decorative parts and precious artifacts at ebla

DECORATIVE PARTS AND PRECIOUS ARTIFACTS AT EBLAAuthor(s): Massimo MaiocchiSource: Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 62 (2010), pp. 1-24Published by: The American Schools of Oriental ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41103867 .

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DECORATIVE PARTS AND PRECIOUS ARTIFACTS AT EBLA

Massimo Maiocchi (Venice)

1. Introduction

The complexity of the third-millennium b.c. Ebla city-state is a well-known topic among scholars, who have analyzed important aspects of precious-metal circulation: the standardization of common artifacts,1 the high functionaries involved in their transfers,2 the administrative tools of accountability required to trace goods and persons,3 and their role in international and local trade and gifts.4 Despite the fact that the large-scale transfer of precious metal has been studied extensively, revealing important clues for our understanding of the general trends of economic and political systems in third-millennium Syria,5 approximately one hundred records of small deli- veries of manufactured goods are yet to be studied in full. Over the years, the analysis of the organization of Ebla has been handicaped by philological difficulties, mainly due to the extensive use of sumerograms in the texts, the omission of grammatical morphemes, and to our incomplete understanding of the local language. Recent impro- vements in our undertanding of Eblaite writing practices have provided insight into many such issues.6 This pro- gress allows us to reconsider some of the published material to investigate in detail the administrative procedures

A prelimiary draft of this paper was presented to the joint seminar Cultural History of Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C., Venice, 7-9 June 2004, Università Ca Foscari, Venezia, Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichità e del Vicino Oriente; Universität Wien, Institut für Orientalistik. In the transliterations, readings that differ from the actual edition are marked with "!! ."

1. This practice fulfills various needs: control by the central administration to simplify accounting procedures; mass production to satisfy a great number of requests quickly; and easily trading precious objects, whose weight was approximately known on the basis of their typology. On the standardization of artifacts see Archi 1985a; Milano 1991; Pomponio 1998b; Zaccagnini 1991.

2. Especially noteworthy are the contributions of Tir, Ibrium, and Ibbi-Zikir. See Pomponio 1984 and 1988. 3. Many documents are classified in the colophons as "tablet of incoming goods" (dub-gar mu-kux[DU]), "tablet of outcoming goods"

(dub-gar è), "tablet of received goods" (dub lú su ba4- ti), "tablet of purchases" (dub -gar nig- sám), see Milano 1980. 4. Precious metals were traded both in non- worked drops of silver and gold, and cast in artifacts, see Pinnock 1991; Archi 1993b. Va-

luable objects were also given as gifts to foreign delegations from Mari, A.BAR.SAL, Kis, Armi, Dulu, Dub, Harran, Imar, Kakmium (see, e.g., the ceremonial weapons offered by the Eblaite administration to foreign kings in ARET I 12 o. i 10- ii 6), or presented to the temples of Kura, Ammarik, and Astapl.

5. The attention of modern scholars has been particularly focused on about thirty documents classified on the basis of the colophons as annual accounts of metals, or textiles and metals. These long tablets register huge amounts of silver and gold cast in artifacts brought (mu- kujDU]) by court personnel. For such reason, they have been considered the starting point in the debate on third-millennium "economy" at Ebla. Through the annual account it was in fact possible to establish some fixed points on the internal chronology of the texts (see Archi 1986; Biga and Pomponio 1990), following the rise of power of the Syrian capital city (see Pomponio 1982; Archi 1985b).

6. In connection with the topic of this article, particularly noteworthy is the correct comprehension of es as "that is, what is left is, then," previously read AB and understood as "(goods) available." For a discussion on this term with previous bibliography see Waetzoldt 2001: 35-36.

I JCS62(2010)



2 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

of the capital city, focusing particularly on daggers and decorative disks (DIB), the most commonly mentioned artifacts of the Ebla archive.

