design recommendations of beef cattle housing

CIGR

Design Recommendations of Beef Cattle Housing

Report of the CIGR Section II,Working Group No. 14

Cattle Housing

2nd editionSeptember 2004

East Lansing, Michigan, USA

II CIGR Sektion II: Working Group No. 14, Cattle Housing

CIGR - Design Recommendations Beef Cattle Housing

Impressum

HerausgeberBundesanstalt für alpenländische Landwirtschaft Gumpenstein, A-8952 Irdning, desBundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt- und Wasserwirtschaft, Wien

DirektorHR Dipl.Ing. Dr. Kurt CHYTIL

für den Inhalt verantwortlichdie AUTOREN

RedaktionBrigitta KRIMBERGER und Ingrid ZAINER

Druck, Verlag und © 2003Bundesanstalt für alpenländische Landwirtschaft Gumpenstein, A-8952 IrdningISSN 1026-6275ISBN 3-901980-58-x

Internethttp://www.bal.bmlfuw.gv.at

Dieser Tagungsband wurde vom Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,Umwelt- und Wasserwirtschaft finanziert.

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CIGR Section II: Working Group No. 14, Cattle Housing

Contents

Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... V

Chapter 1, Overview of Production Systems .......................................................................................................9

Chapter 2, Designing Facilities to Meet Animal Needs .....................................................................................13

Chapter 3, Animals, Buildings and Equipment Dimensions ............................................................................17

Chapter 4, Floors and Walking Surfaces ...........................................................................................................21

Chapter 5, Facilities for Feeding and Drinking .................................................................................................25

Chapter 6, Ventilation (Environmental Control) of Livestock Barns .............................................................29

Chapter 7, Sukler Cows and Calves....................................................................................................................33

Chapter 8, Housing for Calves from Birth to 6 Months ...................................................................................39

Chapter 9, Housing for Finishing Animals ........................................................................................................43

Chapter 10, Safety and Animal Handling ..........................................................................................................47

References .............................................................................................................................................................53


IV CIGR Sektion II: Working Group No. 14, Cattle Housing


V



Many people are involved in the design and specification of beef cattle housing: engineers, architects, extensionservices, building contractors, and finally the facility manager himself. To achieve a high satisfaction level it isnecessary to take into account a range of different factors when defining the optimum animal house for a specificsituation. These factors include - animal productivity targets, animal behaviour, animal needs, animal dimensions,climate, labour availability, manager preferences, animals handling and personnel safety.

The scientific literature is comprehensive and reports research that has been capped out in different countries andwith different beef cattle breeds. This report takes into account the data of the scientific literature and the practicalexperience of respected specialists involved in the practical design, construction and management of beef cattlehousing in Europe and North America.

An attempt has been made to provide the busy professional designer and manager with an understanding of theunderlying principles that form a basis for engineering and construction solutions.The authors of this report come from ten countries, some near, some far. They met on five occasions and commu-nicated very intensively by e-mail to find the best solutions to house beef cattle and to present the results of theirdiscussions and works. In front of you, you have the very successful result of their work. Please let it know to all theinterested persons in the beef cattle industry.

It is a privilege to have been appointed first as member and later as chairman of this working group. I thank all thegroup members for their original contributions and the enthusiasm they have given to this ambitious project.

Josi Flaba

September 2002

Preface

VI CIGR Sektion II: Working Group No. 14, Cattle Housing


Others who contributed to this report are :

Jeff Owen, the former Chairman, Farm Building Research Team, ADAS Reading,Coley Park, Reading RG1 6DE, UK;Prof. Dr. Helmut Bartussek, Bundesanstalt fur Alpenländische Landwirtschaft Gumpenstein,A-8952 Irdning, Austria;Prof. Umberto Chiappini, Universita Degli Studi di Bologna, Istituto di Edilizia Zootecnica, Via F. Ili Rosselli 107,I-42100 Reggio Emilia, Italy;Dr. Heinrich Pirkelmann, Bayerische Landesanstalt für Tierzucht, Prof. Dürrwaechter Platz 1,D-85586 Poing, Germany;Michel Smits, Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering (IMAG - DLO),Mansholtlaan 10-12, PO Box 43, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlandsformer members of the CIGR Section II Working Group No 14, Cattle Housing.

Mrs. Colette Trousselier, Institut de l’Elévage, 5 rue Herman Frenkel,F-69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France, needs a special mention for all the work she put into compiling the figures.

Sonja Keiblinger, Brigitta Krimberger, E. Finotti and Ingrid Zainer, Federal Research Institute for Agriculture inAlpine Regions Gumpenstein, A-8952 Irdning, Austria, also need special mention for all the work they put intodrawings and formatting the text.

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COMPOSITION OF CIGR WORKING GROUP ON CATTLE HOUSING

Josi FLABA (Chairman) Ingénieur-directeurMinistère des Classes moyennes et de l’AgricultureService Dévéloppement Production animale, WTC 3, 20 ème étageBoulevard Simon Bolivar 30, 1000 Bruxelles, Belgium

Professor Bill BICKERTDepartment of Agricultural EngineeringMichigan State University East Lansing, 48824-1323 Michigan, USA

Jacques CAPDEVILLEInstitut de l’Elévage, BP 18, 31321 CASTANET TOLOSAN Cedex , France

Dr. Heiko GEORGFederal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL)Institute of Production Engineering and Building ResearchBundesallee 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany

Ir. Robert KAUFMANNSwiss Research Institute for Agricultural Economics and EngineeringCH-8356 Tänikon, Switzerland

Ir. J.J. LENEHANTeagasc Grange, Research CentreDunsany Co. Meath, Ireland

Ir. Jim LOYNESHead of Engineering, School of AgricultureHarper Adams University CollegeTF10 8NB Newport, Shropshire, England

Dipl. Ing. Alfred PÖLLINGERBundesanstalt für Alpenländische Landwirtschaft in GumpensteinA-8952 Irdning, Austria

Michel TILLIEAssociation Française du Génie Rural6 rue Pasteur, F-62217 Beaurains, France

Dr. Michael VENTORPSwedish University of Agricultural SciencesP.O. Box 59, S-23053 Alnarp, Sweden

Professor Paolo ZAPPAVIGNAUniversita Degli Studi di Bologna, Sez. IngegneriaVia F. IIi Rosselli 107, I-42100 Reggio Emilia, Italy

VIII CIGR Sektion II: Working Group No. 14, Cattle Housing


9

Chapter 1: Overview of Production Sytems

CIGR Design Recommendations and Beef Cattle Housing

Chapter 1Overview of Production Systems

1.1 IntroductionEach production system - veal calf,suckling calf, dairy bred calf, steer andheifer - implies different rearing, mana-gement and housing systems. Accordingto the end purpose, the calves will be rea-red with their destination in mind. Forthe different systems the rearing periodand the corresponding feeding systemwill be extended over a shorter or a lon-ger period depending on productivity tar-gets. Each enterprise may require a spe-cific type of housing and, in some cases,rules are imposed for animal comfort asin the situation of organic production sy-stems.

1.2 Categories ofProduction Systems

Veal calvesFeeding: based on whole milk or milkreplacer.Housing: individual pen or collectivepens (with automatic milk feeder)Slaughtered when they reach about110 to 250 kg

Suckling calvesFeeding: natural suckling, complemen-ted with concentrates (when grazing andindoors) if they are to grow to adult age(see steers)Housing: with their mothers in cubic-les or others loose housingReared to become replacement animalsor to be fattened.Slaughtered at about 200 - 250 kg

Bull calvesReared in groups until weaned.Feeding: milk replacer automatically ormanually distributedHousing: group housingSlaughtered at about 11 to 15 months

Bull beefFirst period: See bull calves.Second period: Fattened until they areslaughteredFeeding: silage and concentrates fromtroughsHousing: usually in small groups (nomore than 20 animals per group)Slaughtered at about 18 months

Steers

Castrated animals, from suckling cal-ves or dairy bred calvesFirst period: fed on their mothers’ milkor artifical milk, then gradually turnedto concentrates and forages.Housing: with their mothersSecond period: after the weaning andcastration, fed on grass and kept outdoorsThird period (finishing): fed on concen-trates and usually housed in free stalls.Slaughtered between 24 and 30 months.

HeifersHeifers are reared along the same pat-tern as bull calves or steers.

Cull cowsCull cows may be fattened after whenmilk production ceases on the same pat-tern as steers.

Suckler cowsAlthough not directly reared for beef,suckler cows are an essential link alongthe production line and hold a very im-portant role in the production system.The quality of the animals produced de-pends on the quality of the suckler herd.Feeding: grass and some concentratesif necessary during the summertime;silage, hay and concentrates during thewintertime.Housing: outdoors in the summertime;indoors, inside the barns (loose hou-sing) in the wintertime.

Figure 1-1 shows the characteristics ofeach production system.

1.3 Housing FacilitiesRequired for GoodManagement

In beef production, the calf remains withits mother from birth until weaning,which may occur at the age of 2 to 6weeks or at the age of 2 to 6 months, andsometimes more. During the time withits mother, the calf is fed by its motherand has the opportunity to eat concen-trates, hay or forages. In dairy produc-tion (and sometimes in beef production),weaning may occur at birth or just a few

hours after birth (10 to 36 hours). Thenew-born calf receives colostrum, thenmilk for a few days or weeks, and thenmilk replacer. In beef production thisoccurs mainly in the double muscledbreeds in order to decrease mortality at avery young age.1.3.1 Period from 0 to 6 months:

calves weaned at birthAt birth, the calf has no immunity againstthe infectious germs living in the envi-ronment. It will be immunized passivelyby the mother’s colostrum. Afterwards,the calf will progressively build its ownimmunity by contact with the germs (in-fectious and non-infectious) of the envi-ronment.The new-born can be separated from itsmother and other animals immediatelyafter the birth in order to avoid a conta-mination with infectious germs, which aregenerally passed on from older animalsto younger ones. The calf should behoused lonely so as to avoid any possi-ble contact with contagious animals thatmight contaminate it.Individual hutches placed outdoors makeit possible to remove the calf from theother animals in the first minutes afterbirth. Besides, it is recommended to takethe calf outdoors as soon as it is dry andit has received colostrum.The new-born calf may stay with its mo-ther for 1 to 3 days to give him the op-portunity to build relationship with itsmother. The hygiene of the pen and theprovision of colostrum immediately af-ter the birth are of great importance toprotect the health of the new-born calf.The calves must be kept in accordancewith regional regulation of animal wel-fare.Provision of colostrum: As soon as pos-sible after birth the calf should be givencolostrum with the aim of acquiring im-mediate protection against various infec-tious diseases and to be assured the calfhas received the recommended amount.Provision of milk: Milk or milk repla-cer can be distributed manually or by au-tomatic milk feeder. In this case, calvesare brought together within a period of

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CIGR WORKING GROUP No 14

Report of the CIGR Section II

3 to 4 weeks to have 20 to 30 calvesper group or pen. The amounts of dis-tributed milk may be adjusted to theparticular needs of any calf.

Housing in individual pens:During the period that calves are fed onmilk (whole milk or milk replacer),which lasts for about 2 months, it is pre-ferable to adopt single housing so that feedconsumption may be checked (both milkand dry feeds such as cereals, concentra-tes, ...). The optimal weaning time maybe fixed but delayed if necessary whenit appears that the calf does not eat theamount of concentrates required to sa-tisfy its needs when milk is no longersupplied.An obligation of the EU is to bring ani-mals into physical contact with theirequals. In non-EU countries, the regu-lation of animal welfare must be takeninto account.To prevent spreading of diseases, it isrecommended to limit the number of cal-ves having physical contacts to two orthree. Physical contacts give the oppor-tunity for calves to suckle ears, navelsand teats, which may lead to deforma-tions and sometimes even cause infec-tions.

Group housing:Housing several calves (8 - 10) toge-ther might only be considered if theanimals are of the same size. Calvescan be housed in groups from the ageof one week with appropriate manage-ment to reduce the negative effect ofcompetition.

Dehorning:To prevent accidents with the personsinvolved in animal care and animalhandling and injuries to the other ani-mals, it is recommended to dehorn theanimals at a very young age by bur-ning with a proprietary heating elementby specially trained staff. Localanaesthesia may be required by legis-lation in specific countries.

Cleaning and disinfection:Between successive uses, it is absolu-tely necessary to clean and disinfect thepens or the hutches. Moreover, it ishighly recommended to let the pen orthe hutch remain empty for about twoweeks for health reasons.

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Chapter 1: Overview of Production Systems

CIGR Design Recommendations for Beef Cattle Housing

ceive a strong protection against infec-tious diseases. It is advisable, especi-ally when the calf is weak or calvinghas been difficult, to give the calf ad-ditional colostrum as soon as possibleafter the birth.1.3.3 Fattening animalsUnusual behaviour:There is a real social order among maleuncastrated animals. In feed lot sy-stems, the consequences will be con-trolled through providing a large areaand limiting the number of animals inthat area. On the other hand, aggressi-ve behavior is likely to occur withsmall groups. Thus, it is necessary to:• Check regularly that no animal is kept

away from the group. It may beco-me necessary to remove a weak ani-mal.

• Dehorn all the animals.• Provide sufficient area.Grouping strategies:• Groups should be formed after watching

the behaviour of the animals duringfirst stage of the rearing.

• Groups should be homogeneous interms of weight and height at the wit-hers of the animals and behaviour toavoid possible accidents, especially sin-ce mounting is impossible to avoid inthat type of production.

Sufficient area:Whatever the type of animal, minimumareas should be provided. When ani-mal density exceeds recommendedstandards, diseases and injuries are li-kely to occur.A healthy environment:Disease hazards remain high and en-vironment standards should strictly berespected to reduce possible infec-tions.Treatment against the external para-sites:When the animals enter the barns for fat-tening or winter time, it is recommendedto treat them against the external parasi-tes living in their hair. To improve theeffectiveness of chemicals used to de-stroy parasites it can be useful to shavethe animals to remove long hair. If thebarn is inadequately ventilated, removingthe hair will help the animals regulatingtheir body temperature.

Figure 1-1: Schematic representation of the different categories of productionsystems

1.3.2 Period from 0 to 6 months:calves remaining with theirmothers

Calving:It is highly recommended to let the cowcalve alone in a pen with enough surfaceand bedding material (fresh straw of good

quality, ...) but close to her herd mates toprevent stress.

Provision of colostrum:

Normally the new-born calf nurses wi-thin a short time after birth. But the calfmay not drink enough colostrum to re-

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13

Chapter 2: Designing Facilities to Meet Animal Needs


Chapter 2Designing Facilities to Meet Animal Needs

2.1 IntroductionAt present, it is generally agreed that thebasic requirements for welfare of live-stock are :1.The provision of readily accessible

fresh water and nutritionally adequatefood as required;

2.Adequate freedom of movement andability to stretch limbs;

3.Sufficient light for satisfactory inspec-tion;

4.The rapid diagnosis and treatment ofinjury and disease;

5.Emergency provision in the event of abreakdown of essential mechanicalequipment;

6.Flooring which neither harms nor cau-ses undue strain;

7.The avoidance on unnecessary mutila-tion.

2.1.1 BehaviourOver thirty years ago discussions aboutanimal welfare led to basic rights for ani-mals being formulated in the BrambellReport. This report recognised certainbasic physical needs in relation to hou-sing. These were the right of an animalto have sufficient freedom of movementto allow it to get up; lie down; groomnormally; turn around; and stretch itslimbs, without difficulty.Since Brambell, much research has beendone to clarify behavioural needs orgoals. Work of relevance to the achieve-ment of behavioural goals, which arefixed in the animal, deserves specialmention. Animal motivation and thefunctional consequences of behaviouralprocesses are the most important aspects,since they play an important role in eva-luating animal welfare and predicting andcontrolling the underlying environmen-tal conditions that influence behaviour.

MotivationCattle are highly motivated to rest, feed,drink and move around. However, theneed for an animal to carry out a certainbehaviour at a certain time is still notclear. In this context the model developed

by WIEPKEMA (1982) is relevant. Ac-cording to this model, an animal alwaystries to proceed from the present situati-on (Existing value) to the goal (Requiredvalue). Only when the goal can be rea-ched, the behaviour will end in an ap-propriate way and welfare will be assu-red.

Functional consequences

When an animal is motivated, it will per-form one or more behaviour patterns.According to the HUGHES and DUN-CAN (1988) model of foraging beha-viour, proper functional consequencesare the main reason for an animal cea-sing the behaviour. Therefore, creatingopportunities for appetite behaviour alo-ne (one part of the total foraging process)is not enough. This simply strengthensthe animal’s motivation but does not al-low the animal to achieve satiation. Eventhe presence of the means to achieve abehavioural goal is not always enough;since providing a food supply for even ashort duration will also strengthen moti-vation. Only completing the whole cy-cle (in foraging this means allowing sa-tiation to be achieved) leads to a longerterm decrease of motivation.

Predictability and controllability

The predictability and controllability ofenvironmental conditions should beincluded in any discussion about beha-vioural needs. They are of crucial im-portance in evaluating stress. Control ofenvironment factors; e.g., those influen-cing social interactions and feeding times,should be optimal. The predictability ofresponse to certain behaviour should behigh and there should be opportunitiesfor synchronisation to avoid frustrationor competition.

