and the support facilities for fisheries
actifities. Meunasah Mon, Meunasah Keude, and Meunasah Kulam where located in
Aceh Besar were damaged cause of impact by tsunami disaster. According to Kuchik
(The Leader in the village), there were 677 victims in three villages. Moreover, among
the victims as the fishermen. In addition, before tsunami disaster in three villages
that had 200 as fishermen. But, aftermath tsunami, they still live just remain 156
persons. All of them lost their fisheries facility, such as boat, fishing gear, and
supporting for fisheries activities.
Related to above damages and impacts, it is then naturally needed a strategic
assessment to rehabilitate the livelihood of affected people and communities especially
the fisher’s communities. In order to conduct relevant strategy of fisheries
rehabilitation, it is believed that a strategic need assessment should be developed and
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designed in order to limit leakages of strategies might be happened
2. Project Profile
Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program (FLRP) in Krueng Raya Project was funded
by UNDP which budget allocation around USD 1,554,688.91 (including operational and
overhead cost) and implemented by Center for Coastal and Marine Resources
Studies-Bogor Agricultural University. The objectives of the project was to provide
integrated assessment assistance including technical inputs and actions regarding to
the local fisheries livelihood recovery based on integrated coastal management planning.
There are three sub components as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Sub components project and objectives
Sub Component Objectives Budget allocation (US$)
Fishing vessel and capture
equipment supply i.e. boat raft
lift net, boat – beach seine net
and boat – pole in line
Capture fisheries livelihood
recovery after earthquake and
tsunami disaster for coastal
communities in Mesjid Raya
Sub-district, Aceh Besar
1,084,483.91
Alternative income generating
and reducing poverty through
mobile market and fish
processing
To help the increasing income
of coastal communities outside
of fishing activity and to
reduce poverty
30,242.03
Constructing and plotting fish
aggregating device
To provide fish aggregating
device to support capture
fisheries in Krueng Raya Bay
4,567.08
3. Project Approach
The fisheries livelihood recovery program in certain level is not only physical
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treatment such as providing fishing vessels, livelihood materials, and soon. It also needs
such comprehensive approach, integrating financial capital with other capital such as
social capital; human capital as well as natural capital in order to obtain a livelihood
strategy and livelihood outcome. This approach is called Coastal Livelihood System
Analysis (CLSA) as shown on Figure 1. In this regards, project implementation
therefore is undertaken through a sequent process of pre-condition and need
re-assessment, village planning, action planning, implementation and monitoring and
evaluation.
Figure 1. Coastal Livelihood System Approach
4. Achievement
FLRP had a lot of contribution to restore and recovery livelihood in Krueng Raya,
particularly for capture fisheries livelihood. So, what it had been done could be
influence to improved income of fishermen who live in Krueng Raya. The achievement
of FLRP as shown on Table 2.
CommunityVulnerability
External shocks-External stresses
-etc
CapitalAssets
Structureand Process
LivelihoodStrategies
LivelihoodOutcomes
human
financial
natural
social
area of intervention
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Table 2. The achievement of FLRP till Dec 2007
Output Indicators Achievement Further Action
Output 1 : Livelihood Activities 1 (Marine Capture Fisheries)
Liftnet Fishing Vessel
(Palong)
24 unit of lift-net fishing vessels
including machine and fishing gear
100 %
Completed
Monitoring by the
KSHB
Pull Boat (kapal tarik) for
Liftnet Fishing Vessel
24 unit of pull-boat for lift net fishing
vessel.
100 %
Completed
Monitoring by the
KSHB
Beach seine (pukat darat) 4 unit of beach seine boat including
machine and fishing gear
100 %
Completed
Monitoring by the
KSHB
Hand line boat (pukat
pancing)
10 unit of hand-line fishing vessels
including machine and fishing gear
100 %
Completed
Monitoring by the
KSHB
Mini Purse Seine (Pukat
Langgar and Pukat Labi-labi)
3 unit of mini purse seine including
machine and fishing gear
100 %
Completed
Monitoring by the
KSHB
Output Indicators Achievement Further Action
Output 2 : Livelihood Activities II (Fisheries Processing)
Provision of mobile market
device
10 unit of mobile marketing device 100 %
Completed
Monitoring by
KSHB
Training on mobile market
device management
1 package of training implementation 100 %
Completed
-
Training of fisheries
processing technology
1 package of training implementation 100 %
Completed
-
Output 3 :
Livelihood Activities III (Fisheries Aggregating Device)
Provision of FAD Materials 3 set of materials for 3 unit of FAD 100 %
Completed
-
Training on construction of
FAD
1 package of training implementation 100 %
Completed
-
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FAD Development and
Construction
3 unit of FAD 100%
completed
Monitoring by the
local traditional
fishing masters
(pawang)
FAD Deployment 3 unit in 3 appointed location 100%
completed
-
Monitoring and evaluation Documentation on monitoring process 100%
completed
Monitoring by the
local traditional
fishing masters
(pawang)
Output 4 :
Livelihood Activities IV (Non-Fisheries and Institutional Capacity Building)
Agriculture, Livestock and
Social Grant
3 packages for 3 villages 100%
completed
-
Training on cooperative
management
1 package of training implementation 100 %
Completed
Implemented by
the KSHB
Development and
Dissemination of Regional
Development Committee
(RDC)
1 unit of RDC for Krueng Raya including a
set of mission and vision
100 %
Completed
Implemented by
the RDC
Development and
Dissemination of Syariah
Hidup Baru Cooperative
1 unit of syariah-based cooperative 100 %
Completed
Implemented by
the KSHB
5. Project Development Strategy
Creating a project development strategy is needed in a project management,
including the FLRP. Project strategy development is made must be including the
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process of planning, assessment and approval, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation, post-project. Besides that, every stage in the project management must
consider to stakeholders involved and the role of what can be done.