2. Daggers (gir)

The only excavated example of a third-millennium Syrian dagger is a bronze blade found in level IV A Ebla.7 The central motif is created by the superimposition of two metal layers, a technique epigraphically attested as ni- zi-mu (written also ne-zi-mu). There is also an iconographie representation on a marble inlay,8 showing a prisoner killed by a figure holding a dagger with a knob, probably to be identified with agir mar-tu ga-me-u4 "mar- tu

dagger with knob" (see below). The blade of the dagger shows also the ni-zi-mu feature, rendered as two parallel lines in the inlay.

Daggers often occur together with textiles (ib -la "ceremonial belt," and si-ti-tum, "sheath" or "pendant")9 and are sometimes decorated with precious metals. The bodies of these artifacts are usually made of bronze, with a va- riable percentage of tin. The fact that their alloys seem not especially hard and that decorative parts are often added to them (see Archi 1993a: 620-21), suggest that they were not designed to be used as actual weapons. In order to better appreciate the amount of precious metal utulized in these artifacts, as well as their circulation among the Eblaite administration, one has to classify them according to their peculiarities.

2. 1 Typology of Daggers

The term gir, "dagger," may occur alone or in connection with other terms. Besides gì r mar-tu, the documents mention gir kun, gir na-ba-hu, gir nídba, gir sum, and gir tur.10 All of these are extremely rare in the Ebla texts. On the contrary, the mar-tu (written also tu:mar and mar) and kun types are very well attested. These artifacts are usually made of bronze, with additional parts made of gold and/or silver.11

2.2 gir mar-tu

Mar-tu daggers are by far the most frequently mentioned in the Ebla archives. It seems reasonable to assume that this kind of dagger originates in the Martu region, despite the fact that people belonging to Amorites tribes in Nothern Syria are seldom refered to at Ebla.12 As recently noted by Fronzaroli (2003: 179), these ceremonial artifacts were sold by professionals called BAD gir mar-tu, lit. "owner of a mar-tu dagger" to merchants/messen-

gers (u5). These sellers may be connected with the elusive (semi) -nomadic clans or families under Eblaite control.

7. See Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 334. 8. See Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 275. 9. On the term si-ti-tum see Waetzoldt 2001: 70; Pasquali 2005: 175-76. 10. The term gir kun probably refers to a metallic part attached to sheath and belt; see below § 2.5. As far as gir na-ba-hu is concerned,

the only mention of this kind of dagger is found in MEE II 16 v. I 3, among the gifts (nig-ba) for Enna-Dagan. G. Pettinato translates "lucente"

and relates the term to Akk. nabihu "(golden) ornament" or naphu "shining" (MEE II commentary ad no. 16 r. I 3, p. 115); but Pasquali (2005:

67-71) convincingly argues that this refers to rock crystal. A golden gir sum, lit. "hacksaw," or "slaughter-knife," is mentioned in MEE X 20

r. XVII 27. 11. The most informative document on the metallurgical composition of mar-tu daggers is probably MEE XII 37 r. i 26-iv 3, listing the

amount of tin and copper to be melted in order to obtain bronze for the main parts of these artifacts and the amount of silver to be exchanged for gold to make the relative decorations (zi-du). For a discussion and classification of these artifacts see below.

12. See Archi 1987: 12. For a discussion on Amorite presence at Ebla as well as in other third-millennium sources see Buccellati 1992:

83-104, with previous bibliography.