StressThis has to be at the correct level. Toolittle stress can be just as harmful as toomuch. Intelligent animals need a com-plex and changing environment just asmuch as they need predictability and con-trollability. Besides ethological and phy-siological disturbances, excessive stress

can also have negative effects on theanimal’s immune system and make ani-mals more sensitive to infectious disea-se. Boredom can exactly have the sameeffect.Housing submissive animals in a buildingwith insufficient space can create a chro-nic stress, because they fear close contactswith dominant animals and undergoingsevere aggressions from their herdmates.The climatic environment can cause stresssince animals may have difficulties main-taining their body temperature. The unfri-endly herdsman behaviour will enhance theanimal fear and stress, especially if he co-mes too close to the animal.

2.1.2 HealthIn many cases, concern about welfare islargely about the physical health of theanimals and the economic consequencesof their health. However, even if conside-ration is confined to the very limited issueof keeping the animals free from costlydiseases, the situation will be far from sim-ple. Disease is generally multifactorial andhousing is only one of many factors invol-ved. Furthermore, housing cannot be con-sidered as a single factor, since a housingsystem can comprise a number of diffe-rent designs and might include or excludedetails that influence the incidence of acertain disease. What can be done is tofind out how some detail is involved in thedisease; e.g. how does the length of a stallor the area of the straw yard per animalaffect contamination of the lying area andhow does such contamination influence theincidence of mastitis within suckling cows.Even with such information one must becareful since a different stall design mightwell have features that would alter the desi-red length, or the incidence of mastitismight rely more on other factors (e.g., im-mune status, productivity or feeding) thanon contamination of the lying area.Consequently, predicting the consequenceof all the details combined in any one hou-sing system can only be speculative.In the unnaturally dense populations ofhoused farm animals, the risk of infec-tion will be high. To some extent, this

14 Report of the Section II


elevated risk can be counteracted by anincrease in activity of the animals’immune systems. It is a question of get-ting the balance right. What is requiredis a level of infection that allows animalsto develop immunity to disease, but notsuch a high level that it causes disease inanimals with immunity. Non infectiouscontaminants, such as inert dust partic-les and ammonia gas, can also harm ani-mals by causing damage to the respira-tory defence mechanism. Such agents canmake the animal less resistant to infec-tion allergies.In beef production, the facultative patho-gens normally living in the air and cau-sing respiratory diseases will becomedangerous only, if they find favourableconditions: animal overcrowding, highair humidity, air with too many dust par-ticles, draughts, excessively high air tem-perature, etc. To prevent diseases, it isadvisable to limit the number of faculta-tive pathogens living in the air because itis not possible to destroy them comple-tely. Good ventilation and a favourableanimal occupation density are two impor-tant measures to prevent respiratory di-seases.To prevent contagions within the herd itis recommended to isolate ill animals assoon as possible although it is difficultto have enough room or pens for them.The cohabitation of animals of variousage and the bringing together of animalscoming from different farms represent asituation with many risks. A quarantinepractice (facilities + management) forpurchased animals is advisable to dimi-nish the risk of disease outbreak. Num-ber of animals per pen should not be hig-her than 12 to prevent social pressure:submissive animals are frequently distur-bed by dominant animals.Control of microbe populations and com-fortable housing are the two major pointsto preserve the beef cattle health.

2.2 Housing SystemsIn many modern beef units animals arekept indoors all the year round. Therefo-re, it is important to ensure that, whatever housing system is provided, be-havioural needs (e.g. resting, feedingand drinking) are properly met. In loo-se housing systems, the freedom of mo-vement of the animals means that both

individual and group behaviours mustbe satisfied.

2.2.1 RestingIn loose housing systems cattle rest formany hours per day. Resting behaviourdepends on various factors including ti-mes of feeding, feeding frequency andmanagement. Resting time is divided intolying time without sleep and lying timewith total muscle relaxation sleep. Forthe latter, the cattle should be able to liedown with its head resting on and sup-ported by the shoulder, so that the neckmuscles can relax. To avoid disturbanceand ensure suitable opportunities for re-sting, enough space should be availablefor each animal.Cattle spend about 50 % of their timelying, for about 10-15 periods per day,each of about 60-80 minutes duration.The duration of each lying period is in-fluenced by the housing environment buttotal lying time seems to be fixed. Ananimal will not stay recumbent for toolong before it becomes uncomfortable.This is because the large body weight ofheavy animals causes high pressures tobe imposed on those parts of the bodythat are in contact with the ground. Lyingentirely on one side is only possible forabout 10-15 minutes at a time. This isbecause the pressures exerted cause dis-turbances in pulmonary blood flow andthe disposal of rumen gases.For socially gregarious animals like beefcattle, synchronisation is important totheir behaviour and competition ingroups. To avoid competition in commu-nal lying areas, there should be enoughspace for all animals to find a resting pla-ce and to lie down together. If cubiclesare used there should be a cubicle foreach animal. Increasing the floor spaceper animal in growing-finishing periodfrom to 2.0 to 4.2 sq m for example resul-ted in appreciably greater daily weightgain. As a consequence of insufficient lyingarea there may be an increase in aggressi-on and/or disturbances of behaviouralrhythms (eating and resting times). In ad-dition, animals that are unable to lie downwill spend significantly longer time stan-ding and will have an increased lying re-quirement when they do lie down.Animals lying on slatted floor may showabnormal standing and lying behaviour.Abnormal standing up and lying down

are caused primarily by factors associa-ted with a hard floor.

2.2.2 FeedingCattle spend many hours per day eating.If the feed is fed restrictively, there shouldbe sufficient feeding places for all ani-mals to feed at the same time to avoidcompetition, frustration and aggression.Any restriction in number of places mayresult in low-ranking animals receivinginsufficient feed and, as a consequence,their daily weight gain will be too low orthey may lose excessive weight. If thefeed is fed ad libitum and if there is oneeating place per two or three animals,each animal will have enough time to eatall the feed it needs.If roughage is fed ad libitum and con-centrates restrictively, there should besufficient feeding places to feed the con-centrates to all animals at the same time.

2.2.3 DrinkingDrinkers should be located where theyare easily accessible. They should notbe located where it is impossible forsubmissive animals to leave when adominant animal approaches, e.g. in cor-ners or at the end of a passage. Thereshould be enough room around the drin-kers to avoid difficulties for animals todrink.Care must be taken to ensure that the drin-ker will not be fouled with faeces or uri-ne. When the straw is spread it is recom-mended to ensure it is not to throw it intothe drinkers.

The cleanliness of the water and of thedrinkers and the functionning of the drin-kers should be checked every day. Goodfunctionning of the drinkers is especial-ly important for animals being fed a feedwith a high dry matter content. Freezingof the drinkers should be prevented du-ring the cold days, especially if animalsreceive dry feed.

2.2.4 LocomotionFloors should not be slippery when beefcattle walk or move on them. Any slips thatoccur during, or as a result of, confrontati-ons can bring the animals into a state ofchronic stress. Slippery floors can alsocause beef cattle to reduce their movement,grooming activities and mounting activi-ties. Movement difficulties can cause irre-gular hoof wearing and lameness.

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Chapter 2: Designing Facilities to Meet Animal Needs


avoid overgrowth of the hoof. It is im-portant to trim the claws as often as ne-cessary. Other surface injuries mainlyresult from aggressive behaviour, oftenaggravated by too little space beingprovided for submissive animals toescape and inadequate equipment de-sign. Emphasis on adequate dimen-sioning of all areas and on optimalequipment is therefore essential.Aggressive behaviour furthermorestrongly depends on the quality of herdmanagement, especially on the feedingregime and the ability of the herdsman.The dehorning of animals, especiallyof males, decreases the aggressive-ness, decreases the consequences ofaggressiveness and prevents animal in-juries caused by the horns. Dehorningdiminishes the danger for man duringanimal handling.

2.3 Environment and Health2.3.1 Air quality and ventilationIn well ventilated barns the air generallyis of good quality and is not the cause ofrespiratory diseases.In livestock buildings, animals are dense-ly stocked, floors may be covered withfaeces and urine, underfloor slatted tanksmay hold stored slurry and there can belarge quantities of dusty feed and bed-ding. As a consequence the air in thesebuildings heavily can be contaminatedwith inorganic dust, spores, moulds, bac-terial and viral organisms, gases, vapoursand other pollutants. Airborne particlesmay cause infections, al-lergies and otherresponses while gases and vapours maybe poisons, asphixiants, or irritants. The-se aerial pollutants may be very small orinvisible and may not smell; indeed onemay not know they exist. They are easilyinhaled.In cattle buildings, the most dramatic ef-fect of air pollution is seen in young cal-ves. These animals, with their immatureimmune systems, cannot resist the mas-sive challenge of airborne infectiousagents and serious respiratory problemsare common. Adult animals are more re-sistant and able to tolerate such aerialcontaminants. However, while adult ani-mals seldom exhibit clinical symptomsof respiratory disease, their productionperformance or general health statusmight be diminished. Little is known

2.2.5 Group size

In buildings the groups are made on ba-sis of sex (no males with females exceptfor reproductive purposes), age of ani-mals (bulls of the same age and weight,calves or heifers of the same age andweight), reproductive purposes (mothercows with their calves with or with-outa bull), diet, future of the animals (fatte-ning, breeding, ..), physiology status(pregnant cows, cull cows), ...To prevent disturbances with fatteningbulls (excitation, bellowing) and lowgrowing performance it is recommen-ded to house the bulls in a buildingwithout females.To prevent aggressiveness and negati-ve effects of hierarchy problems it isrecommended to regroup animal of thesame age in group of limited size (10to 12 bulls in the same pen, 12 to 16cows with their calves in the same pen,...). If the calves are with their mother,it is necessary to have a separated penaccessible only to calves: calvesshould be able to move freely or du-ring limited periods to their mother, notthe opposite.In practice, group size depends onmanagement factors such as herd super-vision and feeding. The formation by thefarmer of smaller groups within a herdis usually based on factors such as ageof the animals, weight, sex and diet.

2.2.6 HygieneEvery effort should be made to preventanimals from becoming dirty. It is mostimportant to keep the beef cattle lyingarea clean, which can be achieved by cor-rect design and by sufficient use of bed-ding material. If animals are dirty, theywill be uncomfortable, development of(ekto-)parasites in their coat could beincreased, heat losses could be increasedand their market value could be de-creased.The use of bedding and the frequency ofcleaning and adding new bedding areimportant for the hygiene of the lyingarea.Walking areas should also be kept rea-sonably dry and clean since any dirtpicked up on the hoof will be deposi-ted on the lying area and will soil theanimal. In addition, dirty hind legs maybe in contact with the udder when thesuckling cow is lying. A dirty udder cancause suckling problems with the cal-ves. Wet and dirty walking areas willalso reduce the durability of the hoofhorn and make the beef cattle suscep-tible to foot diseases.2.2.7 Animal injuriesIn loose housing two kinds of injuries arecommon: leg or claw injuries and othersurface injuries. Floors have to be desi-gned to prevent leg and claw injuries andto realise sufficient wear of the hoof to

Figure 2-1: Natural lying positions (according to SCHNITZER, 1971)

16 Report of the Section II


about such relationships, but it is clearthat amongst people working for prolon-ged periods in intensive animal buildingsthere is a high incidence of chronicrespiratory disease.In housing for beef cattle, air hygiene pro-blems are easy to solve. Because beefcattle can tolerate cold conditions, highventilation rates can be employed todilute and remove contaminated air frombuildings. However, very young calvescan require special measures to preventdiseases caused by low environmentaltemperature. If the calves are not nursing,it will be recommended to keep calvesapart of the cows e.g. outside the barn inhutches.Natural ventilation of buildings by windeffect allows air quality to be maintainedat a low economic cost.

2.3.2 Light

Illumination is important in housing, sin-ce animals need to see so they can beha-ve normally, e.g. move, feed, or lie. It isalso important for the stockman so he caninspect and care for the animals. Mini-mum levels of illumination (lux) are of-ten recommended for men carrying outroutine tasks and such illumination maybe provided by artificial or natural light.Because natural light is cheaper, it isrecommended often that an area oftranslucent material must be provided inthe roof or walls. If in the roof, a translu-cent area equivalent to 8 to 10 % of thefloor area is recommended. If in the walls,a translucent area 10 to 15 % of the floorarea is recommended. The exact areaswill be dictated by the location andorientation of the particular building withrespect to the sun, especially for buildingsfully occupied during the summer sea-son. In buildings with large areas of ope-

nings for ventilation, these alone maysuffice for natural lighting.For artificial illumination, one canrecommend 250 lux for calving, treat-ment and calf pens, and 150 lux for therest of the building (see table 10-1).Reproduction can be affected by light.Considerable evidence exists to show thatchanges in light intensity and day length,reflecting changes in season, affect the re-production of mammals. Allowing natu-ral daylight into buildings will allow beefcattle to recognise such change.Solar radiation (sunlight) directly impin-ging on animals can warm them in coldconditions but may contribute to heatstress in hot conditions. Direct sunlight,through the biochemical and thermaleffects of specific parts of its spectrum,can kill many biological organisms andhence promotes hygiene and health.Consequently, there are good reasons tomake provision for the entry of daylightand sunlight, except when shade isrequired in hot conditions, into cattlebuildings.

2.4 The HerdsmanThe welfare of beef cattle will beinfluenced by the treatment they recei-ve from the herdsman (man or woman).It is important that the presence ofhumans does not cause fright or indu-ce stress reactions. The good herdsmanwill adopt a caring, friendly and pre-dictable attitude towards his animals.

The herdsman will himself need goodfacilities to work with and will need tobe relieved of laborious and tedioustasks, if he himself is not to be frustra-ted or stressed. If the herdsman isstressed, his frustration will often be ven-ted on animals.

While a high level of mechanisation willlessen the burden on the herdsman, it canbe counter-productive. In highly mecha-nised housing systems, for example, theanimals may not regard the herdsman asthe one, who brings the food but as theone, who carries out veterinary treatmentsthat sometimes are painful for animals.In such situations it is important forherdsman to find other ways, in whichhis presence will elicit a positive respon-se from the animals.If animals are on pasture, the herdsmanwill have to visit his animals every dayto check the behaviour, the attitude andthe health of each animal, and to main-tain close contact with animals. He hasto check the availability and quality ofwater. If there is a bull with the cowsand the calves, he will have to take allthe needed measures to prevent unexpec-ted aggressiveness of the bull and also ofthe cows, which can act to protect thecalves.

2.5 SummaryBeef cattle should have:• freedom of movement• sufficient light for normal behaviour

and satisfactory inspection• sufficient water and feed to meet their

requirements• complexity and change in their envi-

ronment to avoid boredomIn loose housing systems :• dead end passages should be avoided• there should be enough lying places or

enough area for all animals• drinkers readily should be accessible,

unobstructed and regularly checked• floors should not be slippery and

should not cause excessive wearing

17

Chapter 3: Animals, Buildings and Equipment Dimensions

CIGR Design Recommendation for Beef Cattle Housing

Chapter 3Animals, Buildings and Equipment Dimensions

3.1 Body Dimensions ofCattle

3.1.1 Basic linear dimensions

Space requirements for basic behavioursof young stock e.g. lying, feed intake orwalking depend on body dimensions ofanimals. Size of animals is defined by thebasic measurements H = height at wit-hers, L = diagonal body length and W =width of chest according to Figure 3-1.

a variation from 1.17 - 1.34 m. The dif-ferences between breeds of equal weightshow a larger variation, e.g. a Simmentalheifer shows a minimum length of 1.14m and a Holstein Friesian heifer a maxi-mum length of 1.40 m. While the bestway to provide recommendations that canbe used for practical design work is tofind out the body dimensions by measu-ring some of the animals, agreed stan-dards can be adopted for practical pur-poses. Table 3-1 gives animal dimensi-ons of beef cattle that can be adapted forpractical design work, taking into accountthat designs should be based on the di-mensions of the larger animals in theherd.

or towards slurry tanks or channels bythe walking activities of the animals.Cubicle Housing - Male cattle depositurine beneath their body thus wetting thebedding material of cubicles. This factusually excludes male cattle from usingcubicle housing systems. Thus cubicle sy-stems are more suitable for female ani-mals. It is important that each animal isprovided with a reasonable clean, dry andresilient bed (upon which it can lie). Forfemale beef animals properly designed,constructed and maintained cubicles cansatisfy these requirements. Since cubiclehouses can work with much or with verylittle bedding material, they can produceeither solid manure or slurry. A disadvan-tage of the cubicle system is the inflexi-bility of the cubicles. Because of theirfixed dimensions they can’t take intoaccount the changing body size of theanimals.

3.2 Loose HousingBeef cattle for practical reasons are usual-ly kept at higher stocking density thancows. This can lead to reduced cleanli-ness, altered or aggressive behaviour anda higher risk of injury. Space availablefor bulls mostly is even more restrictedespecially in fully slatted floor pens. Whi-le the reduction of space for movementreduces fighting and mating behaviour,ethological sound systems avoid overcrowded pens.

3.2.1 Terminology

One area systems are housing systems(pens) without division of the whole areainto parts of different functions. All func-tions (lying, feeding, exercising, excre-ting) are carried out in one area. The floorcan be fully slatted or solid with or wit-hout bedding.

Two area systems consist of the lyingarea and one other area, with unrestric-ted access, that provides sufficient spacefor feeding and exercise.