The purpose of a project development strategy is to (i) to formulate the necessary
steps in achievement of project objectives, (ii) identification of the stakeholders involved
in project implementation, and (iii) formulating of steps to anticipate the post-project
completed in order ensure the sustainability of the project. FLRP held on the scope of
the bay ecosystem involving three villages in Krueng Raya and has two management
authority that is Panglima Laot Lhok and Village. Regarding to the two authorities, the
project management designing and developing a strategy as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. FLRP Strategic Development
Strategic
Development
Objective Stakeholders Activities Result Recommendation
Community
participation
and involment
To increase
community
knowledge and
involment on
project
management:
planning,
implementation,
monitoring and
evaluation, and
post project
Head of 3
Villages,
Panglima Laot
Lhok,
Fishermen, fish
processor,
mobile
marketer,
women,
microfinance
management
• Consultation to 3
head of villages
and Panglima Laot
Lhok as pre
condition;
• Discussion with
representation of
fishermen;
• Village planning;
• Local boat building
involment;
• Beneficiaries
surveillance for
boat building;
• Document of
village planning;
• Agreement
letter 3 villages;
• Local boat
builder
involment;
• Properly boat
quality;
• All household in
3 villages
became a
member of
cooperative as
• Need to assist
the community
after project
completion;
• Need budget to
facilitate the
community;
• Need a
commitment
local
government to
continue the
project after
project
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• Establishment
local microfinance
institution
microfinance
institution;
• Asset
management by
cooperative
completion
Reduce donor
dependency
To reduce donor
aid dependency to
develop livelihood
and
entrepreneurship
the community in
3 villages
Cooperative
district official,
Syariah Hidup
Baru
Cooperative,
Each group
leader,
Indonesia
government ,
others NGO
• Budget
contingency
allocation for 1
years to facilitate
project till
completion (Dec
2007);
• Revolving system
development;
• Small scale
entrepreneurship
development
• Microfinance
Institution
Establishment and
Development
• National Budget
Line Incentive for
Revolving
Development
• Capacity building
cooperative as
microfinance
• Extend project
for faciliting
microfinance
institution till
Dec 2007;
• Inventory asset
as cooperative
ownership and
manage it by
cooperative;
• Local human
resources skill to
manage
cooperative;
• 1 unit Office for
cooperative was
building and
development;
• Legality of
Agreement
document
between
beneficiaries and
• Facilitating is
needed more
than 3 years to
make livelihood
and economic
establishment
and
sustainability;
• Strong
commitment of
formal and
informal leader
is needed to
change and
development
new economic
system;
• Door to door
system is
needed
development to
collage debt;
• Day to day
132
institution;
• Coordination with
other donor to
build economic
facilities, for
example: ice plant
and fish landing
cooperative;
• 1 unit ice plant
and fish landing
technical
assistance is
needed post
project
completion
Community
Empowerment
To improve and
increase skill and
ability how to
restore their
livelihood and
small scale
enterprise
Facilitator,
Project
Management,
Trainer, Local
Government,
Panglima Laot
Lhok, Head of
Village, and
Community
• Comparative study
to others site how
to make good
quality boat;
• Training for local
facilitator how to
facilitate and
empowerment of
community;
• Training for
fishermen, fish
processing, mobile
market, fish
aggregate device;
• Training for
cooperative
management;
• Facilitating and
technical
assistance;
• Accountancy
• Increasing the
community skill
and ability to
manage their
livelihood
activities,
particularly in
capture fisheries
and
microfinance;
• Recruiting local
human
resources to
manage
cooperative;
• Accountancy
system base
computerize was
development
• In the beginning
of project is
needed to
involved local
university or
NGO;
• Selected local
community is
needed to asked
and involved in
facilitating
project;
implementation;
• Before project
completion is
needed to
train the local
facilitator how
to make project
sustainability
133
training for
cooperative
management;
• Beneficiaries
directly
surveillance to
control boat
building;
Capacity
building
Panglima Laot
Lhok as one of
social capital
To increase
institutional
function how to
manage aid as
investment could
be sustained
Project
Management,
Fisheries
District Office,
and Panglima
Laot Lhok
Management
• To involved of
leader of Panglima
Laot Lhok as local
facilitator;
• Providing of
equipment for
Panglima Laot
Lhok Office;
• Training and
technical
assistance how to
organize fishermen
• Aid delivery for
fishermen
through
Panglima Laot
Lhok;
• Hall meeting for
fishermen
• Support project
by Panglima Laot
till project
completion;
• Strong
commitment to
maintained
asset, especially
boat and fishing
gear.
Improvement of
management is
needed how to
record find
landing by
fishermen
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6. Lesson Learn
During the project implementation, there were overall lesson learned for
project development in the future. This lesson learned would be divided into
two main aspects of the project i.e. (1) project management lesson learned;
and (2) project strategy/approach lesson learned. The summary of these two
lesson learned aspects of the project is showed in Table 4.
Table 4. Overall Lessons Learned of the Project Implementation
Observed Aspects Lessons Learned
Comment Factor contributing to success Factor contributing to failure
Project Management
Implementation of project in
accordance with project work
plan
• Solid vision and mission
understood by the project
management
• Team work spirit facilitated
• Availability of properly
management system (Financial
and Technical SOP, etc)
• Sufficient human resources in
terms of qualities and quantities
• The continuing lack of
understanding between
management and local people
involved in the project, especially
in terms of production schedule,
vision and mission of the project
especially which related to the
local people
• Non-technical matters that
usually came from the social
relationship between the
implementing agents.
Coordination scheme
amongst project
management staffs
and consortium
members is the key
element.