DECORATIVE PARTS AND PRECIOUS ARTIFACTS AT EBLA 3

The value of mar-tu daggers could be increased by adding decorations made of precious materials. Accor- dingly, subclasses of mar-tu daggers may be listed alphabetically as follows:

a) gir mar-tu " à-ma-da-num. The term "à-ma-da-num has been interpreted recently by Pasquali (2005: 103- 4) as "di qualità eccellente, pregiato," by comparison with the West Semitic root *bmd. This designation occurs only three times in the Ebla tablets, in connection with daggers made with one or more precious metals.13 Accor- ding to ARET VII 42 o. II 1-4, a handle could be added to these objects: 2 ku:babbar / 1 gir

3 a-ma-da-num I Vi ku:babbar I ga-ma-a-tum-su, "2 shekels of silver: 1 excellent mar-tu dagger; Vi shekel of silver: its handle." This may imply that "à-ma-da-nûm refers to the quality of the metal (usually an alloy of silver and gold) and not to a specific kind of dagger.

b) gir mar-tu Dó-NE-LUM. The etymology of à-NE-LUM is unclear. The term is perhaps to be compared with fl-NE-LUM, read a-bi-lum in ARET VII 68 o. II 1 in relation to a jar (la -ha) of precious metal. The alterna- tion of 'à- and a- in word initial position is a common phenomenon in Eblaite orthography,14 possibly resulting from the dropping of the initial radical. Depending on the context, the term a-bi-lum has been interpreted either as "sostegno (per vasi)" from the root *wW,15 or as "consumed/drossed (part)," by comparison with Akk. abälu "to dry up" (see Archi 2005: 40). Moreover, on the basis of a possible existing parallel, a-bi-lum has also been compared with ga-bi-lum, related to Akk. kablu, "leg of a piece of furniture" (see Archi 1999: 154 n. 32). As far as daggers are concerned, the term Dó-NE-LUM could be read "à-bi-lum and related to Akk. labïru, "old, ancient, traditional, inherited, used," with the dropping of initial /I/ and the common shift of /I/ to It I in final position. If the sign NE is to be read li9 (see Krebernik 1982: 196-97), one could also consider the reading °à-H9-lum; see alälu (halälu) "to suspend, to hang," in relation to an additional element designed to hang the dagger and the sheath from the belt. In this case, the term could be the Semitic equivalent of gir kun, see §2.5. Due to the paucity of attestations and to interpretive difficulties, further details (such as the amount of precious metal involved, and its circulation among Eblaite personnel) remain unknown.16

e) gir mar-tu ba-du-u^ also written ba-du-u9 and ba-du. The additional element is probably a metallic ring used for hanging the sheath on the belt. The etymology of ba-du-uAI9 remains unclear: Waetzoldt (1990: 9) follows Pettinato (MEE II commentary ad no. 20 o. VIII 6, p. 151?) in relating this term the Semitic root *pth "to open;" Archi (1993b: 621) translates "fodero" by analogy with Old-Akk. ba'iyum "a platter or container;" Pasquali (2005: 112) relates ba-du-u4/9 to Akk. napdu, "tie, bandage," but agree with Waetzoldt on the function of this element as a link between dagger and belt or garment. According to MEE VII 34 r. XIX 12-14 this decorative part is quite valuable: 7 gin DILMUNku:babbar ba-du-uA 1 gir m ar-tu-sw, "7 heavy shekels (of) silver (for) the ring of his dagger." Rings made out of both silver and gold are also attested, but is unclear if we are dealing with metal alloys

13. SeeARETl44o. V7-10:4kù:babbar /sub s/-m/kù-sig17/ kin5-ak 1 gir mar-tu 'à-ma-da-nûm "4 shekels of silver to be melted with gold to make 1 excellent mar-tu dagger"; ARET VII 38 r. I 1-3: 14 kù-sig17 / 4 ku:babbar / kin5-ak 1 gir mar-tu 'à-ma-da-nûm "14 shekels of gold (and) 4 shekels of silver to make 1 excellent mar-tu dagger"; ARET VII 42 o. II 1-4 (for transliteration and translation see below).

14. See for instance the spelling of the toponym a-ruu-gúki in ARET III 118 r. I 6, attested also as 'à-rul2-gûk[ in ARET I 8 o. XII 10 et passim.