Multiple area systems are those inwhich more than one area is provided forfeeding and exercise. Any of the areas

Figure 3-1: Body dimensions of cattle

3.1.2 Relationship between bodyweight, age and bodydimensions

When judging the space requirements ofstock, the age of the animal is often usedas the criteria for selecting dimensions.The animal’s estimated or measured bodyweight can also be used. As animal’s ageis always known and their live weight isoften known the relationship betweenage, body weight and body dimensionscould be used to determine space requi-rements for the animals to be housed.However, these relationships considerab-ly can vary between different breeds, dif-ferent production procedures and bet-ween individual animals of the samebreed. Accurate data of the body dimen-sions of beef cattle from all breeds arenot available. The results of measure-ments of the dimen-sions of Brown Swissheifers of different ages showed a widerange of dimensions, e.g. 300 kg heiferhad an average bodylength of 1.26 m and

Weight [kg] H [m] L [m] W [m]

200 1.09 1.17 0.34300 1.19 1.31 0.40400 1.27 1.42 0.46500 1.33 1.51 0.51600 1.38 1.59 0.55700 1.42 1.65 0.60

Table 3-1: CIGR Standard dimensionsof beef cattle related to body weight

In this section only loose housing isconsidered (because tied housing is notrecommended). Loose housing systemsprovide more comfort for both stock-men and animals and thus improve pro-ductivity and welfare. In loose housingusually animals of equal line of pro-duction and similar age are kept ingroups of at least four to five, usuallyup to twenty or, in large enterprises,even much more. Two major types ofsystems will be considered.

Loose Housing - Housing systems wi-thout cubicles provide an undividedlying area for all animals of a group. Itis possible to design two-area or mul-tiple area pens with littered lying areasor one area pens with deep bedding orwithout bedding. If no bedding is used,the pen floor will be designed as afully perforated “slatted” floor or al-ternatively as a sloped area towards thedung removal system, so that faecesand urine of the animals are moved into

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WORKING GROUP No 14


Minimum space requirements for beefcattleMinimum lying area (LA1) for beefcattle is given by equation (1).(1) minimum lying area for beef cattle in

pens with fully slatted concrete floorsand in two area sloped floor pens(figure 3-2b)

LA1 = 0.7 * (L + 0.8 * H) * HSpace requirements for straw yards andfor two area pens with bedded lyingareasLying areas in straw yards must be about20 % larger because of more scatteredlying patterns of animals compared tothose in sloped floor systems. The lyingarea for heifers should again be about 20% larger (broad lying positions, seeabove). Lying area for beef cattle in twoarea straw yards (figure 3-2b) and hei-fers in multiple area sloped floor systems(figure 3-2d) is given by equation (2).(2) for beef cattle in two area straw yards

and heifers in multiple area slopedfloor systems

LA2 = 0.83 * (L + 0.8 * H) * H

Lying area for heifers in multiple areastraw yards (figure 3-2a) or in two areasloped floor systems (figure 3-2c) isgiven by equation (3).(3) for heifers in multiple area straw

yards or in two area sloped floorsystems

LA3 = (L + 0.8 * H) * HThe minimum total space for cattle instraw yards, two- or multiple area penswith bedded lying areas again is basedon the individual body measurements(L, H & W) given above, the total areaper animal TA1 and TA2 in straw yardsand sloped floor systems, respectively,can be determined as values by practicalexperience from the following equations(4) and (5):(4) for beef cattle in two area systems and

heifers in multiple area systems (withoutside exercise yards)

TA1 = 5 * L * W(5) for beef cattle in one area straw yards

and for heifers in two area systems

TA2 = 6 * L * WTable 3-2 shows the calculated lying andtotal areas for different types of housing

Figure 3-2a and 3-2b: Three (a) and two (b) area straw yard systems

Figure 3-2c and 3-2d: Two (c) and three (d) area sloped floor systems

may be provided as uncovered outsideyard. The lying area is separated from theother function areas (figure 3-2a and3-2d).Straw yards are unobstructed beddedlying areas for a group of cattle. Beddingis spread on top of the floor, with little(≤ 2 %) or no gradient, and soiled bed-ding accumulates in a deep layer, whichis removed as necessary. To keep ani-mal clean 1 to 1,2 kg straw/m² day isrequired. Passages will be able to beslatted if the straw bedding is choppedor ground. The feeding area and theexercise yard could be divided (figure3-2a) or kept in one area (figure 3-2b).Sloped floors are unobstructed lyingareas for groups of cattle, that may bebedded or not (figure 3-2c and 3-2d).The floor has a gradient of 5 to 10 % andthe activity of the animals causes move-ment of bedding and/or manure down tothe bottom of the slope, where it is col-lected. Straw should be added daily tothe highest part of the sloped floor andthe cattle will spread it themselves. The

feeding area and the dunging alley couldalso be divided (figure 3-2d).

3.2.2 Space requirements forlying and movement inbedded system

The space for lying and rising is calcula-ted in accordance with the animal’s lengthand the distance required to swing itshead while rising, multiplied by the widthrequired for the animal to lie. Lyinglength without space for the head corre-sponds to body length (L). Additionalspace for rising can be calculated for beefcattle as 0,8 * H (20 % less than for cowsbecause of the young animal’s ability toadopt rising behaviour in more crowdedsituations and move more efficiently).Width of lying space for comfortablelying corresponds to cubicle width accor-ding to equation (8) i.e.0,83 * H for heifers. Beef cattle are usual-ly presumed to cope well enough witheven more crowded situations thus lyingwidth normally is reduced to small lyingpositions calculated as 0,7 * H.

19

Chapter 3: Animals, Buildings and Equipment Dimensions


systems based on the sizes of cattle (atdifferent weights) according to CIGRstandard dimensions of beef cattlerelated to body weight.

3.2.3 Novel slatted systemsA special type of flooring (for cattle) ischaracterised by a fully slatted floorpartly improved for the needs of lyinganimals by fitting lying area with rubbercoated slats. Lying area in such a pen isgiven by equation (6) and total spacerequired is given by equation (7).(6) lying area with rubber coated slats

LA4 = 0.55 * (L + 0.8 * H) * H(7) for cattle in two area fully slatted floor

pens with rubber coated slats withinthe lying areas

TA3 = 4.5 * L * W

Table 3-3 shows calculated lying and to-tal areas for cattle of different weights intwo area pens with fully slatted floors andrubber coating of slats within the lyingareas according equations (6) and (7).

3.3 Cubicle Housing

3.3.1 Design criteria

The space requirements of the animalswith respect to lying and rising consistsof :• the space from the rear of the animal

to the front of its fore knees

• space in front of the animal occupiedby its head

• the additional space necessary for thethrust of the animal’s head as it lungesforward during rising. About the samespace will be needed for the movementof the head during standing up.

Animals can gain sufficient space for themovement of the head by sharing thespace with neighbouring cubicles. Head-to-head cubicles offer the same opportu-nity to use the opposite cubicle to gainlunge space, provided that the fronts ofthe cubicles are properly designed (po-sition of head rail). Cubicle partitionshould have the following three unob-structed (open) area zones (see figure3-3):• (i) head zone (space sharing for lunge

during rising and lying down)• (ii)zone for controlling lying position;

it must be small enough to prevent fromlying under the partition, but cx largeenough to avoid trapping legs

• (iii) zone for pelvis freedom; preven-ting injury to leg joints and hips andnecessary for broad lying positionswith hind legs stretched off from thebody.

Cubicles should be provided with somemeans to make the floor comfortable forthe animals. Satisfying materials are e.g.grained or chopped straw, wood chips orsuitable comfort matting. For keepingyoung animals in cubicle houses it isimportant to have small groups.Major features of cubicle design are ful-ly covered in the CIGR dairy cowhousing handbook.

3.3.2 Basic cubicle dimensions

The following cubicle dimensions arerelated to the animals’ body dimensions,L and H (in metres) .

Width of Cubicles (CW)

This is calculated from equation (8)below and represents the distance bet-ween the centres of cubicle partitions.(8) 0,85 * H

Cubicle Resting Length (CR)

This is calculated from equation (9)below.(9) CR = 0.95 * L + 0.15

The additional 0.15 considers themanoeuvring space the animal requiresto make postural changes when lying.

Head Space (HS)

This is the space required for the headand lunging forward (head-to-head spacesharing cubicles) or to the side (side-to-side space sharing cubicles) while risingand lying down.(10) HS = 0.35 * H

Overall Cubicle Length (CL)

This is an important value in the designof cattle housing. It is obtained byadding the values of CR to the values ofHS according to equation (11). Equation(11) is used for space sharing cubiclesand equation (12) for non space sharing

(11) CL1 = 0.95 * L + 0.32 * H + 0.15(Space sharing)

(12) CL2 = 0.95 * L + 0.56 * H + 0.15(Non space sharing)

Figure 3-3: Three zones of freedom incubicles

Animals Body size [m] Lying and total area accordingWeight equation (6) and (7) [m2/animal]

[kg] H L W LA4 TA3

200 1.09 1.17 0.34 1.25 1.80300 1.19 1.31 0.40 1.50 2.35400 1.27 1.42 0.46 1.70 2.90500 1.33 1.51 0.51 1.90 3.45600 1.38 1.59 0.55 2.05 3.90

Table 3-3: Minimum lying and miniumum total areas for cattle of different weightsin two area pens with fully slatted floors and rubber coating of slats within thelying areas

Weight Body size [m] Lying- and total pen areas according equations[kg] (5) to (9) [m2/animal]

H L W LA1 LA2 LA3 TA1 TA2

200 1.09 1.17 0.34 1.55 1.85 2.25 2.00 2.40300 1.19 1.31 0.40 1.90 2.25 2.70 2.65 3.15400 1.27 1.42 0.46 2.20 2.60 3.10 3.30 3.90500 1.33 1.51 0.51 2.40 2.85 3.45 3.85 4,60600 1.38 1.59 0.55 2.60 3.10 3.70 4.40 5.25700 1.42 1.65 0.60 2.77 3.28 3.96 4.95 5.94

Table 3-2: Minimum lying and minimum total areas as determined for beef andbreeding cattle of different weights from equations (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5)

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WORKING GROUP No 14


Typical Cubical Sizes (CIGRstandard)Table 3-4 shows calculated examples forfive different weights of heifers andsuckling cows.

3.4 Spatial Requirementsfor Passages

In cubicle and in non-cubicle housingpassages connect different areas (resting,feeding, watering, collecting, exerciseetc.). The minimum height of any passa-ge (PH) required by the animals is givenby equation (13) below. „H“ must bechosen from the largest animals held inthe group. However, in practice, theheight will be dictated by the use of thepassage and needs to be accommodatedto vehicles and other equipment used forcleaning the passages, delivery of foodetc.

(13) PH = H + 0.2Passages to accommodate typical situa-tions and their sizing, in terms of passa-ge width (WP), are considered below.(a) One way (Single) traffic passagesIn some cases these passages lead to andfrom the handling area and treatment and/or weighing facilities and to exerciseyards or pasture. The minimum widthrequired depends on the body width ofthe animals plus a minimum clearance forcirculation. On this basis the minimumone way passage width (WPa) is givenby equation (14).(14) WPa = 1.60 * W [One way passa-

ges](b) Two way traffic passagesThese passages, often between two walls,two rows of cubicles or between a rowof cubicles and a wall, serve no other

function than to allow circulation of ani-mals along them. The minimum width ofsuch passages (WPb) is given by Equati-on (15).(15) WPb = 3.8 * W [Two way passage] (c) Single sided feeding and/or wate-

ring passagesAs well as allowing circulation of theanimals these passages also function asa feeding and/or watering area along oneside. The minimum width (WPc) of suchpassages is given by equation (16).(16) WPc = L + 2.5 * W [Single sided

feed/water passage]

(d) Double sided feed/water passagesThese passages are similar to (c) but fee-ding and/or watering takes place on bothsides of the passage. The minimum width(WPd) of such passages is given by equa-tion (17).(17) WPd = 2 * L + 1.4 * W [Double

sided feed/water passage]Table 3-5 shows width of passages forcattle of different weight (CIGR stan-dard) according to equations (14), (15),(16) and (17).Passages in Loose HousingIn loose housing systems, submissiveanimals can usually avoid agonistic con-tacts in passageways by moving asideonto the bedded area. Consequently thewidth of passages adjacent to beddedareas or sloped floors can be reduced.However the reduction in passage widthshould not be more than 20 % of the re-commended widths shown above and theoverall system area (TA) should not bereduced.

Weight Animal data Cubicle data[kg] L [m] H [m] CW [m] CR [m] HS [m] CL1 [m]

500 1.51 1.33 1.13 1.58 0.47 2.01600 1.59 1.38 1.17 1.66 0.48 2.10700 1.65 1.42 1.21 1.72 0.50 2.17

Table 3-4: Cubicle width (CW), cubicle resting length (CR), head space (HS)and cubicle length (CL1) according to body dimensions and equation (11) forspace sharing cubicles for heifers and suckling cows.

Animal Animal size Width of passagesweight L W WPa WPb WPc WPd

[kg] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m] [m]

200 1.17 0.34 0.54 1.30 2.00 2.80300 1.31 0.40 0.64 1.50 2.30 3.20400 1.42 0.46 0.74 1.75 2.60 3.50500 1.51 0.51 0.82 1.95 2.80 3.75600 1.59 0.55 0.88 2.10 3.00 3.95

Table 3-5: Width of passages for cattle of different weight (CIGR standard)according Equations (14) to (17)

21

Chapter4: Floors and Walking Surfaces

CIGR Recommendations for Beef Cattle Housing

Chapter 4Floors and Walking Surfaces

4.1 Introduction

The floor surface provides the interfacebetween the animal and the house and itis of critical importance to the satisfac-tory performance of the facility as it isthe part of the building, with which theanimal comes into closest and conti-nuous contact. Floors are multifunctio-nal elements and this can lead to somecompromises in their design. The floormust be strong enough to support allthe loads from animals and equipmentwhere applicable. In the case of theslatted floor the gap width should belimited to prevent hoof damage but therequirement for efficient drainage willimpose minimum requirements on gapdimensions. Surfaces that are too roughcan cause abrasions and a rapid wearof animal hooves. A surface, which istoo slippery or which has too large aslope can cause injury resulting fromfalling or reduce the frequency ofanimal movement so affecting naturalbehaviour. Other factors such asenvironmental policies must also beconsidered e.g. the necessity tocontrol ammonia emissions from live-stock houses is influencing new floordesigns in some countries.

4.2 Floor TypesDifferent functional areas can be identi-fied in animal accommodation facilitiesincluding feeding areas, resting areas andcattle traffic routes. Specific floor designsmay be selected for the differentfunctional areas e.g. solid unbeddedfeeding passage combined with a strawbedded resting or loafing area.However, floor systems used in beefcattle houses can be broadly classifiedinto two main types:

• solid, unperforated floors that are laiddirectly on the ground

• floors that are suspended abovetanks or channels and which are per-forated to assist in the drainage ofliquids and the passage of faecalmaterial.

Of the solid floors, those constructed ofconcrete are the most common and solidfloors are typically provided with bed-ding material. For the suspended floors,reinforced concrete is the most commonmaterial in use. Pre-cast concrete slatsabove a slurry pit or channel are the com-monest types of suspended floor design.

4.3 Structural Require-ments

When specifying floors for beef cattlehouses the designer must take into ac-count a range of factors e.g. the loadingsimposed by animals and equipment, theability to provide a non-slip surface, themethod of cleaning to be used, whetherbedding material is available etc. Whereconcrete is used either as a solid cast in-situ floor or as part of a pre-cast floorelement, the aggressive nature of the en-vironment imposed on the floor surfaceresulting from the chemical compositionof manure and feed residues places extrademands on the quality of materials used.In addition the mechanical impact of cle-aning systems can place extra loadingsof the structure. In response to the speci-al structural demands placed of floor sys-tems several countries have developednational standards for the specificationof floor construction for use in cattle hou-sing. These standards cover issues suchas structural detailing and constructionpractice, reinforcement specification andconcrete quality.

4.4 Animal Floor InterfaceMany ailments in animals are multi-factorial in nature and the floor can beconsidered to be amongst the causalfactors contributing to problems asso-ciated with the health of the feet andlegs of beef cattle.Flooring can contribute directly, throughits physical properties, or indirectly, forexample, by allowing (because of poordrainage) disease vectors to be harbou-red on the floor surface. Hoof disordersin cattle have been linked with the fre-quency of contact with faeces and urine.

However, the predominant effect isthrough the floor’s ability to causephysical injury through the destruction ofthe physical structure of tissue to thedetriment of its functioning or by bone,muscle or ligament damage caused by theanimal slipping.These effect sprimarily will be related tothe important floor properties of friction,hardness (or softness), abrasive-ness,surface texture (roughness) and surfaceprofile (slope).

4.4.1 Friction

This is measure of the friction betweentwo surfaces, the higher the value thegreater the slip resistance. Normally twocoefficients of friction are considered -static coefficient of friction when thebody (foot) is at rest and kinetic coef-ficient of friction when the body (foot)is moving. These coefficients aredefined as follows:Static coefficient of friction, µs

= the ratio of the resultant friction force(Fs) to the normal reaction (N) whenslip is imminent

Kinetic coefficient of friction, µk

= the ratio of the resultant frictionalforce in the plane of the interface (Fk)to the normal reaction (N) requiredto maintain a slip at a given velocity.

The ratio between the horizontal andvertical forces on the hoof, when a cowwalks, is between 1:2 and 1:3 and this inturn means that a coefficient of frictionof 0.33 – 0.5 is required. For hard mate-rials the static coefficient of friction, µs,is accepted as being greater than thedynamic coefficient of friction, µk.However, for elastic and visco-elasticmaterials, like rubber, the opposite istrue. Indeed the interaction between thehoof and the floor is complicated by thefact that the animal’s hoofs are flexibleand they act more like an elastomer. Forthe interaction between a hoof and a floorit has been shown that kinetic coefficientof friction µk is the more relevantindicator of slip resistance of livestockfloors.