Project strategy/approach
Suitability of project
intervention to the
stakeholders needs and
interests
• Intensive participatory
facilitation
• Krueng Raya Charter agreed by
the local leaders of the three
• Dynamic of social condition due to
unstable needs amongst the local
people
The good relationship
between implanting
agents and local
people should be put in
135
villages (Meunasah Mon,
Meunasah Keudee and Meunasah
Kulam)
• Panglima Laot Lhok Krueng Raya
commitment has strong
contribution for project
sustainability
the first priority,
including Panglima
Laot Lhok involved in
the project
7. Conclusion
After project completion on the end of December 2007, there are several conclusions,
as follow:
• Success of Fisheries Livelihood Recovery in Krueng Raya was needed strong
commitment by Head of 3 Villages and Panglima Laot Lhok, particurly how to
maintained all productive asset has produce by project;
• Cooperative as a microfinance has to take function how to manage revolving fund
system to reduce donor dependency and develop capital for livelihood and economic
development;
• More than 3 years is needed for one cycle to make sustainability for livelihood
recovery aftermath tsunami in Krueng Raya;
• Local facilitators who live in project location is needed to upgrade their capacity for
project sustainability
Reference
[1] Anonimous. 2007. Final Report of Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program.
PKSPL IPB-LEIMA. Bogor.
[2] _________, 2009. BRR Book Series : Economic. BRR NAD-Nias. Jakarta
[3] Kay R and J Alder. 1999. Coastal Planning and Management. E & FN Spon.
Inggris
136
Self-dependence and role of social networks : Women’s role in restoration
TATSUMI Kazuko
Extension Center, Yamaguchi University
1 Introduction
Problem Statement
The December 2004 earthquake and tsunami were the worst natural disaster in
Indonesia’s history. Aceh and North Sumatra suffered the most. Coastal communities
were heavy damaged. In an instant the people lost their family, house, fishing boats,
farm land, even their happiness and self-confidence.
Many supports have been implemented from several donors. In the aftermath of the
tsunami disaster, emergency support was provided. During the second stage, temporary
housing or reconstruction of permanent houses was started. During the third stage,
development of physical and social infrastructure was undertaken. In virtue of these
tremendous efforts, affected people have been gradually regaining vitality. While the
people’s overdependence is continuing and their tendency is toward higher dependency,
they have lost interest in solving common problems in their communities. Moreover,
some people became selfish and think only of their own family and relatives. There are
gaps between rich and poor, because active people win support and passive are
neglected.
Five years since the earthquake and tsunami, physical and social infrastructures
have been almost recovered in tsunami-affected areas, but still social and mental
problems remain.
137
Methodology
With this background, the purpose of this study is to find out how the people
reconstructed their livelihood in terms of social and mental aspects. This study is
focused on women’s roles in their restoration, especially income generating activities
like fisheries processing, store business and selling snacks and so on. In doing so, it
examines their process comparing successful and unsuccessful cases, how they created
social networks and how they encouraged and felt self-confidence and independence.
The analysis of the outcome is based on data and information collected during
fieldwork in September 2006, March and December 2009 in Aceh Province of Indonesia.
The fieldwork, interviews with key persons and observations, were carried out at
community level. The fishing communities were selected in village “M” and village “L”,
in Aceh Province. The former has more projects by donors in eastern coastal where
access is easier, the latter has fewer projects by donors in western coastal where access
is not easy.
Figure 1: Affected Areas Figure 2: Deaths Ache Province 12 January 2005
138
2 Case studies
This chapter introduces the case studies of four successful (table 1) and two
unsuccessful stories (table 2). Cases “A “to “D” show women’s positive empowerment
process through social relationships. Cases “E” and “F” show negative disempowerment
stories.
Table 1: Four successful casesMajor Influence (2) friendship (3) independent
Village Village M Village L Village L Village L
Case (age) Case A Case B Case C Case D
Age 24 30 25 46
Income generatingFish processing andmarketing, grocery shop
Grocery shopTeacher(temporary), sellsnacks
Fish processing andmarketing, shop
Donor dependencyhousing assistance, fishprocessing, cooperative(UNDP and Rotary Club)
housing assistance housing assistancehousing assistance,fish processing training(Government and FAO)
Group activitiesreligion women’s group,financial group
religion women’s group
Strong relationshipOwn parents and sister,brother (living near house)
Own sisters (living nearhouse)
Friends (same generation,neighbors)
Husband
Source: Field survey 2009
(1) family and relatives
Figure 3: Location of Study Areas Figure 3: Location of Study Areas
139
Table 2: Two unsuccessful casesProblem Money problem Mental & Money problem
Village Village L Village L
Case (age) Case E Case F
Case (age) 23 22
Income generating Nothing (house wife) Nothing (house wife)
Donor dependency housing assistance
Group activities
Strong relationshipFriends
(same generation, neighbors)
Source: Field survey 2009
Case “A” in village “M”
In case A, the woman (24 years old) has a family business of fish processing and
marketing and a grocery shop. She and her father, mother, elder sister, and younger
brother who live near her house engage in their fish processing business. Her father
collects fish as a trader and the others boil and dray fish.
UNDP supported half the cost to build her processing facility. Rotary Club gave her
a loan of 2 million rupiah for her business without interest. She bought her 100 nets for
drying fish. She already paid the first loan and got a new loan of 2 million rupiah for her
business.
Before the tsunami, she had divorced her former husband because of his bad
behavior. She got custody of their first son. After the tsunami, she remarried and had a
second son. So far she made up her mind
to go her own way and her family supports
her in mental and socio-economic aspects.
Her second husband is a laborer and
earns 50,000 rupiah per day１
１
Average minimum income is below 1.5 million rupiah per month in rural area of Indonesia.
. Her income
per day is 10,000 rupiah from the shop
140
and 50,000-100,000 rupiah from processing. Her income is higher than her husband's.
She plays a vital role in her family. She doesn’t participate in any group support
activities, because the relationships within her family are very strong.
Case “B” in village “L”
In case B, after the tsunami, the woman (30 years old) had a third child so needed
money for baby-care, and the first two children needed more money for education. She
opened a grocery shop in 2009 in front of her house for income generating. She makes a
profit of 20,000 rupiah on a turnover of 100,000 rupiah per day. Her husband is a trader
and earns 10,000-50,000 rupiah per day. He has social networks inside and outside the
community. Once a week she and her husband go for wholesale shopping in Bandha
Aceh together. Sometimes their elder son (15years old) helps in her shop.