15. See Pasquali 2005: 97. The existence of an object called NE.LUM, possibly a kind of clasp, may lead us to speculate that 'ä-NE-LUM could also be a defective writing for 'à-<lum> NE.LUM.The reading of NE.LI as dè-li or tix-li (and consequently of NE.LUM as dè-lum or tix-lum) "fermaglio" has been suggested by Pettinato in Mander (1982: 236). Contra Waetzoldt (MEE XII: 58) stressing that the term may be understood either as a "Schmuckstück," "Gerät," or "Waffe"

16. Only two instances are known to me: ARET XII 607 II' 5'; 1 155 II' 1'.



4 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

(perhaps as a result of remelting practices; see § 5 below) rather than different metallic parts.17 Their purchase price fluctuates between 4 shekels (~ 31.32 g) and 9 DILMUN shekels of silver (~ 105.75 g).18

d) gir mar- tu ga-me-ù} also written ga-me-u9>19 ga-mi-ù20 ga-ma-(a)-tum,21 and ga-me.22 The term has been understood as a metallic part, probably a knob or a decoration in the handle.23

A couple of texts give us some clues on these additional parts. MEE VII 47 r. IV 10-15 reads: sa-pi gin DILMUN ku:babbar / nun-za 20 gir mar-tu ti kùrbabbar / TAR ku:babbar / su-bal-ak / 6 gin DILMUN ku- sig17 / ga-ma-a-tum-sù "40 heavy shekels of silver (for) the decoration of 20 mar-tu daggers with silver point; 30 (shekels) of silver to be exchanged for 6 heavy shekels of gold (for) their knobs." One infers 0.3

heavy shekels (~ 3.52 g) of gold for the knob of each dagger. More frequently gir mar-tu ga-me-ii kuibabbar, "mar-tu daggers with silver knob," are mentioned. The amount of precious metal involved in this type of artifacts fluctuates between half shekel (~ 3.91 g) and V/z heavy shekel (~ 15.27 g),24 the latter being the figure mentioned in MEEXll 37 o. XVIII 28-33: 18 gin DILMUN nagga / sub si-in 2 ma-na su+sa 4 gin DILMUN a-gar5-gar5 / 10 lá-2 gir mar-tu / 10 gin DILMUN2NI/ku:babbar I ga-ma-a-tum-su, "18 heavy shekels of tin to be melted

together with 2 mina 44 heavy shekels of copper: 8 mar-tu daggers; 102/3 heavy shekels of silver: their knobs." e) gir mar-tu kù:babbar, gir mar-tu kù- s ig 17. "Golden" daggers are by far the most frequently men-

tioned in the documentation. Despite their designation, these are made of bronze (~ 237.94 g according to MEE XII 37 r. II 4-10). The shape and size of the additional parts is unkown. According to the above-mentioned MEE XII 37 r. II 4-10, the added part is composed by 6 gin DILMUN (~ 70.5 g) of gold. Their price fluctuates between 90 gì n DILMUN (~ 1057.5 g) and 10 gin DILMUN (~ 1 17.5 g). "Silver" daggers are less frequently attested. They usually appear in connection with precious textiles or as gifts related to foreign cities.25

f) gí r mar- tu GIS.SAL. This object is seldom mentioned in the documentation,26 although there are passages recording a hundred items.27 The meaning of GIS.SAL is uncertain, being listed in VE 361 without translation. As already pointed out by Waetzoldt (1990: 10), the similarity with Sumerian SAL.US may suggest that we are

dealing with a "sheath of a dagger."28 This part is usually made of, or decorated with silver or, less frequently, gold, as showed in MEE X 20 r. XI 18-23: 2 gin DILMUN ku:babbar / 1 GIS.SAL / 10 gin DILMUN kir.babbar / su-bal-ak / 2 gin DILMUN kù-sig17 / nun-za-sw, "2 heavy shekels of silver: a sheath; 10 heavy shekels of silver to be exchanged for 2 heavy shekels of gold: his decoration." Hence, the above-mentioned sheath hoards in total