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WORKING GROUP No 14

Report of the Section II

4.4.2 Hardness

The hardness of floor materials may beunavoidable, if they are to perform otherfunctions such as load bearing, resistanceto corrosion and damage while beingpractical and economic in use. Hardness,per se, is not a problem. It is its associa-tion with other factors, such as high voidratios in slatted floors, which can increa-se the pressure on feet or other parts ofthe body, or slipperiness that causesproblems. The covering of slats withmaterials providing a soft contact surfacecan be considered to alleviate the pro-blem. In the case of solid floors the useof sufficient bedding material improvesthe animal floor interface. Where beddingmaterial is not available or practical touse the fitting of appropriate mats can beconsidered.

4.4.3 Abrasiveness

All floors made of conventional materi-als will be abrasive to some extent. Inde-ed for most hoofed animals, floors needto be abrasive to keep the hoof in goodcondition and prevent over growth.However, floors that are too abrasive canlead to abrasion injury to those parts ofthe body that come into contact with thefloor, particularly knees, hocks andteats.

4.4.4 Surface texture(roughness)

The surface texture of the floor is a com-plex measure that dictates its anti-skidperformance. Occupational safety studiesconcerned with surface textures in thehuman working environment haveidentified two types of roughness vital toskid-resistance:• micro-roughness• macro-roughnessMicro-roughness covers all features lessthan 0.5mm in a horizontal direction pro-viding a safe frictional connection bet-ween the hoof and the surface. In con-crete, micro-roughness is a function ofthe surface roughness of both the aggre-gates and the surface mortar. It is redu-ced over time by the grinding and poli-shing action of mechanical cleaningequipment and animal movements butthese effects can be counteracted by usingconcretes with high strength and coarse

and fine aggregates with a high polishingresistance. Macro-roughness coverssurface features greater than 0.5mm andthe provision of adequate macro-rough-ness is necessary to establish a safefrictional connection between the hoofand the floor when the surface is soiledor wet. Anti-skid performance is parti-cularly improved by features with amaximum size of 10mm. Macro-rough-ness in animal housing floors can beproduced by making impressions in thefresh concrete or by milling/cutting thefloor when the concrete has hardened.

Animal’s hoofs deform when they slideover a rigid surface. This deformationmeans that hoof deforms around irregu-larities in the floor surface, giving rise toa total friction made up of two compon-ents. The first is the adhesion componentof friction between the hoof and thesurface and the second due to the delay-ed recovery, hysteresis, of the hoof afterbeing deformed by an irregularity.

On dry concrete floors, there is someconflict about whether it is smooth orrough surfaces that give the best slip re-sistance. However, since livestock floors,particularly those over which they aremoving, are very likely to be wet, thenthis of little consequence. Wet floors areeffectively covered in a lubricant that islikely to make adhesion component verysmall.

Thus it is the hysteresis component thatmust be relied upon to give grip. On asmooth surface, a film of liquid (slurryor water) lies on the surface and the hoofcannot come into contact with the floorso slipping occurs. If the surface has atexture or grooves that allow this liquidfilm to be squeezed away, rapidly, thenthe hoof will come into contact with thefloor before a slip occurs. These effectsare analogous with smooth tyres andaquaplaning in a motor car.

A roughened surface, whilst it mayallow rapid dispersal of the liquid film,may provide only a small hoof/floor con-tact area. This can lead to excessive con-tact pressure and in extreme casespuncturing of the sole of the foot. A sur-face with appropriate grooving, whichallows rapid liquid drainage and provi-des hysteresis as the foot contacts thegroove, is a more acceptable solution.

This is analogous to the tread in a cartyre.

4.4.5 Surface profileWhile surface profile has been used inthe past by others to describe some ofthe mechanisms affecting slip alreadyconsidered above in the context of thisexercise surface profile is taken as des-cribing the slope or gradient of the floor.

Slope will have obvious effects on drai-nage from the floor, on floor cleanlinessand on the comfort of animals standing,walking and lying on the floor. Steep slo-pes will obviously allow liquids to drainrapidly from the floor and might provean aid to cleanliness by ensuring that soi-led bedding “flows” down the slope.However, animals may not be able tostand, walk or lie comfortably on steepslopes.Floor slopes in passageways should notexceed 1:40 (2,5 %). In pens where ani-mals lie the slope used will depend onthe type of bedding and manure manage-ment system utilised. In sloped floor sy-stems, which rely of the movement ofanimals to transfer soiled bedding to themanure collection area slopes of 1:10(10 %) are required. In facilities wherestraw remains in the pen a slope of 1:20(5 %) will ensure extraneous liquid isdrained to appropriate channels.

4.5 Flooring MaterialsAll materials used in the construction offloors should be non-toxic to cattle andbe resistant to or protected against:

• chemical attack and deterioration• climatic conditions, e.g. extremes of

temperature, frost, solar radiation• the effects of pressure washers, etc.• the effects of gnawing, digging or other

animal behaviours

Concrete is the predominant materialused for floor construction with the ma-terial being in direct contact with the ani-mals where the floor is slatted or no bed-ding material is used.

4.5.1 Solid concrete floorsConcrete used for floors in cattle housesmust be designed to be cater for the loadsimposed by the animals and vehicles,which are used during feeding and clea-

23

Chapter 4: Floors and Walking Surfaces


ning operations. The surfaces must beresistant to mechanical damage (abrasi-on, chipping etc.) and chemical attack(manure, feed residues, cleaning chemi-cals and disinfectants). The floor mustprovide an impermeable barrier to ensu-re the safe collection of any effluents pro-duced. There are various national stan-dards regarding the specification of con-cretes for use in the floors of cattle buil-dings. Typically these specify concreteswith a characteristic 28 day crushingstrength of 30N/mm2 with a minimum ce-ment content of 280kg/m3 and a maxi-mum aggregate size of 20mm. Where theconcrete may come in contact with sila-ge effluent the 28 day crushing strengthrequirement is increased to 40 N/mm2

and the minimum cement content incre-ased to 350kg/m3. The concrete floorshould be provided with mesh reinforce-ment and appropriate movement (expan-sion and contraction) joints in accordancewith national standards. Floors in areasused by vehicles should not be less than150 mm thick. Where access is limitedto animals the minimum can be reducedto 100 mm but this would not be ageneral recommendation as the use ofthe floor may change.Where bedding material is provided theactual animal interface with the floor is

modified and the comfort and slip resi-stance characteristics are those of thebedding material. Where animals havedirect contact with the surface therecommendations provided in CIGRDesign Recommendations for Dairy CowHousing should be followed. In order toprovide slip resistance for cattle walkingin all directions and to eliminate the riskof high pressure on the hoof, groovesshould be formed in the solid concreteprior to setting in a pattern of rhomb with80 mm sides as shown in Figure 4-1. Ifthis cannot be achieved then parallelgrooves spaced at 40 mm between cen-tres should be used. If the direction inwhich the cattle are likely to be walkingis known then the grooves should run atright angles to this as shown in Figure 4-2. In all cases the grooves should be 10mm wide and at least 6 mm deep.

4.5.2 Slatted floorsIn areas where bedding material is notreadily available combined with the needto reduce labour demands and thenecessity to ensure manure is efficientlycollected and safely stored has encoura-ged the development of beef cattlehousing systems using slatted floorssuspended over manure storage tanks ortransfer channels.Slat design has improved and modernfacilities are using multi-rib or “gang”slats rather than the single slats that wereused in the original units. The resultingfloors are more uniform level and provi-de a potentially better surface in termsof comfort for the animal. The length ofslatted elements provided by manufac-turers has increased over time and unitsare now available up to 4.8 m long.There are variations within the range ofslat types produced by different manu-facturers in terms of void ratio and this

will also influence the comfort aspect ofthe animal floor interface as well as thedrainage characteristics and cleanlinessof the animal. The latter is also influencedby feed type and the ventilationsystem used of the building. Thenominal void ratio of different slats ispresented in Table 4-1.Several nations have developed standardsfor the design and manufacture of conc-rete slats for cattle houses e.g. BritishStandard, BS 5502; Irish Standard IS249. Work is underway to establish anagreed European Standard - Precast Con-crete Floor Slats for Livestock. This stan-dard classifies slats according to the typeof housed stock and load classes are gi-ven according to the animal mass. Re-quirements are formulated for concretemix components and concrete strength,size and position of reinforcement, floorslat geometry, surface characteristics andmechanical strength. As regards durabi-lity, the demands are that the water/ce-ment ratio of the concrete should be nomore than 0.45 and the cement contentshould be no less than 350 kg/m3 at a con-crete cover < 40 mm and 300 kg/m3 at aconcrete cover > 40 mm. The water ab-sorption of the concrete (5% quartile)should not exceed 6 % by mass. The con-crete cover to be applied on the outerreinforcement should be at least 30 mmfor reinforced concrete components and40 mm for prestressed concrete compo-nents. This value can be reduced by 5mm, if the maximum aggregate particlesize does not exceed 20 mm. These stan-dards are still at a draft stage and are infact exceeded by some present nationalstandards which are presently in place.In some building designs slatted floorsare located in areas, which are also ac-cessible to tractors and other vehicles.Special heavy duty slats must be provi-

Figure 4-1: Grooves in diamond pattern

Rib/gap 125/25 125/30 125/35 125/40 125/45(Void ratio) (17) (19) (22) (24) (27)

135/25 135/30 135/35 135/40 135/45(16) (18) (21) (23) (25)

145/25 145/30 145/35 145/40 145/45(15) (17) (19) (22) (24)

150/25 150/30 150/35 150/40 150/45(14) (17) (19) (21) (23)

170/25 170/30 170/35 170/40 170/45(13) (15) (17) (19) (21)

Table 4-1: Free area of different slat (rib and gap dimensions in mm)

Figure 4-2: Grooves in parallel

Dire

ctio

n of

mov

emen

t

24

WORKING GROUP No 14


ded in these areas to cater for the axleloadings involved.The dimensions shown below are derivedfrom a number of national standardsincluding BS 5502: Part 51.This standard gives further detailsincluding structural considerations, tole-rances and opening details for thesetypes of floors.The definition of the terms used in thefollowing tables are as follows:Preferred Widththe width of a single slat or solid portionbetween voids in multi-rib slats (a panelconsisting of parallel slats).Spacingthe clear distance between solid portionsof slats. The minimum and maximumfigures in the range shown, indicated theshortest and longest distances (measuredacross any shape of void).Void Ratiothe unobstructed floor area through whichwaste can pass expressed as a percenta-ge of the total floor area.Table 4-2 shows dimensions recommen-ded for cattle floors. These floors areusually in the form of single or multi-ribslats.The use of fully slatted floors for certainanimals is limited or not recommended

in some animal welfare codes, e.g. total-ly slatted floors should not be used forcalving cows, cows with young calves orcalves of less than 4 weeks of age. Ma-nufacturers have developed slat coveringsystems where soft materials are fitted tothe slat ribs to improve the animal floorinterface. These products have beenshown to be beneficial when used in ful-ly slatted pens for beef animals with theimproved comfort provided to the ani-mals leading to improved performance.Concerns regarding the emission of am-monia emissions from cattle buildingshave led to the development of somenovel floor systems. One such design -“grooved floor system” has been de-veloped in The Netherlands and is usedat present for walking areas in dairy cowfacilities. The grooved floor system con-sists of solid level pre-cast concrete ele-ments covering a manure pit. The flooris scraped with a mechanical scraper. Thetop surface of the floor consists of a se-ries of parallel grooves 35 mm wide and30 mm deep and placed at 160 mm cen-

Figure 4-3: Slatted floor

type of animal preferred width spacing “S” void ratiomm mm %

Calves and young stock > 200kg 80-120 20-30 18-25

Beef animals > 550kg 100-160 30-40 18-25

Table 4-2: Dimensions of slatted floors for cattle

tre to centre. The width of the solid flatarea (i.e. area between the grooves) is 125mm, which is similar to the rib width of aslatted floor. The floor elements are 1.1m long and the adjacent edges of the ab-utted elements are tapered, which formsa self-discharging perforation at the baseof the grooves for the urine deposited onthe floor (total area of perforations is <0.5 % of floor area). The faeces is remo-ved by a mechanical scraper to an ope-ning at the end of the passageway. Toensure the grooves remain clean and toprevent the perforations becoming clog-ged, the blade of the scraper is fitted witha tooth shaped rubber strip.

25

Chapter 5:Facilities for Feeding and Drinking


Chapter 5Facilities for Feeding and Drinking

5.1 IntroductionThe following dimensions apply toloose housing systems, which permitindoor feeding so cattle can eat regard-less of the weather. Maximum perfor-mance, particularly of heavier animals,can only be achieved by providing un-restricted access to the fodder, the avai-lability of enough feed over the wholeday of adequate quality according to typeof animal, weight and production targets.Welfare aspects have also to be conside-red. Stronger animals can disturbweaker ones in an aggressive way by in-hibiting them from eating or drinking. Amore or less unrestricted access to thefeed should be possible for the hierarchi-cally lower animals. Furthermore, it hasto be considered that cattle are spendingat the manger about six hours a day.Abnormal body posture of cattle duringfeeding can cause damage to legs, shoul-der, neck and so on.Feed handling is strenuous physical workfor farmers and employees, both regar-ding working time requirement andergonomic aspects. The buildingdimensions should offer enough spacefor the required feed processing equip-ment, feed transport equipment and freeaccess to storage places.

5.2 Feed Manger SpaceFeeding management determines feedmanger space requirement and two dif-ferent feeding management systems areto identify:Limited feeding:With limited feeding, one feeding placefor each animal is required. This invol-ves the provision of adequate feed man-gers, allowing large volumes of feed (once-daily feeding) or frequently pushing thefodder against animal in flat alley. Thespace requirement of the manger dependson the age and weight of the animal.Unrestricted feeding:When feeding is available all the time,design can be based up to three animalsfor each feeding space, depending uponlocal animal welfare regulations. At a fee-ding place/animal ratio less than 1, feed

must be offered ad libitum, in a constantquality and - as recommended - provided se-veral times per day in form of feed mixtures.The feed manger space requirements forone animal depends on the chosen feedingsystem, the age and weight of the cattle andtheir production intensity (Table 5-1).

5.2.1 Feed barrier dimensions

The feed barrier dimensions must allowan easy access to fodder and a naturalfeeding behavior of the animal. Feedingbarrier dimensions vary according to ani-mal weight (Figure 5-1, Table 5-2).

5.2.2 Manger designThe usual manger type - feeding table -has a flat feed surface. One disadvan-tage is that the feed can be pushed awayby the animals during feeding and mustbe brought back regularly into theirreach. In smaller herds, this is done ma-nually, for larger stock numbers it paysto use mechanical equipment (front- orrear mounted brushes, rotors, etc.). The-re is a range of acid proof coverings toprotect the manger surface from corro-sion e.g. plastic shells, stoneware shells,polyester-based coatings, stainless steel.

Weight Age Feed manger space requirements for one animal (m)(kg) (Months) restricted Unrestricted feeding

feeding Feeding place/animal-ratio1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

200 6-8 0,45 0.30 0.23 0.18 0.15300 9-11 0,50 0.33 0.25 0.20 0.17400 12-14 0,60 0.40 0.30 0.24 0.20500 15-19 0,70 0.47 0.35 0.28 0.23

700 1) 20-24 0,75 0.53 0.40 0.32 0.27900 1) 25-30 0.75 0.57 0.43 0.34 0.28

Table 5-1: Feed manger space requirements

Weight (kg) see Fig. 5-1 Neck railheight (Fig. 5-1)

A B 2) C x F 3) G

200 > 0,10 0,40 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,40 0.74300 > 0,10 0,45 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,50 0.84400 > 0,10 0,50 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,55 0.92500 > 0,10 0,55 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,60 1.00700 1) > 0,10 0,60 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,70 1.10900 1) > 0,10 0,65 > 0,15 0-0,3 0,75 1.15

1) suckling cows, 2) max. value, 3) min. value

Table 5-2: Feed manger and feed barrier dimensions (in m)

Figure 5-1: Feed manger dimensions

26

WORKING GROUP No 14


very of the ration and reduce feed wasta-ge and working time.

5.2.3 Feed barrier designsA frequently used feed barrier is thetombstone barrier. They are cost-effecti-ve and suitable for self-construction be-cause of the use of wood. Also diagonalbar barriers are used (unsuited for hor-ned animals). In tombstone barriers, thespaces between the bars are determinedby the neck dimensions (Figure 5-4, Ta-ble 5-3, „D“), in diagonal bar barriersby the head dimensions (Figure 5-5, Ta-ble 5-3, „E“). The simple neck rail hasto be fixed at the correct height (Fig. 1).The simpliest means of restraining ani-mals is the neck rail. It must prevent ani-mals from moving too far forward with-out hindering them in feeding.Self-locking barriers are unusual in cattlefattening, because they are expensive andsusceptible to trouble due to movableparts. However, they are often used forsuckling cows.Where a passage cannot be provided inthe rear of the pen, the feed barrier mustbe removable for moving the animalsacross the feeding area. For easy accessto the pen a special personnel entryshould be installed.

5.3 Feed Alley DesignThe feed alley and access dimensions aredetermined by the kind of mechanisedfeeding system used. The alley dimen-sions must be large enough for passingwith different equipment:1. Transporting of feed using a two-wheeled trailer or blockcutter and manualfeed distribution (Figure 5-2).2. Transporting and distribution of feedusing a mixer wagon (self-propelled ortractor-trailed). The turning radius playsan important role especially in trailedsystems (Figure 5-6).3. Feed conveyor (Figure 5-3): Whenusing a feed conveyor, the required widthis determined by the manger depth (Fi-gure 5-1, Table 5-2, Pos. „F“).