To open her shop she didn’t receive any support from donors except the housing
assistance. She borrowed 5 million rupiah in total from a cooperative bank and a
financial group.
The financial group is one of the Rotating Saving and Credit Associations
(ROSCAs). ROSCAs are groups of
individuals who agree to meet for a
defined period of time in order to save and
borrow together. ROSCA plays roles as a
savings institution but also functions as a
mutual-help society with a
peer-monitoring mechanism. The group
collects 200,000 rupiah from each member every month. One person selected by lots can
get the total amounts of 2 million rupiah.
She also participates in a women’s religious group. The social activities of this group
are just to spend time together eating snacks and drinking and exchanging information
and supporting each other every Thursday. She feels the relationship with her family
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and relatives is stronger than the relationships with the religious group.
Case “C” in village “L”
In case C, the woman (25 years old) has
the potential to become one of the leader of
women, even though is still young. She is a
teacher in an elementary school. Her salary is
only 200,000 rupiah per month because of her
temporary post. She wants to contribute to
her community, so works almost as a
volunteer. She just opened a small shop to sell snacks and cakes for local people in the
front of her house for income generating. She makes a profit of 5,000 rupiah on a
turnover of 20,000 rupiah per day.
Her husband is a captain of the ship “Bagan.” His income is 100,000-500,000 per
day. He has mental sickness (trauma) because he lost his father, his former wife, their
son and daughter by the tsunami. He remarried her and has a new baby. He is starting
to feel better because of her support.
She has two close friends who are neighbors. She shares her happiness and problems
with her close friends every day.
Case “D” in village “L”
In case D, the woman (46 years old) opened her
grocery shop and started a fish processing business 17
years ago. When she married her husband, he was a
laborer and his income was low. She opened a small shop,
but only a few customers came to her shop. So she started
a delivery service from door to door by her cycle in the
community. The people recognize her shop and her skill.
The Ship of “Bagan”
142
Most people were starting to trust her. She made her social network through her
business. She built up self-confidence through much experience. Now her income from
the shop is 50,000-100,000 rupiah per day.
When the tsunami happened, fortunately all members of her family were fine, but
she lost her shop, two houses, processing facilities and so on. She was supported only by
housing assistance from one donor. To re-build her shop, 50 million rupiah was needed.
She used her savings and borrowed 3 million rupiah from her friends. She thinks good
neighbors are better than far-away relatives. She wants to participate in some group
activities, but there are no groups that have formed.
Case “E” in village “L”
In case “E”, the woman (23 years old) is one of the two close friends of case “C.” She
also has good friendships and shares her happiness and problems with them. They have
mutual support in mental and social aspects, but no financial support between the three
of them.
Her husband is an employee in a small shoe shop. He borrowed 20 million rupiah
from a bank to start a new business, but the business failed. Though he repaid 14
million rupiah, he could not repay 6 million rupiah. A banker came to their house to
demand repayment. One of the husband’s friends helped them to lease a motor cycle.
The banker took that motor cycle for a time. After that her husband could not reply all
amounts and could not return that motor cycle. The friend was angry and took their
television and furniture from their house. The friendship between her husband and
husband’s friend was broken because of money.
She still worries about money problems. She has good relationships with her close
friends, but it is not easy to borrow much money. She is not active and does not have any
income generating ideas.
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Case “F” in village “L”
In case F, the woman (22 years old) has trauma. She has lost a lot of weight. She is
an insomniac and prone to headaches still now. She said she has recovered 75% from the
tsunami in a physical aspect, but her mental aspect has only partly recovered.
Moreover, she was unlucky because she didn’t get a free house from any donor.
After the tsunami, she stayed in a refugee camp for 6 months and in a barrack for 2
years. There she met a fisherman and married him, and then came back to her village.
But that timing was bad. It was too late to get a house from a donor. She has to pay
70,000 rupiah per month as a rent fee. Her husband is a crewman on fishing boat and
earns only 200,000 rupiah per week. She worries about not only mental problems but
also money problems. She has a dream to open a tea shop, but she is not active and does
not have income generating ideas.
3 Discussion and Suggestion
With the four successful cases, their patterns of strong relationships are each
different. (1) Strong relationships among family and relatives, ie. cases A and B (2)
strong friendship, ie. Case C (3) strong sense of independence, ie. case D. Though their
patterns are different, their mutual support and emotional relations improved women’s
empowerment and activities. Moreover, they have felt self-confidence and independence
improve gradually.
Comparing two villages, the donor dependency in village “M” is stronger. Many
projects were implemented in village “M.” According to these situations, in case A the
woman is empowered through income generating and strong cohesion of family. Five
years after the tsunami many projects had finished. She has realized that it is
important for them to improve her family’s livelihood by themselves. She is one of the
few to get over the situation of being over dependency, but she is one of the many who do
not care about community development.
On the other hand, few projects, expect for housing assistance, were implemented
144
in village “L.” This study shows 3 positive empowerment cases, B, C, and D. They don’t
depend on support from donors because they have little of that kind of experience. It's
only natural for them to expect some assistance from donors, because they know the
situation in village “M.” From the 3 successful cases they tried to improve themselves
through social relationships within family, relatives, friends, and community.
However there are the gaps between rich and poor, active and passive. Especially
the unsuccessful cases like E and F need more support from outsiders to get out of their
negative cycles. In the third stage of the recovery process, the potential of women’s
influence is high in villages like village “L” where fewer projects are from donors. This is
because women can play important roles in family, relatives, neighborhoods, groups and
communities. Though this study could find active women there, but it could not find
active groups or organizations for income generation or enterprise. For example, case
“E”; even if the woman has a good relationship with friends, it is not easy to borrow
much money. If there are microfinance groups, the situation would be better. Especially
they need microfinance groups of integrated approach including their motivation, skill
training, exchanging information, and sharing common interest. Moreover, cases C and
D still want to participate in group activities, but there are no chances. Village “L” has a
potential for women’s empowerment through group activities. The important thing is
that projects are implemented at the right time in the right place.