5.4 Self-feeding FacilitiesThe importance of self-feeding systemsis decreasing. Two different systems arepossible: self-feeding of silage (e.g. mai-ze silage) accounting for a substantialpart of the ration, or the use of hay fee-ders for supplementary feeding of roug-hage (hay, straw) inside the building oron the pasture.

Figure 5-6: Turning radius from trac-tor with mixer wagon are important

Figure 5-2: Feed alley dimension for tractors, block-cutter, mixer wagon

Figure 5-5: Feed barrier with diagonalbar

B

E

Mechanical devices such as feed con-veyors and flexible mangers (adjustabletarpulin or sheet) help optimize the deli-

Figure 5-4: Feed barrier with tombsto-ne

D

Weight see see(kg) Fig. 5-4 Fig. 5-5

D E1)

200 0,14 0,20300 0,18 0,22400 0,2 0,25500 0,23 0,28700 0,25 0,30900 0,27 0,32

1) hornless animals

Table 5-3: Head space dimension fortombstone and diagonal feed barrier(m)

Figure 5-3: Feed alley dimension for feed conveyor

27

Chapter 5: Facilities for Feeding and Drinking


5.4.1 Self-feeding in horizontalsilos

The height of the silage pile must notexceed the animals’ reach (approx. 1.80m). The silo width depends on the groupsize of the animals. A range of barrierdesigns are used in practice to restrainthe animals.Unrestricted access to silage allows morethan one animal to be kept per feedingplace. Individual concentrate distributionbeing impossible, this system is recom-mended only for extensive fattening.

5.4.2 Hay feeders

Hay feeders are suited for supplementa-ry feeding of roughage in intensive fatte-ning or grazing systems. A variety of fee-ding racks are available on the market (Fi-gure5-7). The feeding place width is de-termined by the animal weight. Feedersmust be large enough to hold big bales.

5.5 Drinking FacilitiesBeef cattle must have free access to water,both indoor and on the pasture. Water re-quirements depend on the animal weight,

the dry matter content of the ration and theambient temperature (Figure 5-8).

In general the requirements are as follows• Drinker designs must take into account

the cow’s natural drinking position, i.e.they must allow the animals to immer-se their muzzles a few centimeters inthe water.

• Drinkers must be at least 0.1 m deep.Diameter of the bowl: 0.25 m. Watershould be supplied at a minimum wa-ter flow rate of 8 l/min.

• Since beef fattening is performed main-ly in cold housing systems, the drin-kers and supply pipes must be protec-ted from frost.

• When using drinking facilities onpastures the natural subsoil must bestabilized and drained in order toprevent waterlogging.

5.5.1 Number and location ofdrinkers

One water bowl per 10 animals, onewater trough per 15-20 animals.2 drinkers for each groupHeight above the floor: > 0.55 m.Drinkers should not be located in themanger area, but in a separate area of thefattening pen.Integration of the drinker in the partitionbetween adjacent pens allows two groupsof animals to be watered with the samedrinker.For bigger groups it is recommendedto adapt the size of the water troughs.Enough space around the drinking placeshould be provided.

5.5.2 Drinker types

Water troughs: The recommendedwidth and depth are 0.40 m each. Thelength depends on the group size and thetype of trough and should be at least 0.40m. The trough should allow easycleaning (inlet nozzle, water stop valve).A distance barrier helps reduce soilingof the trough.

Ball drinkers: The container is made ofa sandwich-wall. A float is used tocontrol the inside water level. Thesupply pipe is placed sufficiently belowthe ground surface and the ascendingpipe is insulated in order to prevent free-

zing. The water quality has to be cont-rolled regularly. This type of drinker isnot recommended in cattle fattening.Water bowls: Water bowls are general-ly made of cast iron with a corrosion-resistant inside coating. Water issupplied by pushing down the trigger. Theinflow rate can be adapted to a givenwater pressure by varying the inlet nozzlesize. Water inflow rates of up to 20 l/minare possible. Electric heating of the sup-ply pipe, valve, and bowl ensures func-tioning at temperatures as low as -25 °C.Nipple drinkers: These are not recom-mended for ruminant because they do notallow a drinking style appropriate to thisspecies. Reduced water intake and falsebehavior such as urine drinking willresult.

5.5.3 Frost-proof water supplyIn cold and open housing systems, thewater-supply pipe of the drinker must alsobe functional during winter. This can beassured by the following three methods:1.Laying of the water-supply pipe in a

frost-proof area, depending on clima-tic conditions (location of the housingsystem), at approximately 0.50 to 1.00m deep. For a failure-free operation, theconnections to the drinkers (watertrough, drinking bowl) must be heatedand/or insulated (according to theclimatic conditions and flow rate).

2.Wrapping the supply pipe by means ofa heating cable and insulating materi-al. The heating cable assures a mini-mal water temperature. The heatingcapacity is automatically regulatedaccording to outdoor temperature. Inthe area where the animals stay, theheating cable and insulation have to beprotected against damage.

3.Connecting the drinker to a closedcircuit. The temperature sensor recordsthe water temperature. If it dropsbelow a certain reference value, thecirculating pump will produce a cycle.If the value continues to decrease, i.e.below the reference value in thetemperature range of freezing, thewater within the circuit will beheated by a water heater. In additi-on, it must be assured that the wa-ter-supply pipes outside the circuitdo not freeze (accompanying heatingsystem, insulation).

Figure 5-7: Hay feeders

Figure 5-8: Water requirement

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WORKING GROUP No 14


29

Chapter 6: Ventilation (Environmental Control) of Livestock Barns


Chapter 6Ventilation (Environmental Control) of Livestock Barns

6.1 IntroductionBeef animals will well perform over awide range of air temperatures if properconsideration is given to their surroun-dings. In cold weather, young calves andolder cattle alike will be able to adapt tovery low temperatures if a deep and drylitter is provided along with abundantfresh air without excessive draughts andhigh humidity. In hot weather, shade andfresh air help to avoid excessive tempe-ratures that lead to heat stress. Rapidly-moving fresh air (1-3 m/s) over the bodyof the animal increases the rate of con-vective heat transfer to the ambient air.

6.2 VentilationVentilation - directly and indirectly - im-pacts many aspects of animal health.Good ventilation assures that animalsbreathe quality air, important to respira-tory health. Good ventilation helps tokeep bedding dry, a factor in favor ofgood animal health. Good ventilationalong alleys helps to keep walking sur-faces dry, a condition that contributes tohealthy feet. Good ventilation may leadto greater productivity; e.g., maintainingair movement in the area of the feed man-ger makes the cattle more comfortable,especially important during hot weatheras an aid to maintaining dry matter in-take. A comfortable, well-ventilated stallarea encourages animals to lie down, animportant contribution to many aspectsof animal health.The ventilation process brings outside airinto the barn where it collects moisture,heat and other contaminants. Air is thenexhausted to the outside. Ventilation isan air exchange process - contaminatedair inside the barn is exchanged for freshoutside air. To determine ventilation ra-tes, we focus on the moisture content ofthe air, measured by relative humidity.But moisture is only one aspect. Ventila-tion removes other undesirable contami-nants as well.

6.2.1 Air qualityAnimal health and disease are influencedby air quality. Air quality, in turn, is rela-

ted to ventilation and its impact on redu-cing concentrations of contaminants inthe air. Empirical observations and fieldtrials suggest that the aerosol spread ofpathogens between animals and the in-fluence of air pollutants on pulmonarydefense mechanisms are important, es-pecially to respiratory health. Excessmoisture, gases and other contaminantsin the air are considered to be problema-tic as well.The term air quality itself is not easilydefined. With respect to animal spaces,good air quality generally implies that thecharacteristics of ambient air bear noharmful effects on the animals in thespace. Ambient air is a mixture of clean,dry air (a mixture of gases, chiefly nitro-gen and oxygen) and varying amounts ofwater vapor. At high concentrations, evenmoisture in the air in an animal spaceis considered to be a problem and is thenconsidered an air contaminant. Othercontaminants may include pathogens,harmful gases, dust and undesir-ableodors. The contaminant itself does notgive rise to concern. Rather, it is the con-centration of a contaminant above somepredetermined level that causes concernand is considered when assessing air qua-lity.In hot weather, ventilation improves theenvironment for animals by removing heatand other contaminants from the animalspace. Higher air velocities (1-3 m/s) overthe body of the animal increase the rate ofconvective heat transfer from the animal’sbody to the ambient air.

6.2.2 The dilution effect ofventilation

Ventilation is truly a process of dilution.Air moved through a barn serves to dilu-te the inside air and, very importantly, todilute all of its components. Dilution re-duces concentrations of moisture andheat. Dilution reduces concentrations ofairborne disease organisms, harmful ga-ses and dust, and undesirable odors aswell.Reducing ventilation below recommen-ded levels - usually in a misguided effort

to warm the barn using animal heat - re-sults in less moisture being removed. Ifsubstantial quantities of heat are addedto the air, relative humidity may remainin an acceptable range, as measured, andair quality may be deemed to be satisfac-tory. But even though excess moisturemay not be apparent, the reduced diluti-on does indeed result in increased con-centrations of airborne disease orga-nisms, harmful gases and dust, and un-desirable odors. If these increases areignored, animal health problems are ine-vitable.

Air quality is more than just measuringrelative humidity. Through ventilation theair inside the barn is continually diluted,assuring that the air available to the ani-mal has low concentrations of all conta-minants that threaten the animal’s health.

6.2.3 Minimum continuouswinter ventilation

A minimum rate of ventilation is requi-red in animal housing in the winter re-gardless of outside temperature, whetherthe barn is designed to be a warm barn ora cold barn. In addition, the minimumventilation should be continuous. Conti-nuous dilution of inside air acts to main-tain concentrations of contaminants in theair at minimal levels. The minimum ratedepends on outside weather design con-ditions, number and type of animals inthe barn, age and size of animals, andwhether the barn is intended to be coldor warm.Deciding between warm and cold hou-sing is critical to the design and subse-quent management of the ventilation sys-tem. Understanding the differencesbetween the two types of environmentsis especially important as related to theneed for maintaining the minimum con-tinuous ventilation for winter in eithersituation that is in the best interest of ani-mal comfort and health.

Cold housing with natural ventilation ispreferred for beef animals. Natural ven-tilation depends upon thermal and windforces to provide air exchange.

30

WORKING GROUP No 14


6.3 Ventilation Design andOperation for CattleBarns

6.3.1 Uninsolated barns withnatural ventilation

In a cold barn, indoor temperatures areallowed to fluctuate with outdoor tem-peratures. In winter, ventilation must besufficient to maintain indoor tempera-tures within 3-5°C of outdoor tempera-tures. During summer, ventilation shouldbe sufficient to maintain indoor tempe-rature at or slightly below outdoor tem-perature. Moisture naturally present cau-ses the barn itself to act as an evapora-tive cooler.A cold barn with natural ventilation hasthese general characteristics:a) no insulation, b) open ridge and ea-ves, and c) sidewalls and endwalls thatopen. Providing an open ridge and openeaves has long been recognized as a meanof creating a stack effect to cause airexchange, especially for controllingmoisture in winter. Provide a ridge ope-ning of 5 cm per 3 m of barn width andequivalent open area divided between thetwo eaves. Raised ridge caps are to beavoided. Spaced roof sheeting (gapbetween sheets 2cm) can also be effec-tively used to provide a uniform airescape pathway over the complete roofstructure. However, care must be takenwith this form of construction in areaswhere snow may cause blockage of theventilation openings.Summer ventilation mainly depends onthe wind. Factors affecting ventilationrates due to wind include area of buil-ding openings, local obstructions (hills,vegetation, nearby buildings) and windspeed and direction. To obtain maximumair exchange rates due to wind forces,maximize inlet and outlet openings andsite buildings for maximum exposure toexisting winds. Orienting buildings per-pendicular to prevailing warm weatherwind is preferred (Figure 6-1). Although,if sidewalls and endwalls are completelyopen and the barn is not long, say lessthan 30 m, orientation will be less critical.

If a wind is blowing, a combination ofthermal and wind forces will provide airexchange. Fresh air enters through eaveand sidewall openings, Figure 6-2. Air

containing heat, moisture and other con-taminants exists through the open ridgeand downwind sidewall openings. Evenwith sidewalls closed on calm days, someair exchange occurs as a result of thechimney effect.

Various materials and methods may beused to cover sidewalls for colder wea-ther. Automatic control or even frequentmanual adjustment of air inlets is unne-cessary. Cattle can tolerate usual diurnalfluctuations in environment and evenfluctuations during the season, especial-ly in summer. The simpliest and cheapestmethod of covering sidewalls uses afabric covering over the full sidewall. Forsummer, the fabric is manually rolled upas a rug and tied (Figure 6-3).

To close the sidewall, ties are releasedand the hanging curtain is then fastenedin place using a vertical nailing strip ateach post and horizontal nailing strips allalong the bottom. A variation on fabriccovering is shown in Figure 6-4. Fabriccurtains to cover the top half and thebottom half of the sidewall are operatedindependently. A curtain is rolled up byfitting a crank to the small-diametermetal pipe installed in the hem at thebottom edge of each curtain.

In regions that do not experience hightemperatures or where animals will notoccupy barns in summer, permanent “po-rous” sidewall construction is used. Thiscan take the form of spaced boarding (e.g.5 - 15 cm wide timber laths with 1.5 - 3.0cm gaps) with height depending on thefree area required. Alternatively proprie-tary ventilated sheeting or flexible mate-rial can be used and manufacturer’s datafor free area of different types should beused for design purposes.

The combination of the open ridge andeaves may be viewed as the sole sourceof ventilation only during the most se-vere winter weather - during periodswhen temperatures reach the lowestlevels or times when especially windy,stormy conditions are present. During allother times in winter, additional ventila-tion must be provided. Typically, door-ways are left open for this purpose. Or,sidewalls away from prevailing winterwinds may be left open. Then, astemperatures rise into spring andsummer, sidewalls and endwalls are ful-

ly opened . As a general rule, too muchventilation is preferred over too little.In winter, suspend a thermometer insidea cold barn. If the temperature inside ismore than 3-6° C above outside tempe-rature, more ventilation will be necessa-ry. Also, persistent condensation on theunderside of the roof is a further indica-tion that additional ventilation openingsmust be provided.In summer, barns with open sidewalls andendwalls have improved ventilation re-sulting in lower average temperaturesinside the barn. But, the real advantageto the cattle has to do with the extremes;specifically, during the heat of the dayand the cool of the night. Cattle are notonly exposed to lower temperature peaksduring hot weather, they are exposed tothese peaks for shorter periods of time.In addition, inside temperatures closelyfollow outside temperatures as they lo-wer at night, allowing cattle to take

Figure 6-2: Airflow in naturally ventila-ted buildings. Air flow patterns varywith wind direction and velocity. FromDairy Freestall Housing andEquipment, MWPS-7, Seventh Edition,MidWest Plan Service, Ames, IA. 2000

Figure 6-1: Orientation of a building ac-cording to wind direction (perpendi-cular to the wind, at an angle to thewind, parallel with the wind)

31

Chapter 6: Ventilation (Environmental Control) of Livestock Barns


advantage of whatever cooling effect mayresult from lower nighttime temperatures.

6.3.2 Insolated barns withmechanical ventilation

In an insolated barn, indoor temperatureis maintained substantially higher thanoutdoor temperature during winter, at 50Cor higher to keep water lines from free-zing or, as in the case of a calves nursery,at about 10-150C with the addition of sup-

plemental heat to meet the needs of theanimals. These buildings are well insu-lated. Fans with thermostat controls au-tomatically regulate the ventilation rateas outside conditions change, diurnallyand seasonally. Three levels of ventilati-on, using fans, must be provided if cattleoccupy the barn year-round. Summerventilation rates of 60 to 90 air changesper hour are not uncommon, requiringseveral fans. These levels are on the or-

der of ten times the minimum continuousrate for winter.

6.3.3 Warm barns with naturalventilation

Well-regulated, naturally ventilated warmbuildings, relying on stack and wind ef-fects, have been successful. Natural ven-tilation for warm barns lowers investmentand operating costs. Insulation and awarm environment in winter are the sameas with mechanical ventilation. Adjusta-ble openings provide for modulating boththe stack effect and the wind effect asnecessary, depending upon outside con-ditions. Because frequent adjustments inventilation openings, sometimes severaltimes per day, are required to compensa-te for changes in outside conditions -wind velocity or direction, temperature,solar radiation, ventilation openings areusually opened and closed automaticallyby various types of actuators controlledby thermostats.Natural ventilation for warm housing hasbeen described by Choiniere, et al. (1990)for buildings that are temperature-cont-rolled in winter.

6.4 Consequences ofMismanagedVentilation in Winter

6.4.1 Reduced dilution ofambient air

A major reason for air quality problemsin barns in winter is adjusting naturalventilation for the worst case - severewinter weather - and not readjusting toallow increased ventilation when milderwinter weather appears. Ventilation ope-nings that are closed in anticipation of awindy, cold, blustery night must be ope-ned the next day when, although the tem-perature may still be cold, the wind sub-sides and the sun shines. Reduced venti-lation due to no wind reduces ventilati-on, reducing air exchange and reducingthe positive effects of dilution.Problems are likely also during winter,spring and autumn, especially during rai-ny weather and warmer days coupledwith cold nights. Ventilation reduced bymanually closing ventilation openings forconditions at night is inadequate for war-mer days that follow, unless openings areagain uncovered. Closing ventilation

Figure 6-3: Full-wall ventilation provided by removing fabric curtain. Nailingstrips are removed and curtain is rolled to the horizontal member near the topof the wall and tied in place during warm weather.

Figure 6-4: Full-wall ventilation with curtains on the upper half and lower halfof the wall operated separately. Curtain operation is accomplished with a small-diameter metal pipe installed in the hem at the bottom edge of the curtain anda simple crank at the end for turning the pipe.

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WORKING GROUP No 14


openings to restrict airflow to keep manu-re from freezing in winter can result intoo little ventilation and poor environ-mental conditions.To assure sufficient dilution of inside airand healthy conditions for animals, main-tain a maximum temperature differencebetween inside and outside of no morethan 3-6° C.

6.4.2 Building componentsaffected by poor ventilation

Besides adversely affecting the animalenvironment, the design and operation ofnaturally ventilated barns influence mois-ture related deterioration in wood mem-bers and metal fasteners. American spe-cialists studied 10 naturally ventilateddairy free stall barns located in Michi-gan. In barns where air exchange in win-ter was defeated by blocking ventilationopenings, average wood moisture con-tents exceeding 30 % dry basis (capableof supporting wood decay and corrosi-on in metal fasteners) were found after2-3 months of cold weather operation.Moreover, restricted air movement inthese barns inhibited drying and allowedwood moisture contents to remain ele-

vated even into warm weather. Warm,moist conditions favor growth of mold,bacteria and decay fungi and acceleratemetal corrosion. The presence of insula-tion under the roofing in these problembarns fostered this situation.Even if free water from precipitation andcondensation causes slightly elevatedmoisture contents, adequate air ex-change, especially as weather warms, willpromote drying of wood truss componentsso that deterioration will not be a problem.

6.4.3 Misguided use ofinsulation in cold barns

If insulation is installed under the roof, apotentially cold barn may not be opera-ted and managed as a cold barn. Insula-tion suggests that the barn is somethingother than a cold barn and that an avail-able option is to close or block ventila-tion openings during extreme weatherconditions to restrict ventilation. Themost serious deficiency associated withthis approach is the lack of proper con-trol to restore ventilation rates when ex-treme weather has passed. Barns withinsulation under the roof are often un-

derventilated because evidence of a moi-sture problem doesn’t appear. Besidescontributing to problems with animalhealth, underventilation can lead to thepremature deterioration of structuralcomponents in buildings. Condensationon the underside of the roof of a coldenclosed barn can be considered a ma-nagement tool or signal for the farmer thatexcess moisture buildup is occurring andadditional ventilation openings must beprovided for better air exchange. Thepresence of insulation can take away thisimportant indicator resulting in a poten-tially unfavorable environment.

6.5 SummaryA goal in housing design is to provide anenvironment for an animal that has a posi-tive influence on the animal’s health, wel-fare and productivity. Essentially, all as-pects of the animal’s surroundings and ac-tivities are taken into account in housingdesign and management. Environmentalconsiderations include ventilation, stallsand beds, access to feed and water andwalking surfaces. Ventilation permeates allaspects of the animal environment.

Chapter 7:Suckler Cows and Calves


Chapter 7Suckler Cows and Calves

7.1 IntroductionDuring the last twenty years, a numberof changes have occurred in the manage-ment of suckler cows. These include theconcentration of calving period duringwinter/spring time, the move to the useof feeding of silage instead of hay, theincrease of the herd size and the reduc-tion of labour requirements. Accordingto these new tendencies, the design ofbuildings for suckler cows housing hasevolved as well as working practices withthe animals.This chapter tackles the topic of “clas-sic” suckling, which means the timing ofcalving is during winter/spring, and thatthe young animals stay with the cows untilweaning time.This method of productionrequires the housing of cows and calvestogether.There are several types of housing de-sign, which can be used for suckler cowsand calves with the choice depending ona range of factors. This report describesthe common systems, which are in prac-tical use. In certain instances it is possi-ble to operate with no housing system andsuch “open-air systems” constitute aneconomical solution in some cases evenin cold climates because of the rusticityof suckler cow breeds. Such systems arepossible with special environmental con-ditions, and imply for the farmer, theobligation to accept some constraints inhis working conditions.This type of pro-duction is not a part of this document,which is devoted to buildings for beefproduction.Suckler cows can be accommodated in awide range of housing systems. The mainhousing systems in common use are :• Bedded house• Sloped floor house with bedding• Cubicle house• Slatted accommodationNumerous variations of these main hou-sing types exist in practice.Before detailing the specific organiza-tion of these systems, with their advan-tages and disadvantages, it is necessary

Table 7-1: Space allowance per cow and calf (loose housing systems)

Part of the Very large Large cows Medium cows Creep area Creep areahousing system cows ~700 kg & heifers (m2) (m2)

~800 kg ~600 kg (winter and (autumnspring calving) calving)

Standing area 4 - 5 3 - 4 3 - 4 - -width (m)Bedded court 6 - 7 5 - 6 4.5 - 5 1 - 1.5 2(m2)Bedded courtslopped floor 4.5 - 6 4 - 5 4 - 5 1 - 1.5 2(m2)Slatted floor 3.4 - 3.6 3.1 - 3.3 2.8 - 3 - -

33

to speak about the area requirements forthe calves, and the size of the groups ofsuckler cows.The area requirements for the calves arein a strict relationship with the calvingperiod. An autumn born calf needs morearea than a spring born calf, because thecalf weight and the calf dimensions areproportional to the housing period du-ration.The table 7-1 gives some examples ofarea requirements in bedded court andbedded sloped floor systems.Size of the groups: In the housing faci-lity the herd is typically divided into se-

veral groups for ease of management.Generally, the size of a group is between8 and 16 cows. For each group of suck-ler cows, it is necessary to have a creeparea to accommodate the calves. Thedimensions of the creep area are to bedefined according to the number of cowscalving at the same period.

7.2 Loose HousingSystems (non-cubicle)

Outline designs are provided for a rangeof loose housing systems which do notuse cubicles. A subsequent section de-als with cubicle based systems.

Figure7-1: Layout and cross section from a bedded house with a concreteexercise court and calves creeps between cow pens

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WORKING GROUP No 14


7.2.1 Bedded houses with aconcrete exercise court,and calves creeps betweencow pens

Feeding:1.Concrete exercise court of 3.7 m2/cow2.Possibilities to distribute silage and hay

together in the trough3.Frequent variant: a separated access to

the trough for the calves, and no hayrack for the mothers.

Rest area :1. A number of 16 cows per section, with

an area of 6.5 m2/cow.2. Calves creeps designed in order to have

an area between 1 m2/calf and 1.6 m2/calf, with the possibility to use the cal-ving box as part of the calf creep area,when the calving period is finished.

3. A straw requirement of 5 to 7 kg/coup-le (cow+calf)/day, with an increase to6 to 8 kg during the calving period.

Ventilation:Most of the time this kind of building isdesigned with a free open side along thestraw bedded court and is orientated togive this side protection from the direc-

tion of the prevailing wind. If requiredthis open side can be protected with asynthetic wind-break. Such a wind-breakshould be fixed so that it can be dismant-led easily as required in order for exampleto be able to scrape out easily the manure.

7.2.2 Straw yards and calvescreeps between cow pens

Organization of the life area:1. rest area and feeding alley merged into

a mixed-function area2. an adequate standing stall in order to

avoid an excessively dirty area nearthe trough by spoiling litter too much.This allows to keep clean a theoreti-cal rest area of 6.7 to 7 m2

3. a calving box between the two pensof cows: it can be used by all the cal-ving cows

4. a requirement of 7 to 10 kg of strawper couple (calf & mother) per day

5. a requirement of 10 to 12 kg duringthe calving period.

Feeding:The main diet is based on silage, but asmall quantity of hay ( 2 to 3 kg/cow.day)can be distributed in the trough at thesame time as the silage.

Ventilation:Specific requirements: Be careful to avo-id a “corridor effect” in the building.Same comments as for 1A possible variant: bedded court and cal-ves creeps between cow-yards, with aseparate hay rackFeeding:For the herds with a mixed feed (silageand hay), including more than 4 to 5 kgof hay/cow.day, it is practically necessa-ry to provide the hay separately.Rest area:In this variant accommodation for thecows is similar to the previous system, butthe area for the calves is reduced to only1.2 m2 per calf as calving takes place closeto the end of the housing season.Comments on the disadvantages ofthat solution of « feeding stall »The self cleaning function reduces labourrequirements as it is not necessary to scra-pe the area. However, the area requires asufficient slope to allow the manure toslide down (3 %), and this can possiblylead to the animals adopting a bad postureduring the feeding period. Other conse-quences are: a lot of manure between thearea and the bedded court, wet litter, dirtyanimals and problems with animal health.

Figure 7-3: Layout and cross section from a bedded courtand calves creeps between cow-yards, with a hay rack

Figure 7-2: Layout and cross section from a bedded housewith straw yards and calves creeps between cow pens

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Chapter 7: Suckler Cows and Calves


7.2.3 Bedded court on slopedfloor with calves creeps atthe rear part of the strawbedded court

Feeding:1. Concrete exercise court with an area

of 2.40 m2 + 1.35 m2 for the standingstall, whose secondary function is insimplified systems, the immobilizingof the cows in order to treat the ani-mals. We recommand to have in addi-tion, a specific restraining device toallow some security to the farmer andthe veterinary surgeon.

2. Feeding of the calves separated fromthe feeding of the mothers. The accessto the calves creeps is given by the ser-vice alley.

3. Watering with a big water bowl on thestanding stall.

Rest area:1. Sixteen cows per pen, with an area of

4.90 m2/cow2. Calf creeps designed in order to have

an area between 1.25 m2/calf and1.90 m2/calf, with the possibility touse the calving box as part of thecalf creep area when the calvingperiod is finished.

3. A slope of about 6 %, which limits theheight of the straw bed at a level of0.30 m.

4. A straw requirement of 4 to 6 kg/coup-le (cow+calf)/day, with an increase to5 to 7 kg during the calving period.

A possible variant: bedded court on slo-ped floor, and calves creeps betweencow-yards, with a specific hay rack

Changes in feeding:

1. Hay and silage separated for the cows

2. Access to the trough for the calveswith a specific diet, which is easy todistribute in this part of the manger.

Changes for the rest area:

1. A little more surface area for thecows: 5.20 m2

2. A very good system for the regionswith a short housing period (less than130 days), and with a dry climate.

7.3 Free Stalls/CubiclesOutline designs are provided for a rangeof loose housing systems, which use cu-bicles.

7.3.1 Head to head cubicles withcalves creeps betweencubicles rows

For all the cubicle housing systems, thedimensions to design comfortable faci-lities are given in chapter 3.

Feeding :1. Possibilities to give forages separa-

tely.2. Calves feeding independently in the

creep areas (access by the extremities)3. Minimum one water bowl per section.

Rest area :

1. A head to head design with a calfcreep area between the two rows.

2.Length of the cubicles ranging from2.30 m to 2.50 m. It is necessary to putsome tubes at the front side of the par-titions, not only to fix the parti-tions,but also to be able to confine the cal-ves in the creep area if required.

3. Straw requirements for the cubicles:a minimum of 0.50 kg/cow.day for ani-mal welfare (synthetic mats can alsobe used but straw must be prefered ifavailable).

Figure 7-4: Layout and cross section from bedded court onsloped floor with calves creeps at the rear part of the strawbedded court

Figure 7-5: Layout and cross section on bedded court onsloped floor and calves creeps between cow-yards, with aspecific hay rack

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WORKING GROUP No 14


• 3 kg/cow/day in order to obtain asoft to solid manure

4. Straw requirements for the calves:• 1 to 2 kg/calf/day for the calves

creep• 6 to 8 kg/day during calving peri-

od for the calving box.

Ventilation :1. Like in other kinds of buildings, the-

re is very often a free open side. Inorder to be able to supply easily thehay racks with big bales, the open wallis located at the side of the feeding al-ley, and not at the opposite side.

2. As previously explained, this freeopen wall can obviously be protectedby a wind-break material, with thesame precautions to avoid draughts onthe animals.

Figure 7-6: Layout and cross section from head to headcubicles with calves creeps between cubicles rows

Exercise

Trough

Cubicles

Calves creep Water bowl

Figure 7-7: Layout and cross section from head to headcubicles with calves creeps and calving box at the side

7.3.2 Head to head cubicles withcalves creep and calvingbox at the extremities.

Changes in feeding :1. Possibility to give a specific feeding

to the calves in front of their boxes.2. Same possibility for the cows using

the calving boxes.

Changes for the rest area :1. Cubicles shorter than in the variant 4.1

because of the possible crossing of thecow-heads in the front part of the cu-bicles, designed in a head to head po-sition, each row close to the other one.

2. Limits of the calves creeps and thecalving box in the continuation lineof the cubicles rows, giving an area

of 1.65 m2 to 1.90 m2 [depending onthe duration (organization) of the cal-ving period].

7.3.3 Back to back cubicles withcalves creeps and calvingbox at the extremities.

Feeding :Same organization as for the variant 4.2

Rest area :1. Separation between resting area and

feeding area.2. Length of the cubicles designed like in

the case of a front wall (long cubicles).3. Straw spreading not easy to realize.4. Frequent need of two calves creeps for

each pen.

Figure 7-8: Cross view from back to back cubicles withcalves creeps and calving box at the extremities

Trough

Excercise

Trough

Cubicles

Calves creep Calves creep

Cubicles Exercise

Figure 7-9: Back to back cubicles with calves creeps andcalving box at the extremities

extensible 60 max.

Extensible60 max.

Cubicles ExerciseTrough

CubiclesExercise Water bowl

Trough

Calves creep

37

Chapter 7: Suckler Cows and Calves


Ventilation :1. One must pay attention to the posi-tion of the cubicles row near the wall,

exposed to cold draughts coming downfrom the inlets. The height of these in-lets must be sufficient to avoid this risk.

2. The other side, generally free open canbe protected by a wind-break material.

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39

Chapter 8:Facilities for Feeding and Drinking


Chapter 8Housing for Calves from Birth to 6 Month

8.1 IntroductionThis chapter deals with calves that areweaned (separated from their mother)close to the birth. The calves will behoused either individually or in groupaccording to the management systemchosen by the farmer. The individual hou-sing can last for a few days or for severalweeks (2 to 8 weeks).The European Union has taken measu-res (EEC Directive 91/629, EU Directi-ve 97/2) in which are laid down the mi-nimum terms with respect to housing thatare to be met with by farm buildings andtheir equipment for veal calves.The most important features of this di-rectives are :• individual housing is forbidden after

the age of 8 weeks, excepted for vete-rinary reasons;

• the width of individual cage must beequal to the height at the withers andthe length equal to the length of the ani-mal multiplied by 1.1;

• partitions between cages must be opento permit sight and tactile contactsbetween animals;

• for groups of animals, the free area peranimal must be 1.5 m2 with a live weighless than 150 kg, 1.7 m2 with a liveweigh above 150 kg but less than 220kg and 1.8 m2 with a live weigh above220 kg,

• the stable and the equipment must bebuilt so that each animal can stretch,rest, stand up and groom without anydifficulties,

• litter must be provided for animalsyounger than 2 weeks;

• calves are not tied except in groupsonly for one hour during the milk dis-tribution;

• if artificial ventilation is used, an alarmsystem will have to be installed;

• keeping the animals permanently in thedark is forbidden. Natural or artificiallighting must be provided;

• calves must be fed twice a day;

• calves must receive adequate fibre andenough iron in their diet;

• calves older than 2 weeks must havepermanent access to fresh water.

This regulation is not enforced on farmwith less than 6 calves and where the cal-ves remain with their mothers to receivemilk. All the other farms are subject tothis regulation. All existing buildingsmust be satisfied the regulation by31.12.2006. New buildings for veal cal-ves must be built according to the EUregulation and existing buildings must beadapted to comply with the EU regulati-ons.

8.2 Individual Housing8.2.1 HutchesThe hutches are frequently made from asynthetic opaque material to prevent thegreen house effect inside the hutch (heatstress) and from reflective material (lightcolour material) to reflect sun rays thatmight otherwise overheat the inside partof the hutch. They may also be built inwood, panels, plywood.The opening must not be oriented in thedirection of the prevaling wind, conside-ring dominant wind direction and rainfall.In many areas of Western Europe a south-east orientation is most suitable.Generally, the size of the hutches is asfollows : length 2.0 m, width 1.5 m (+/-3 m²), height 1.5 m. In addition, the hut-ches have an outdoor run of more than2.0 m2 surrounded by either metal wirenetting or by welded tubes. There is alsoa milk bucket support, a dry feed recipi-ent support and a hay rack. Litter may beprovided as straw, wood shavings, saw-dust, newspapers, ... and should be thickenough to provide a favourable lyingenvironment. It must be dry and clean.Litter must be removed immediately af-ter the calf has left the hutch.Hutches should be placed on well drai-ned ground according to the water legis-lation. This may mean placing on soilwith a sand layer of 15 cm. After use, thesand should be removed to suppress therisks of contamination or on concrete

floor. If the hutches are placed on con-crete to make cleaning and disinfectingeasier, it is necessary to collect urine anddisinfectant in a storage facility to preventthe pollution of the environment and torespect the local regulations.If the weather is hot, it will be advisableto shade the hutches in order to avoid thenegative effects of high temperatures.During the winter it could be useful totake measures to prevent the conse-quences of very low temperatures

8.2.2 PensA nursery is a part of a building, which isexclusively reserved for newborn calves.It is recommended to put the calves intoindividual pens until weaning.Individual pens are either dismountableor made from hard material with concre-te walls.Dismountable pens are either boughtfrom a tradesman or made by the farmerhimself with plywood panels for the wallsand hardwood (tropical wood) for the(perforated) floor, which is covered witha litter (thick enough, dry and clean).Bucket supports are provided for on thefront. It is recommended to prolong thepartition between two pens to the frontpart to reduce disease transfer from nose-to-nose contact.The 0.90 - 1.00 m x 1.50 - 1.60 m pencan be put 300 mm above the ground witha view to draining and the removal of

Figure 8-2: Individual calves pen

Figure 8-1: Calf hutch

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urine, and to allowed regularly cleaningof the floor during occupation. In coldbarns, the thickness of the litter must beincreased to prevent draughts around thecalves.