After the tsunami, families and relatives have priority during the emergency
phases. Five years after the tsunami, many couples married or re-married and there
was a baby boom. In re-settlement communities, new comers became community
members as wives and husbands, and their children. The community members and
social structures are changing drastically, so the communities need new rules and social
systems. The development intervention has been introduced by the formation of groups
or organizations at the local level. After continued interaction and with the set of rules,
those groups or organizations turn into a kind of community with its own
characteristics and functions. Putnam (1993) famously defined social capital as
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“features of social organization, such as trust, norms and networks, that can improve
the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions". This study suggests group
activities would be most effective for social capital building and community
development.
References
[1] BAPPENAS (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional）and the International
Donor Community, 2005, Indonesia: Notes on Reconstruction-The December 26, 2004
Natural Disaster.
[2] Geertz, Clifford, 1962, “The Rotating Credit Association: A “Middle Rung” in
Development”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol.10, No.3, 241-263.
[3] Lin, Nan, 2001, Social Capital, New York: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Putnam, R. ,1993, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[5] Princeton University Press.
[6] Silverman, Robert Mark eds., 2003, Community Based Organizations, 2004, Detroit:
Wayne State University Press.
[7] Tatsumi, Kazuko and Narendra Mangal Joshi,2010, “The Roles of Communities in
Rural Development”, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the Asian
Rural Sociology Association, (in press).
Woman
relatives
Group
Friends
Community
Identity crisisＦear, doubtful
Family
Loss of social capital
Donor
Figure 4: First stage of the recovery process
Woman
Group
Re-settlementCommunity
Donor
Family
relativesFriends
Old and new
Identity, self-confidence, self-motivated
Figure 5: Present stage of the recovery process
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JAPANESE AID AND HELP TO RECOVERY OF FISHERIES AND FISHING COMMUNITY IN TSUNAMI AFFECTED AREA,
INDONESIA
YAMAO Masahiro Hiroshima University
1 Introduction
This report focuses on Japanese aid and help to recovery process of fisheries and
fishing communities that had been hit by Sumatra Earthquake and Great Tsunami
December, 2004. In March, 2009, our team conducted observation on some selected
sites in Nangore Ache Darussalam and interviewed with local residents and officers in
charge of local administration including coastal resource management. This study was
an introductory part of evaluating degree of dependence on support of donor agencies
and rebuilding of social network in affected communities. A further detailed survey on
recovery process of fishing industries will be planned and implemented in the near
future.
2 Outline of Japanese Aid for Reconstruction of Tsunami Affected Area
Non Project-Type Cooperation
Since the earthquake and tsunami disaster occurred on December 26, 2004, the
Government of Japan has already provided approximately five billion US dollars to
those countries affected by this disaster. Indonesia was hardest hit among the affected
countries, so Japan aided 146 billion yen for reconstruction and recovery of affected
society based on bilateral agreement between Japan and Indonesia.
Immediately after the disaster had occurred, Japan made much effort to prepare for
non-project type aid and cooperation following the bilateral agreement, which would be
matched with those who were affected by the disaster and society’ s substantial needs in
147
devastated areas. This is a unique type of aid, in that any concrete plan of project
activities was not determined yet when both governments agreed (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 2005). In order to properly manage disaster recovery aid and relief work, the
government of Japan assigned Japan International Cooperation System (JICS) to act as
an agent of supplying any necessary materials, equipment and aid. It was expected
that such a non-project type of cooperation and JICS’s mechanism could avoid unclear
disbursement of aid and reduce administrative procedures and works in donated
countries. Of course, any emergency and aid delivery activities for reconstruction should
be undertaken according to the bilateral agreement between both countries. From the
earliest stage of the relief effort by the government of Japan, this unique scheme
worked on a full scale basis and effectively.
(Note) The Executing Agency of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction for Ache and Nias(BRR NAD-NIAS) was responsible for representing all concerned Ministries and governmentAgencies . (Source) Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2005. The author changed partially .
Affected country(Indonesia)
Japan (Donor)
Embassy
JICS
Representative Agency
(Indonesia, BRR)
JICA
M. Of Foreign Affairs
Selection
Needs
Figure 1 Bilateral Tsunami Relief Cooperation through JICS
According to the bilateral agreement with Indonesia, shown in Table 1, Japan listed
up 15 kinds of fields for relief work and reconstruction in Aceh and Nias. There were
two kinds of activities directly involved in fisheries and their related fields, namely
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support for the recovery of fisheries, and the support for recovery of markets. Besides, a
countless number of relief work and reconstruction were achieved, being related to the
recovery of fishing community and society including basic infrastructures. It is clear
that the majority of coastal communities hit by the earthquake and tsunami were
fishing communities, where most families lost their means of production, such as
fishing boats, gears, equipments, and fisheries related infrastructures had heavily been
damaged and/ or destroyed. Moreover, the distribution and transportation networks of
fisheries products were broken down. Very few traders could continue to deal in
fisheries products without any infrastructure. Therefore, a series f recovery program
in fisheries field should consider how to restore social network among fish traders and
processors, together with the reconstruction of fisheries related infrastructure. Since
fishing and fisheries related businesses were major income generating activities in Ache,
reconstruction of fisheries business has been a key factor to accelerate “building back
better” recovery of coastal society.