8.3 Group HousingGroup housing gives the opportunity tocalves to learn living with comrades andto develop relationships with other ani-mals. It also gives the possibility to thecalves to increase their immunity againsta wide range of micro-organisms.

8.3.1 Collective hutches

The collective hutches are designed ty-pically to house a group of between 2 and6 calves. The hutches are made of syn-thetic materials or wood and have, for ex-ample, for 4 calves an indoor area of 10m2 and an outdoor run of 10 to 15 m2.The inside of the hutch is provided withlitter and some hay may be put in a rack.Roughage is distributed at a feeding bar-rier and anti-freeze drinking device isrecommended.With collective hutches fastened on con-crete, the outdoor run should have a nonslippery surface. The outside run must becleaned 1 - 2 times a week. Manure andspent bedding have to be removed ma-nually or the collective hutch has to moveover a few metres distance by means of atractor and guide-blocks.

8.3.2 Bedded sloped floor

Sloped floor systems are not recommen-ded for calves younger than 6 months.

8.3.3 Straw yard with beddedlying area

These facilities will be extremely suit-able for young animals if sufficient strawand proper ventilation is provided.If the calves stay there for several mont-hs it will absolutely be necessary that apassage on slippery free concrete is pro-vided that their hooves remain strong andwear out regularly. Moreover the floorof this passage should be quite rough toprevent slipping.With respect to labour costs the concretefloor may be replaced by a slatted floorprovided that the spacing between slatsagrees with the age of the animals andthe local regulations.

8.3.4 Cubicle houseCubicles are not recommended for cal-ves younger than 6 months.

8.3.5 Fully slatted floorConcrete fully slatted floors are not re-commended for calves younger than 6months.

8.4 Tied Stall BarnTying stalls are forbidden by a EU direc-tive and are not recommended in thecountries where they are not forbidden.

8.5 Veal CalvesAs mentionned in point 8.1 Introduction,in the European Union, regulations havebeen adopted to improve the housingconditions of veal calves according to thewishes of groups of persons dealing withanimal welfare.

8.5.1 The new buildingsThe new buildings must be equipped tohouse calves in groups. The calves arefed manually with a hose or by an auto-matic milk feeder.In the case of manual feeding, the calvesare housed in groups of 8 to 10 and theyare fed twice a day. There are partitionsin the front of the pen to avoid situationsin which one calve drinks the milk ofother calves. In the front of the pen, ca-ges can be placed to maintain the calvesseparately during one hour after the dis-tribution of milk to prevent comradesuckling. After one hour the calves arefree to move around.

In the case of automatic milking fee-der, the calves are housed in groups ofabout 30.The calves can be housed on a beddedcourt (straw on the whole pen or strawfor the lying area and concrete or slat-ted floor for the rest of the pen) or ona fully slatted floor (wood, concrete orconcrete covered by a rubber). The re-quired surface depends on the weight atslaughter. For calves slaughtered at theweight of 180 - 200 kg live weight thesurface requirements are at about 1.7 -1.8 m2 per animal in the EU regulationbut are frequently increased to 2.8 m² percalf.

8.5.2 Existing buildingsIn existing buildings, the single pens arereplaced by group pens that are put onthe place formerly occupied by the sin-gle pens and by the passage between thepens and the wall; as a result each calfgets an area of approximatly 1.9 m2 whichis larger than the requirements of the EUregulation. The front doors of the singlepens are replaced by a feeding barrier es-pecially made to supply the liquid milkreplacer in buckets. Each calf has a fee-ding place of about 0.72 m.The calves are brought together in groupsof 8 to 10. Partitions between the calvescan be placed in front of the pen to im-prove the distribution of the milk repla-cer.There must be a sufficient supply of day-light so that the animals may see eachother and be watched by the farmer. Ifnecessary provision for light entry mustbe made in the walls.The wooden slatted floors (hard wood)are replaced by concrete slats coveredwith rubber mats of the same shape or bya new wood slatted floor.The artificial ventilation must be adap-ted to obtain an optimal air quality.

Duration of Fully bedded Lying area and passage on Trough lengthstay (m2/calf) concrete or on slatted floor per calf

Lying area Depth of thepassage

(m2/calf) (depth in m) (m)

Until weaning 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.35

From weaning to not 2.5 - 2.8 1.2 - 1.5 0.453 – 5/6 months recommended

Table 8-1: Characteristics of pens for group housing

Figure 8-3: Collective hutch

41

Chapter 8: Housing for Calves from Birth to 6 Month


8.5.3 Veal calves and automaticmilk feeder

Automatic milk feeding systems areincreasingly being used for veal calves.Each automatic milking feeder is madeto manage 2 milking dispensers, and eachmilking dispenser can be used for about30 fattening calves. The calves are as-sembled so as there is a limited age dif-ference between the animals so as to pre-vent hierarchic and health problems with-in the group. Calves remain together un-til slaughter and they receive milk repla-cer according to their needs or ad libi-tum. If calves are fed according to theirneeds, they will be identified by the sys-tem by means of a collar with a transpon-der or by means of a transponder insertedin an ear tag or injected under the skin.

8.5.4 Type of lying area andventilation

Natural ventilation and cold housing arerecommended for raising calves. In somecases (calves on fully slatted floor) warmhousing is the most suitable system toprovide a good environment to the cal-ves and to prevent diseases and mortali-ty.

Bedded pack

For calves housed on a deep litter of straw(bedded pack, 2.3 to 2.8 m² per calf) coldhousing is the recommended system toprovide a good environment to the cal-ves. An open front with adequate orien-tation based on prevailing wind and ex-position to the sunrise is recommended.Movable curtains on the opposite wall are

necessary to prevent drafts during thecold months and heat stresses during thesummer. An insula-tion of the roof is notrequired.

Slatted floor

For calves housed on a fully slatted floor,warm housing, heating and mechanicalventilation are necessary to provide agood environment to the calves. Insula-tion of the walls and the roof, heatingduring the cold months and mechanicalventilation are required to prevent too lowtemperature of the air and too high rela-tive humidity of the air.During the hot days, mechanical ventila-tion and thermal insulation help tomaintain a normal temperature in thehousing.

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43

Chapter 9:Housing for Finishing Animals


Chapter 9Housing for Finishing Animals

9.1 Introduction

The provision of accommodation sys-tems for finishing beef animals is essen-tial for efficient herd management. Thetype of housing provided will depend ona range of factors including geographiclocation, availability of straw, size of theunit and on the traditional methods offattening in the particular region. Depen-ding on the finishing system animals mayremain in the house until slaughter or re-turn to pasture following the winter peri-od. In the latter case these animals maybe finished outside or spend a subsequentperiod in the accommodation prior tobeing slaughtered. Loose housing sys-tems predominate for beef cattle. Whendesigning accommodation facilities forfattening cattle consideration should begiven to labour availability, feeding sys-tem, type of diet, group size, drinkingsystem, and facilities for handling andstorage of the manures produced. Therequirement for housing during the finis-hing period may be due to land conditi-ons that do not facilitate outdoor feedingdue to soil type and climatic factors. Incertain situations housing is provided tofacilitate the structured feeding of theanimals under controlled managementconditions. Also, housing facilities shouldprovide a suitable working environmentfor the farmer and any employees invol-ved in taking care of the animals.

9.2 House TypesTraditionally, beef cattle were housed instraw bedded facilities. The unavailabi-lity of straw in some areas (combinedwith its increased cost), the need to re-duce labour requirements and the neces-sity to ensure manure was efficientlymanaged to avoid pollution risks, hasencouraged the development of housingsystems utilising liquid manure storage.Variations in the design have evolvedincluding houses with partially slattedfloors, houses with sloped floors incli-ning towards narrow slurry channels andhouses with slats over shallow tanks fromwhich the slurry flows by gravity to anadjacent storage facility. Cubicle houses

can also be used for finishing animalswhere no straw is available but such fa-cilities are not recommended for maleanimals because, they foul the lying areawith urine. Where straw is avail-able forbedding typical systems include fullybedded pens, facilities with bedded lyingareas and solid unbedded or slatted fee-ding stands and facilities with slopedfloors, which depend on the animals tomove the fouled bedding down the slopefor collection. Tethering of animals installs is still used as a management sys-tem in some beef units but this methodof housing is not recommended.

9.2.1 Bedded house

Such houses consist of bedded pen(s)with the total living area covered in bed-ding material, which normally is straw.The facilities are roofed but are some-times referred to as “straw bedded yards”.Cattle should be housed in groups of notmore than 20 to aid management. Thistype of house requires 4 to 6 kg of strawper animal per day which equates to ap-proximately 1 (metric) ton straw per ani-mal for a winter housing period. Thecompletely bedded system does not pre-pare the hooves of the animals for subse-quently walking on harder surfaces suchas concrete. Sometimes the hooves maybecome overgrown and misshapen,which may lead to lameness problems.Although the systems are relatively che-ap to construct the high straw require-

ment with associated labour costs mustalso be taken into account when makingcomparisons with other systems. Themanure/bedding mixture is allowed tobuild up over the housing period and isnormally removed once at the end of theseason. Depending on the length of thehousing season the accumulated materi-al may rise up to greater than 1m abovefloor level. It is necessary to take this intoaccount when installing gates, partitionsand feeding barriers & troughs. A typicallayout of such a facility is presented inFigure 9-1.

9.2.2 Bedded house withconcrete or slatted feedingstand

In this type of facility the animals cometo feed on an area of solid concrete or anarea covered with slats. In the case ofsolid concrete the area is cleaned by anelectric, hydraulic or tractor poweredscraper. Where a tractor is used additio-nal gates are used to close off the fee-ding stand from the bedded area duringcleaning. The design has the advantagesthat lower quantities of straw are requi-red and that the geometry of the feedingstand does not change as the manurebuilds up over the housing period. Strawusage is in the order of 2 to 3 kg per ani-mal per day. However, both a liquid andsolid manure is also produced with thesystem. If slats are used in the feed standit is important to minimise the quantity

Figure 9-1: Straw bedded facility cross-section showing raised passageway

Fully bedded cattle lying area

Raised feed passage with height adjustable barrier to cater for manure build up

Bedding

44

WORKING GROUP No 14


of straw entering the tanks to avoid pro-blems with slurry agitation. A cross sec-tional view is shown in Figure 9-2.

9.2.3 Bedded house with slopedconcrete floor

This housing system involves the fre-quent removal of manure but daily strawrequirements can be as low as 1 to 3 kgper animal per day. The floor is laid witha slope of 5 to 10 %. The system opera-tes on the principal that the movement ofthe animals will transfer the manure downthe slope where it is removed by scra-ping. A cross section of a typical layoutis shown in Figure 9-3.

9.2.4 Cubicle houseA cubicle house provides an animal withan individual safe lying area. The systemis widely used in the dairy industry forcows and the house type provides a cle-an lying area without the requirement forbedding material. Sometimes a littlestraw is used on the beds, which are nor-mally constructed with concrete. Artifici-al mats are widely used in the dairy in-dustry to improve the lying environmentin cubicle beds. Major limitations withcubicles for beef finishing animals are:• the fact that as animal size is changing

it is difficult to optimise the dimensi-ons of the cubicle

• male cattle foul the cubicle bed withurine

• animals may only be housed for a rela-tively short period e.g. one winterseason and often it is difficult in thesesituations to train animals to use thefacilities

9.2.5 Slatted floor houseThe development of housing systems forbeef animals utilising liquid manurestorage has been promoted in order toovercome the unavailability of straw inmany areas (combined with its increasedcost), the need to reduce labour require-ments and the necessity to ensure manu-re is efficiently managed to avoid pollu-tion risks. The majority of such systemsuse concrete slatted floors with the liquidmanure or slurry falling through the floorperforations into a below ground concretetank. The depth of the tank is such so asto provide adequate waste storage capa-city for the housing period and is nowtypically about 2,5 m. A central covered

feeding passage is typically used withconfinement pens on each side. Silagecan either be fed independently from con-centrates or in combination. Feed facelength is typically 0.3 m per adult animalfor silage only feeding; 0.45 m where com-plete diets are fed and 0.6 m where con-centrates are separately fed from silage.

The ratio of pen depth to width can bemanipulated at the design stage to ensu-re adequate lying area and feeding spaceis provided. The superstructure is typi-cally constructed from steel stanchions,steel trusses and timber purlins. Portalframe configurations are also used. Roofsheeting and cladding is typically galva-

Figure 9-4: Cross section of slatted floor house

Cattle pen with fully slatted floor

Feeding Passage

Underfloor slurry tanks

Figure 9-2: Bedded house with concrete feeding stand

Bedding

Fully bedded cattle lying area

Feeding stand (scraped solid concrete as shown or alternatively a slatted floor)

Feeding passage

Figure 9-3: Bedded house with sloped concrete floor

Feeding stand (scraped solid concrete)

Cattle lying area

Bedding passage

Feeding passage

Bedding

Beddingpassage

Cattle pen with fully slatted floorFeeding passage

Underfloor slurry tanks

45

Chapter 9: Housing for Finishing Animals


nised steel or fibre cement sheeting. Ven-tilation openings are provided at thesides of the building and at the ridges.The size of the opening is dictated by theexposure of the site. More recentlyspaced roof sheeting has successfullybeen used and it has the advantage in thatit provides a more uniform removal ofstale air from over the animals throug-hout the buildings. To improve the inter-face of the floor with the animal the ribsof the slats can be covered with rubberi-sed materials to provide cushioning for

the animals. A cross sectional view of atypical unit is shown in Figure 9-4.

9.2.6 Sloped floor systemwithout bedding

This design is based on solid floors,which slope towards narrow manure col-lection channels covered with slats. Theoptimum length of the sloping floor sec-tion to avoid manual cleaning is appro-ximately 1.5 m. The slope should be 1:12(8 %). The manure channels should be300 mm wide and at least 300 mm deep

and up to 450 mm deep for long channelruns. A flushing system or mechanicalscraper can be used to effectively remo-ve the manure from the channel to anoutside storage facility. While the systemoffers the advantages of the slatted sys-tem (no straw costs and effective collec-tion and management of liquid manure)the animal’s hides will be dirtier, restingbehaviour of the animals disturbed andthe risk for pressure injuries on the ani-mals will increase with this design of fa-cility.

46

WORKING GROUP No 14


47

Chapter 10: Safety and Animal Handling


Chapter 10Safety and Animal Handling

10.1 IntroductionStockmen working in animal housing andassociated handling facilities are expo-sed to a number of potential risks andhealth hazards. Many stockmen work alo-ne, handling big, sometimes dangerousanimals as well as large groups of ani-mals. Several work tasks involve dailylifting, carrying of heavy loads and awk-ward working postures, which may cau-se overload injuries on the worker’s mu-sculoskeletal system. Other potential riskfactors contributing to accidents as wellas to physical health problems and phy-siological stress for the worker is the factthat they operate in an environment wherethey are exposed to airborne particles,gases, noise. The work environment ispartly the same environment, which isprovided for the animals, and it shouldbe noted that there is a strong relations-hip between the animal welfare issues andthe handling of the work environmentproblems in cattle houses.

10.2 Health and InjuriesAmong LivestockFarmers

10.2.1 Accident agentsIn an accident situation there is a com-plex interaction between man and injuryagents. In animal husbandry the humanis subjected to a high degree of exposureto a large number of factors that singlyor in combination can be accident pro-voking, such as animals, equipment andbuilding structures. Risky situations areoften due to wet and slippery floors aswell as systems for material and animalhandling.

10.2.2. Prevention of accidentsWith reference to accident statistics someaccident preventing facilities and mea-sures can be listed:• Good cattle handling and handling fa-

cilities (Section 10.3)• Pens from which the herdsman can

easily escape if necessary in case of forinstance frightened cattle and aggres-sive bulls

• Personnel passages through yardfences, properly placed

• Wide feeding passage or possibility toshut out the cattle from the feeding area

• Non slip flooring (see Chapter 4)• Satisfactory lighting considering qua-

lity and quantity (Table 10-1)• Well designed ladders and stairways• Protective railings around the fodder

hay-chute in two storey houses• Handles and bolts that do not stand out

in alleys and pathways• Protectors for the knuckles on barrows• Emergency stops on machinery

tion of gases and airborne particles com-monly referred to as dust. The particlesmay be liquid droplets or solid. Severalrespiratory disorders have been reported,which are associated with dust and workin confined livestock buildings such ashypersensitivity, pneumonia, acute in-flammation, chronic bronchitis, occupa-tional asthma and toxin fever. The respi-ratory problems connected to gases ran-ge from mild irritations of the respirato-ry tract to lethal effects. For the most fre-quent components in the air environmentin livestock buildings there are statutorythreshold limit values, which differ fromcountry to country.It should be noted that threshold limitvalues in connection with animal welfa-re in many countries often are lower thanthe work environment legislation.