Table 1 Non-project type of aid and cooperation from Government of Japan
1 Supply of materials for
emergency
6 Retrieval of water
supply and sanitation
facilities
11 Support for job training
centers
2 Reconstruction and
recovery of health center
7 Reconstruction of hoe
for orphans
12 Support for school
3 Support for TV and Radio
broadcasting activities
8 Support for fisheries 13 Retrieval of land
property ledgers
4 Reconstruction of road
in west coast
9 Retrieval and support of
markets
14 Retrieval of drainage and
implementation of model
projects
5 Retrieval of overflow
(and seawall)
10 Retrieval and support
of universities
15 others
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(Source) Ministry of Foreign Affair
(http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/asia/pdfs/sumatra_tsunami_s.pdf)
Support of fisheries and reconstruction of their related facilities
It is reported that the great majority of people affected by Sumatra and great
tsunami in 2004 were fishers and their families, and the affected societies were
small-scale fishing communities. In March 2005, Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) proclaimed that it was a pressing need to recover both capture fisheries and
aquaculture that provided livelihood with a major source of income, and that right to
access to fisheries resources should be secured
In Indonesia, in fact, the loss of fisheries and their related business was huge, and
immeasurable. Livelihood of fishers and fishing communities were mostly destroyed, as
fishing boats, gears, and aquaculture facilities were hit by the tsunami. Moreover,
institutional arrangement and social network that would secure sustainable use of
coastal fisheries resources have fallen into the failure. In Ache, there had been a
number of traditional and community-based coastal resource management such as
Panglima Lout. This traditional system had so far functioned as participatory and
decentralized coastal resource management even before the disaster. Without the
restoring of institutional arrangement and social networks, therefore, fisheries and
fishing community would have hardly recovered in economic and social terms. Besides
such infrastructures as road, electricity, and communication, both domestic and
international donor agencies gave a high priority to the recovery of fisheries and their
related industries.
Enormous aid and support for capture fisheries and aquaculture were provided by
the government of Japan, according to the increased demand in the affected regions.
The aid and support for fisheries sector can be divided into five groups; (1) equipments
and materials for aquaculture (vehicles, truck, and construction machines); (2)
construction of aquaculture facilities (digging ponds, and setting up cage and floating
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nets); (3) provision of fishing gears and boats; (4) construction of ice plants (ice-making
machine, freezers, and generators); and (5) construction of facilities for fisheries
department.
3 A case in Krueng Raya Bay
Krueng Raya Bay in Nangroe Aceh Darussalan
Krueng Raya Bay is located in the west coast line of Sumatla island, facing
Andaman Sea. It is in the northeastern part of Aceh Besar District. We visited and
observed a coastal village whose name was Mounasah Keudee, in 2006 and 2009. Bogor
University of Agriculture planned and implemented Fisheries Livelihood Recovery
Program (FLRP) during the period from 2006 and 2007, with financial support from
foreign donors. Covering three villages, namely, Mounasah Keudee, Mounasah Mon,
and Mounasah Kulam, the university’s team conducted several kinds of livelihood
activities with emphasizing a great participation from local people, focusing on the
recovery of Bagan fisheries and fish processing. These had used to provide a wide
variety of opportunities for the creation of jobs and income sources. This was why the
university gave a higher priority of relief aid to the recovery of anchovy fisheries, not
like other donor agencies which were eager to deliver as many small-scale boats as
possible.
In addition, as of March 2009, the Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) was
undertaking a new project with entitled “Capacity Building for Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (PKSPL-IPB)” in Sigil,
Further improvement of socio-economic conditions in Mounasah Keudee
Compared with the fisheries situation in 2006, the number of Bagan boats
increased from 25 to 45 in 2009, and boats with hook and line increased from 30 to 68.
Those boats being specialized in the operation of beach seine also increased from 3 to 7
in number. In this Desa, Banag boats unload huge volume of anchovy and people
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engage in anchovy processing and trading.
Banda Aceh city
Krueng Raya Bay
Nangroe AcehDarussalam
Map Location of Krueng Raya Bay
Picture 1 Pulled type of Bagan boat (without engine); this
boat was constructed here with financial support from donors.
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Picture 2 A number of Bagan boats are anchored in front of Desa Mounasah Keudee.
Development of fish processing
There are seven Desas surrounding the Krueng Raya bay, in which Bagan fisheries
are the most important fishing business generating job opportunities and income
sources. The fisheries have large economic effect on the whole local economy, with
providing raw materials to a large number of small-scale processors. Dried and salted
fish has been a very important commodity in these seven Desas, which are distributed
through several marketing channels, including channels for export. Moreover, a
supply of fresh fish to traders and small peddlers
In Desa Mounasah Keudee, IPB organized relief works and undertook a series of
training programs as regards ship building in order to recover local economy as quick as
possible. Along with the improvement of Bagan fisheries, United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) and NGOs started with helping mainly women to
produce and market dried and salted products. With aid to construct small-scale
processing plants, the donors encouraged women to establish microfinance groups for
revolving funds. There were three groups, whose membership consisted of 15 persons
each group. They could secure a source of investment and daily operation through
microfinance. As of 2009, some members had already applied three times for
borrowing money from their microfinance groups. The scheme of revolving funds
worked effectively and sustainably. Relying on such supportive financial arrangement,
fish processing business has successfully recovered and further expanded its production
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and distribution. This gives a positive impact to a further development of Bagan and
other fisheries. Desa Mounasah Keudee becomes a major production and distribution
center of dried and salted anchovy in its vicinity.
Picture 3 (Right & left) Processing facilities newly constructed with financial aid
Picture 4 Processing big size fish Picture 5 Drying anchovy
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(Source) interviewed.
Figure 2 Catch, processing and marketing of anchovy in Desa
Banga boats Processors
Raw materials of fish
Cash payment
Processing
Major marketingChannels
Markets in BandaAceh
Collectors(50%)
Peddling to neighboring villages
Infrastructure Development in Desa Mounasah Keud
Rebuilding social infrastructure seriously damaged had begun soon after the
tsunami disaster, and new and modern facilities were constructed with financial and
technical support from donor agencies. Repairing canal and reinforce bank were
completed, and new landing places and a market hall were also put into operation. This
Desa reclaimed in the front of shallow water beach, and expanded its housing and plant
lots.
Picture 6 Newly constructed cannel Picture 7 A landing place
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Picture 8 Reclaimed area
In Desa Mounasah Keudee, JICS constructed three kinds of facilities, an ice plant,
a ship repairing workshop, and a traditional wet market under the scheme of
non-project type cooperation. The ice plant is equipped with ice making machines,
refrigerators and generators, aiming at producing a block of ice at cheaper price and sell
to fishers and traders in this village and its immediate vicinity. Fisheries products
were expected to get a higher market price by using ice, since it was thought that the
shortage of ice was a great obstacle for fishers to market fish under favorable condition.
In spite of such an expectation, as of March 2009, the ice plant had not yet worked on
commercial basis except workouts. The Desa administration which is responsible for
the management of ice plant cannot afford to put it into operation, because of high costs
for fuel.
Picture 9 Ice plant constructed in 2007. Picture 10 Ship repairing workshop
156
(Photo by Tatsumi, K. )
Picture 11 Ship repairing workshop (2009)
Immediately after the emergency relief works, donor agencies began to make much
effort to construct ship yards in village and training villagers to be skillful shipbuilders.
Providing technical assistance was necessary for them to build safe boats, and would
secure stable employment opportunity in their life. In a short-run, they joined
shipbuilding works to earn money, and some got small-scale boats with engines.
Fisheries Livelihood Recovery Program (FLRP) also donated to construct a ship yard in
Desa Mounasah Keud. Construction of Bagan fishing boat was given a higher priority
in their shipyard, according to the consensus among people. In this program, a
number of Bagan and other types of boats were built to be donated to tsunami-affected
people. Under such a circumstance, a ship repairing workshop would keep necessary
equipments and tools in the storage, which was also donated by JICS as a part of
non-project type cooperation. However, small scale repairing workshops were open, so
that the Japanese-donated workshop might be idle in its operation.
Reconstruction of a traditional market
Generally speaking, in Aceh, traditional markets in villages used to play very
important role in transaction of agricultural and fisheries products. The earthquake
and tsunami destroyed these traditional markets, as a result of which fisheries and
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aquaculture could hardly restore marketing channels and social networks between
fishers and traders. JICS granted to reconstruct traditional markets in tsunami
affected communities, in order to restore and revitalize local economy as a whole.
Trading activities in traditional markets would let affected people to come back to cash
economy, with less dependence on donor support. According to this scheme, in Desa
Mounasah Keud, JICS constructed a traditional market. However, not many people
have effectively dealt in fisheries products at the market, because of its architectural
and design problems. A weekly bazaar is opened to gather local people.
Picture 12 Newly constructed traditional market
Development of Bagan fisheries and its impact to local economy
Most of respondents we interviewed highly appreciated that the recovery and rapid
development of Bagan fisheries, because this particular type of fishery d used to
contribute d to the rapid improvement of livelihood and the creation of job opportunities
inside and outside fisheries. Economic effect is very large. The increased catch of
anchovy and sardine-like species has provided a greater impetus to the development of
fish processing, as has already been mentioned. Donor agencies also realized how
effectively Bagan fisheries and their interlinked fish processing empowered local
economy and raised the level of people’s life.
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In a much contrast to IPB’s successful approach, JICS’s approach could neither
respond to community-driven rehabilitation nor meet people’s demand. The facilities
donated by JICS were not utilized at all.
Improvement of houses and quality of life.
Newly constructed and same style houses stand in a raw in Mounasah Keudee,
whose landscape and atmosphere of has remarkably changed. Few people and houses
have moved to inland like neighboring communities, in which a large number of houses
were constructed on a hill and fishers had to commute to beach every day for fishing.
In Mounasah Keudee, all houses had been completed to be built. Many inhabitants have
favored to redecorate their donated houses and built on to the standardized houses.
The living conditions and quality of life in the Desa are much better than before the
tsunami disaster, and far better than coastal areas in East Sumatra and Indian Ocean.
Generally speaking, Banda Aceh and coastal areas facing Malacca Straits, speed of
restoration has been faster than other areas.
Picture 13 Donated houses stand in a raw
159
４ Other Aids
Donation of fishing boats
It is generally thought that the provision of fishing boats equipped with engine and
gears would provide income generating sources. Both foreign and domestic donor
agencies, including governments and NGOs, tended to concentrate on restoration of
fishing activity. Two kinds of methods were adapted to aid fishing boats and
equipments. Simply, the completed-built boats were donated to those fishers who had
lost boats and any means of production. Another way to help fishers generate income
was to provide a series of training programs in which they were taught about
techniques of ship building and structure of safe boats. Participants in such a job
training course obtained allowances from donor agencies and skill which would be
useful to change livelihood.
Newly constructed fishing boats by villagers were donated to fishers. These were
put into fishing operation, and even now these boats are the most important means of
production generating income sources, although a number of boats were already put
into the discard. In Desa Mounasah Keud, IBP and UNDP gave a great incentive to
those fishers who had lost fishing boats and gears under this supporting scheme.
Meanwhile, not only JICS but also many donor agencies granted a tremendous number
of fishing boats equipped with engines. There was much difference in terms of people’s
participation in income generating activities between the both approaches.
However, it is widely acknowledged that over-pressure to quickly restore the
fisheries industry has led to an inappropriate mix of fishing vessels and poor quality
(BRR 2005)1
1
BRR 2005. Aceh and Nias One Year After the Tsunami: The Recovery Effort and Way Forward. p. 56.
160
Picture 14 Fishing vessels for long line fishery, donated by
Government of Japan; in Lockngan
Picture 15 Fishing vessels donated by Government of Japan
(through JICS), at Laupulu fishing port
Community building and aquaculture pond
Ulele area in Banda Ache was the most seriously hit by the tsunami, and enormous
number of people were dead and missing. Houses, building and almost all
infrastructure were completely destroyed. With financial support from Government of
Japan (through JICS), a large community building was constructed as evacuation
center in any disasters, with four floors and heliport on the rooftop. Inside this big
161
community center, solid upstairs and slopes were constructed with enough space for
people’s evacuation and taking shelter. A Desa is responsible for managing and
maintaining this big center, in actuality it may entrust a youth group to manage this
community center.
Around the community center, JICS and other donor agencies dug out aquaculture
ponds with a 10 ha of width. In March 2009, construction of these ponds had been just
completed, not having yet put fish and shrimp into points.