10.2.5 Dust and dust reducingDust in animal houses is generated in-side the building and arises primarilyfrom the animals and bedding and feedmaterial. The airborne particles are of-ten carriers of biologically active mate-rial like endotoxins, pathogens and all-ergens that can highly be disease provo-king. Of special interest is the concen-tration (i.e. number of particles per airvolume) of respirable particles with adiameter less than 5 µm that can be inha-led and deposited in the lung. The smal-ler particle the higher possibility that theparticle reaches the lower respiratorytract and the deeper the particle is depo-sited the higher is the risk for illness. Evenif “common dust” can be seen by humaneyes (larger diameter than 100 µm), thevery small respirable particles cannot be,so we are indeed dealing with a danger oursenses are not able to detect.

There are basically four approaches thatcan be used for airborne dust reducing:

• Prevent particle formation• Prevent particle release• Remove suspended particles from

enclosed workspaces• Isolate workers from dust clouds in

workspace.

Building or work Intensity ofarea/Task illumination, lux

Animal housing area 150Animal handling area 250Veterinary treatment 1 000Feed processing, feed alley 250Silo, feed storage 100Ladders and stairs 250

Table 10-1: Recommended illumina-tion level for different work areas inbuildings used for beef production.Lux values refer to the work plane. Inaddition to the quantity, the quality oflight (i.e. colour of the light source,uniformity of illumination and glare)must be considered

10.2.3 ErgonomicsAny normally fit adult person, regardlessof sex, physical strength and body dimen-sions should be able to work comfortab-ly in livestock buildings. Despite an in-creasing degree of mechanisation andautomation many jobs in animal hus-bandry are still associated with liftingheavy loads, moving and carrying equip-ment, feed and other materials with ma-nual methods. An important step towardsimproved human welfare within cattlehousing is to eliminate unnecessary loadson the human musculoskeletal system.

10.2.4 Health aspects related toair quality

It has been known for decades that farmworkers suffer health risks due to inhala-

48

WORKING GROUP No 14


Of course the best approach in this mat-ter is to have the cattle and the workingsites outdoors or in open barns. In thecattle barn the most effective way toobtain a low dust concentration level isto prevent formation by always using hy-gienically perfect forage and beddingmaterial. Providing an effective ventila-tion system in a barn is a good practiceto remove suspended respirable partic-les as well as gases.

10.2.5 Gases and reduction ofgas levels

In animal buildings over 150 differentgases and volatile compounds have beenidentified. Most of the volatile com-pounds originate from biodegradation ofanimal excreta or are produced by theanimals themselves such as carbon dioxi-de (by the respiration of the animal). Thegases that are found in the highest eleva-ted concentrations are ammonia, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide and metha-ne. It must be emphasised that it is dan-gerous to enter any manure tank wit-hout either using a self-contained air sup-ply or combining several measures:testing the air, constant and adequate ven-tilation of fresh air and using an harnessand lifeline on the person entering thetank. As well, human and animals posi-tioned over a slatted floor with manurestorage underneath are at risk duringagitation, mixing or pumping of manuredue to the gases, especially hydrogen sul-phide. A good strategy is to evacuate dan-gerous zones during these manure-hand-ling actions.Ammonia: Ammonia is the most com-mon polluting gas in the atmosphere ofthe cattle barn. Animal manure is the mainsource of ammonia. The gas together withhydrogen sulphide a major component inwhat is termed odour, noticeable at am-monia concentrations of 5 ppm or more.Higher concentrations than that cause ir-ritation to the respiratory organs and canaggravate the negative health effects ofhigh dust concentra-tions.Many factors affect the emission and con-centration of ammonia such as air flowrate, manure and air temperature, manu-re surface area, density of animals, thedegree of mixing of urine and faeces, timeintervals between manuring, the pH-va-lue, carbon/nitrogen ratio, mois-ture con-tent and type of bedding. Consequently,

many measures can be taken such as: pro-per ventilation and sufficient number ofair changes, low air temperature in thebarn and good urine drainage characteri-stics of the floor.Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphideis the most toxic gas in animal confine-ment houses and 200 ppm and more arelethal for humans. The presence of thegas is of concern in buildings with liquidmanure systems particularly. During slur-ry clearing operations concentrations inthe range of 1 500 to 2 000 ppm havebeen reported.Since hydrogen sulphide is lethal the aimshould be to keep it below detectableconcentration at all working sites. Spe-cial care has to be taken when pumpingor agitating the manure. During empty-ing a slurry cellar the workers and theanimal should be evacuated from thebarn. In mechanical ventilated, closedanimal houses continuously evacuationof the gases in an indoor slurry pit throu-gh a perforated duct under the floor andalong the pit can reduce the gas concen-trations above the slatted floor. By remo-ving the slurry daily from the cattle barnto an outdoor storage it is possible to holdthe concentration at an accept-able level.Methane: Methane is generated whenmanure is stored under anaerobic condi-tions. This occurs in all non-aerated ma-nure storages. Primarily, methane is dan-gerous because of its flammability. Ifmethane is mixed in a proper proportionwith oxygen a spark will be able to setoff an explosion.Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is pre-sent in all air, indoor as well as outdoors.Only extremely high concentrations (70000 ppm or 7% and over) could have se-vere health effects. Mostly, incidents andaccidents involving carbon dioxide areconnected with asphyxiation due to oxy-gen deficiency rather than the direct ef-fect of carbon dioxide itself. For instance,it is dangerous to enter a haylage siloduring storing. In animal buildings thegas is more an indicator of ventila-tionefficiency than a health risk.10.2.6 NoiseNoise can be defined as ”unwantedsound, rapid, annoying pressure vibra-tion in the surrounding air”. Ventilationfans, grinders, vacuum pumps and me-chanical feeding and manure systems

generate noise. High sound levels are areal stress factor. Exposure to noise willbe able to cause temporary deafness andpermanent hearing loss after a variableperiod if the level is over 85 dB(A). Theunit, dB(A), is exponential and the hu-man sense of hearing will perceive thesound level as halving if a reduction of10 dB(A) occurs. It is fairly easy to re-duce the sound level of ventilation fansand other mechanical noise generators.Maximum noise level recommendationsand regulations differ from country tocountry.Furthermore, it is important to reducenoise when handling cattle in order toimprove animal movement and to makecattle handling safer. Cattle are more sen-sitive to high frequency noise than hu-man. Animals will be calmer and easierto handle, if noise level is reduced. Clan-ging and banging metal parts should besilenced with rubber pads. Equipmentoperated with hydraulics should be engi-neered for quietness.

10.3 Cattle Handling andCattle HandlingFacilities

Handling facilities are an essential partof a safe, easy and rapid handling of catt-le. Appropriate handling and handlingfacilities remove much of the stress andfrustration of the workmen, which inevi-tably occurs with excited, stubborn oraggressive animals. Properly constructedfacilities confine cattle safely and effi-ciently with minimal animal stress andrisk of injury to both cattle and workers.

10.3.1 Animal behaviour andimproving animal handling

Understanding cattle behaviour can helpfarm workers to avoid dangerous situati-ons and minimise accidents to handlers,as well as to design the handling facilitiesappropriately. Animals have naturalboundary called the Flight Zone (Figure10-1). Deep penetration into the FlightZone can cause panic and escape at-tempts. Handlers should have the possi-bility to remove, and should removethemselves from the Flight Zone, if theanimal becomes aggressive.To move an animal forward: stand in theshaded area position B, behind the Pointof Balance at the shoulder. Keep out of

49



the Blind Spot at the rear of the animal.To stop movement: back off to positionA. To make an animal back up: stand infront of the Point of Balance. To makean animal turn left or right: approach theanimal head on. Factors reducing ananimal’s Flight Zone size: frequent con-tact with people; history of gentle hand-ling; calm environment. Factors enlargingthe Flight zone: infrequent contact withpeople; history of rough or abusive hand-ling; excitement.To improve animal handling and animalmovement, many technical measures canbe taken such as:• Appropriate handling facility design

(Section 10.3.2).• Animals tend to move from a dark to a

more brightly lighted area. The lightshould illuminate the chute up ahead.Eliminate shadows and patches of lightand dark, which may confuse animals.An approach is to illuminate the entireworking area. Lamps should not shineinto the eyes of approaching animalsbecause glaring and blinding lightimpedes movement. Illuminationshould be uniform and diffuse.

• Prevent distractions, such as a chainhanging down in an entrance. Avoidsparkling reflection in a puddle, amoving reflection on a sheet of metalor bars of shadow across an otherwisesunlit alleyway. Dark colours can createshadow effects. Bright colours such aswhite and light yellow have been pro-ven satisfactory.

• Reduce noise (Section 10.2.6)

• Animals might refuse to move, if theycan see people ahead. Install shieldsto prevent animals from seeing fartherahead. Gates can be rigged with motorcontrols so a handler standing behindthe cattle can open them.

• Solid sides that prevent the cattle fromseeing outside the fences should beprovided in the races and crowdingpens. The crowding gate on the crow-ding pen should be solid as well, pre-venting animals from attempting toturn back to were they come from.

• Cattle are sensitive to changes in typeand texture of floors and fences. Chan-ges in type of flooring can cause bal-king. Use the same type of flooringthroughout a facility, if possible. Usenon-slip flooring. Drains should be lo-cated outside main drive alleys, chu-tes and crowd pens.

10.3.2 Cattle handling systemsA handling system has three main pur-poses: to sort, handle and treat cattle. Theparts and the requirements of a systemare (Figure 10-2):• Collection alley to move cattle from

the cattle house, pasture or feedlot tothe holding pen

• Sorting pens. Opening off the collec-tion alley or holding pens, or after theworking area

• Holding pens to hold either the wholeherd or groups of 30 -50 heads

• Crowding pen to move small groupsof 8 – 10 cattle into the working area

• Single file race, at least 6 m long tohold 3 – 4 cattle at once

• Loading chute• Crush, preferable type “walk-through”

and with a self-locking head-gate• Options such as scales, calf crush or

table, belly clipping crush, crush equip-ped for claw-trimming, access kioskfor artificial insemination and gynaeco-logical examinations, shelf near thecrush for veterinarian’s equipment andmaterials, the availability of hot andwarm water near the crush

The current trend in the design of cattleworking facilities is to use circular crow-ding areas and working chutes (Figure10-3). The circular designs take advan-tages of cattle’s tendency to circle andcrowd towards the outside of a curvedpassage. Cattle can normally be workedin less time with a round crowding penand a curved race than a straight one.Round crowding pens should be laid outso the cattle make a 180° turn as theymove though the crowding pen.However, a straight-line designed (Figu-re 10-5) as well as a corner located wor-king unit (Figure 10-7) are area savingalternatives, especially valid for smallherds of cattle and indoor, respectively.Some corral and working facility dimen-sions are given in table 10-2.Some facilities and detailed solutionsimprove the human safety in cattle hand-ling systems:• Catwalk around the crowding pen, and

working and loading chute allows the

Figure 10-1: The flight zone of animals (GRANDIN, 1999a). Figure 10-2: Components of a cattle-handling system(BORG, 1994).

SH

S

L

50

WORKING GROUP No 14


Figure 10-3: Layout for a curved handling system. If thesingle file race is bent too sharply where it joins the crow-ding pen, the cattle may refuse to enter, because it lookslike a dead end. Cattle standing in the round crowdingpen must be able to see a minimum of three body lengthsup to the single file chute before the curve begins (GRAN-DIN, 1999b)

Figure 10-5: A straight-line designed working unit (Institutde l’Elévage & Mutualité Sociale Agricole, 1993).

Figure 10-6: A sorting unit, for instance for a suckler herd(Institut de l’Elévage & Mutualité Sociale Agricole, 1993).

Figure 10-7: A corner located working unit (BICKERT etal., 2000)

Figure 10-8: Straight sided (left) and half tapered (right) racedesign. The width, the width at 80 cm height and width atbottom are given in table 10.2., Tapered race allows wor-king with different animal size, but involves risk to get stuckif animals lie down in the race.

Figure 10-4: Basic Layout for a working unit

Catwalk

Race

Kiosk

Crushwith headgate

Crowding area

Loading chute

51



Animal Size, kgEquation 200 300 400 500 600 700a

Pen SpaceHolding pen, heldovernight, m²/head HAon= 6*L*W 2,4 3,1 3,9 4,6 5,2 5,9Catch or holding penb, HA = 2,3*L*W 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,0m2/head2,3Crowding pen, m2/head CA = 1,4*L*W 0,6 0,7 0,9 1,1 1,2 1,4

Race with vertical sidesWidth, m WR = 1,3*W 0,44 0,52 0,60 0,66 0,71 0,78Length (minimum), m LR = 4,2*L 4,9 5,5 6,0 6,3 6,7 6,9

Race with sloping sidesWidth at bottom insideclear, m WRb = 0,85*W 0,30 0,35 0,40 0,43 0,47 0,51Width at 80 cm height WR = 1,3*W 0,44 0,52 0,60 0,66 0,71 0,78inside clear, mLength (minimum), m LR = 4,2*L 4,9 5,5 6,0 6,3 6,7 6,9

Race fenceHeight (minimum), m HR = 1,15*H 1,25 1,36 1,46 1,53 1,59 1,63

Corral fenceHeight, m HC = 1,25*H 1,36 1,49 1,59 1,66 1,73 1,78Loading chute

Width, m WL = 1,4*W 0,48 0,56 0,64 0,71 0,77 0,84Length (minimum), m 3,7 3,7 3,7 3,7 3,7 3,7Rise (maximum), m/m 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,25

a including cow-calf operationsb worked immediately

Table 10-2: Corral and working facility dimension. L, W and H, respectively inthe equations correspond to body dimensions of beef cattle according to Chap-ter 3. Dimensions of facilities related to animal size are calculated from CIGRstandard (Table 3-1)

handler to see over a high, solid fence,follow the cattle and manoeuvre ani-mals while avoiding direct animal con-tact. The catwalk should be minimum60 cm wide, or wide enough to provi-de a comfortable surface. The catwalkheight should be 90 – 110 cm belowthe top of the fence or at belt buckleheight, if one stands on the catwalk.With any less, there is a danger of topp-ling into the pen or race. Access to thecatwalk should be provided by steps.Catwalks and walkways that are morethan 60 cm off the ground should havehandrails for worker safety (Figure10-9).

• Optional footholes/toe slots or es-cape boards/rails along solid sidesinside pens at a 60 cm height will maketoe ledges, if one has to make a quickexit from the pen. High solid fences(over 180 cm high) should have grabrail to facilitate the escape.

• Personnel passages, 36 cm wide, wellplaced in yard fences for hasty retreat.The two plank pieces in Figure 10-10in the gap are intended to keep calvesinside the fold, but the planks can bedesigned to be removable.

• Personnel gates, 45 cm wide, springloaded, no latches, open inward towardthe cattle. Personnel escape gates areespecially important in confined areaswith solid fences such as the crowdingpen where the handler may be deep inthe animal’s flight zone (Figure 10-11).

• One-way gates, to prevent cattle ba-cking in the race (Figure 10-12) are asafer alternative to pipes placed behindanimals in the race. If backstops arenot installed and pipes must be used,be sure the pipe is between the cattleand worker. If not, a worker can becaught between the pipe and the chuteor fence if the animal backs up beforethe pipe is extended through the race.One-way gates should be adjusted toblock an animal 15 – 20 cm below thetop of the tail head. How-ever, toomany backstop gates may cause bal-king and stop cattle movement throughthe facility. Install the one-way gate atleast two body lengths up the race bey-ond the crowding pen, or let the one-way gate at the entrance be either tiedopen or remote controlled so it can beopen as the animals enter.

Figure 10-9: Cross-section of a catwalkwith handrails.

Figure 10-10: A personnel passage ofa wooden yard fence.

Figure 10-11: A personnel gate in a so-lid yard fence

Figure 10-12: One type of a one-waygate (BORG, 1994).

100

cm

60 cm

HandrailSolid sides

Catwalk

Race

Concrete

52

WORKING GROUP No 14


• Special bull pen with several person-nel passages (Figure 10-13)

• Hydraulically powered restraintequipment often is safer than ma-nually operated facilities, becauseprotruding lever arms are eliminated.In addition, a well-designed hydrau-lic crush takes less effort to use, isfaster and sturdier than a manuallyoperated crush. However, the pres-sure relief valve must correctly beset. Extreme pressure can cause se-vere injuries to both people and ani-mals.

• Latching devices and protrudinglever arms cause many injuries and arecommonly described as “head-knok-kers” and “jaw-breakers”. To decrea-se the accidents, it is important to keepthe latching devices well maintainedand to avoid lever arms that protrudetoo long.

• Veterinarians performing rectal pal-pation might be injured, if a cow liesdown and jams veterinarians arm. Userestraining methods that help circum-vent this problem, e.g. types of head

gates that reduce the risk of animalchoking and going down.

• Accidents occur when treating animals,which are caught around their hips bythe head gates. To reduce the temptati-

Figure 10-13: Bull pen with personnel passages and a central column.

on of working on an animal that is halfout of the crush, install a sorting gatein front of the crush and a separate hol-ding pen. Then the animal is easily movedback through the crush for reworking.

53

References


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WORKING GROUP No 14


design recommendations of beef cattle housing

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