Picture 16 Sign board of community building Picture 17 Community building
with fourth floors
Picture 18 Orderly plotted culture ponds
162
Conclusion and suggestion
According to BRR’s final reports on rehabilitation and reconstruction of tsunami
affected coastal communities, through the roles as local motivators individuals have
built strong social capital with other community members, leading to an increased
sense of community and commitment to each other (BRR 2009). In fact, IPB and
UNDP approach adopted in Krueng Raya Bay area can be regarded as a typical
community-driven and people-demand support in collaboration with several motivators.
It was apparent, however, that JICS’s support to this area was not planned based on
community-identified needs and priority. For a future emergency and disaster support
scheme, we suggest that plan and implementation should be carefully evaluated with
picking up lessons learned. We expect that our aids and donation would be further
conducive to the build back better of tsunami-affected people and their communities.
References
[1] BRR 2005. Aceh and Nias One Year After the Tsunami: The Recovery Effort and
Way Forwrd
[2] BRR 2009. BRR BOOK series No.6a Case Study, pp.121, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[3] FAO 2005. Rehabilitation of the Fishing Communities and the Fisheries and
Aquaculture Sectors Affected by the Tsunami in the Indian Ocean.
(ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/009/j4597e.pdf)
[4] Ministry of Foreign Affair 2006. Outcome of Japanese Grant Aid Being donated to
areas affected by Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Grant Tsunami (in Japanese,
announced on December 21, 2006)
Part Ⅱ
Community Workshop in Sri Lanka
163
Outcomes of the stakeholder workshop – 2010 August, South coast, Sri Lanka
Why conduct a stakeholder analysis?
• Identify people, groups and institutions that will influence rehabilitation work
• Anticipate the kind of influence, positive or negative, these groups will have on
rehabilitation and recovery programmes
• Develop strategies to get most effective support, possible for our project and reduce any
obstacles to successful implementation
Who are the stake holders?
• Stakeholders are persons, groups, or institutions with interests in project or
programmes
• Primary stake holders are those ultimately affected, either positively (beneficiaries) or
negatively (those who involuntary re-settled)
• Secondary stakeholders are the intermediaries in the aid delivery process
• This definition of stakeholders includes both winners and losers, and those who
involved or excluded from decision making process
Method: Scored Causal Diagrams (SCDs)
Introduction
Problem listening, scoring and ranking is a commonly used and effective
participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tool. However, these techniques often fail to
examine the relationships between the problems identified, as scores are given for each
problem independently, even if the problems are closely linked. This can result in closely
related problems being seen in isolation. Attempts have been made to look at these
inter-relationships e.g. using problem tree analysis, however this is often a method used
purely for the collection of information, with analysis and interpretation carried out by
outsiders rather than the community themselves. Causal diagramming is a technique
164
which helps the farmer and researcher together to identify the linkages and
relationships between different problems.
Scored Causal Diagrams
Help to examine in detail the causes and effects of problems and to identify the root
causes which need to be addressed. The scoring procedure helps to analyze the relative
importance of the problems and priorities them.
Procedure
1. The topic or area of discussion id first identified with the participants (Donor
dependency)
2. The fishers discuss and list their problems using symbols to illustrate each problem as
it is identified. This list is then scored.
3. If a specific enterprise is being discussed, the objective of the enterprise needs to be
clarified with the participants by asking why they are involved in this particular
enterprise. Identify the alternatives to reduce donor dependency
4. These objectives are then expressed as problems and symbolized on the ground. E.g.
possible alternative livelihoods
5. The direct causes of the end problem are then identified by the fishers and other stake
holders.
(Source: Participatory Farm management (PEM) methods, Filed Manual, Reading
University, United Kingdom)
165
Results
Government
Local People
Industry
(Private Sector)
Impacts of Donor dependence
Human Social Physical Natural Financial
Capital Capital Capital Capital Capital
Donor Dependency
Disaster
Support *Foreign Governments
* NGO’s (Foreign)
Donations
166
Dependent Community
Poverty &
Hunger
167
Physical Capital
• Housing Facilities
• Water, Electricity, Sanitation Facilities
• Infrastructure: living Roads, community centers, schools, training
centers)
• Unstable housing scheme, (low quality raw materials)
• Unmatched architecture, (Twin houses)
• Shifting villages (establishments Far from beaches)
• No proper plan to store (Boats/ nets/gear)
• Unnecessary donations
• Increase no of boats & board, construction yards
• Increase number of banks & board construction yeards
Natural Capital
• Poor attention
• High Pressure (lack of books)
• Un cleared beaches (full of debris & abundant houses)
• Threat to sustainability
Impacts of Donor Dependency
Physical
Natural
Financial
Social
Human
Human
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Financial Capital
• Poor Money Management
• Lack of savings & lack of attitude
• Destroyed accumulated savings throughout the life
• Lack of employment or money creation activities
Social Capital
• Conflicts
i. New settlers Vs old village
ii. Among community (mixing community to establish new
settlement)
iii. Political ideology
iv. Unfair distribution of donations government officials
• Lack of trust (government. Officials, politicians, NGO officers)
• Un-necessary political interventions
• Collapse of community organizations
• Destroyed community relationships, bonds & networks
Human Capital
• Reduced freedom (less power on decision making)
• Reduce privacy
• Negative attitudes (depend on others)
• Lack of motivation
• Give up traditional means of working and living
• Deficiency of good leaders and managers
• Change consumption patters
• Alcoholism
• Risk averse nature
169
• Illnesses (psychological problems)
Crying needs of the hour
• Start and facilitate community based organizations
• Allow them to select their own leaders
• Improve leadership skills and personality of young generation
• Select people with entrepreneurial abilities and thinking
• Facilities for entrepreneurial culture
• Train future businessmen and facilitate to establish entrepreneurial
ventures
• Resource Audit: identify the resources identical to each village
setting and develop plans on it.
• New technology, ideas, business should match with local culture
• Brain Storming: to change the attitudes promote saving and
investment culture
• Strengthen existing social networks and facilitate to develop strong
and wider social net works
• Needs to develop long term development plans and action plans
• Essential to monitor and evaluate