17. See MEE VII 29 r. IX 6'-9': 8 gin DILMUN kù:babbar níg-sám lgír mar-tu ba-du-u4kù:b abbar ku-sig17 t/-ra-ANmaskim- sù "8 heavy shekels of silver: price of 1 golden mar-tu dagger (with) ring of silver (and) gold: Ura-AN his agent;" MEE VII 47 r. vi 15-18: 5 gin DILMUN kù:babbar níg-sám lgír mar-tu ba-du-u4 kù:babbar-sig17 Pu-ma-Nl Gú-ra-kulk' "5 heavy shekels of silver: the price of 1

mar-tu dagger (with) ring of silver (and) gold: Puma-NI (from) Gurakul";M££ VII 47 v. XIII 8- 10: lOgin DILMUN ku:babbar níg-sám 1 gir mar-tu ba-du-uA ku:babbar-sig17 En-na-Nl lú Bíl-za-Nl, "10 heavy shekels of silver: the price of 1 mar-tu dagger (with) ring of

silver (and) gold: Enna-NI the "man" (of) Pilsa-NI." 18. For the interpretation of gin DILMUN in terms of the so-called "Anatolian" standard of ~ 11.75 g, and the translation 'heavy for

DILMUN see Maiocchi 2005. In the present article I assumed a mina of- 470 g = 60 "Eblaite'shekels of- 7.83 g = 50 "Syrian" shekels of- 9.40

g = 40 "Anatolianshekels of - 1 1.75 g. Where not specified in the tablets, I assumed that the "Eblaite" shekel is intended. 19. Ai*FTXII335o.Vl. 20. M££X20v.XXIII17. 21. MEE VII 34 r. XIX 12'; 47 r. IV 15. 22. ARETXll 443 II' 1'; 469 r.? I' 1'; 1117 II' 5' (gir ga-me). 23. See Pasquali 2005: 131-32; DAgostino 1V96: 218; Waetzoldt îyyu: lu-ll. 24. For a 0.8 shekels decoration (~ 6.26 g) see ARET VII 42 r. III 2-v. I 2: TAR-6 a-gar5-gar5 5 gir 5 ma-za-u 4 ku:DaDDar ga-m[a'-a-

tum-sù "36 (shekels) of copper (for) 5 daggers (and) 5 ..., 4 (shekels) of silver (for) their knobs." 25. See for instance ARET IV 15 o. VIII 7-8. 26. See ARET II 30 o. vi 9 (where the dagger is not denoted as mar-tu); ARET III 378 r. II 1'; ARET XII 424 I' 1'; 1491 II' 1'; MEE XII 37

r. Ill 27, XVII 8. 27. See ARET III 378 r. II 1' and also ARETXll 424 I' 1', where the number of daggers is only partially preserved. 28. On the term SAL.US in third- millennium sources see Steinkeller and Postgate 1992: 37-38.




~ 47 g of both silver and gold.29 Another instance is provided by MEE XII 37 r. Ill 24-33, where 2V4 heavy shekels of tin are melted together with 18 heavy shekels of copper to produce the dagger itself (~ 237.94 g of bronze), while Wi shekels of gold (~ 1 1.75 g) are used for its decoration.

g) gir mar-tu ra-'à-tum. The term ra-'à-tum denotes either a decoration made of a material derived from some aquatic animal (presumably shell), or a handle possibly made of this material.30 According to TM. 75. G. 10236 r. II 6-14, the price of this item is 1 DILMUN shekel (~ 1 1.75 g of silver).

h) gir mar-tu ruu-du-ga-tum. The term run-du-ga-tum is related to the West Semitic root *rtq, "to bind." It has been suggested that this term denotes the mounting for decorative parts, usually made of silver.31 Note especially: MEE XII 35 o. XVII 16-30: VA nagga / sub si-in I 2 ma-na TAR a-gar5-gar5 / 1 gir mar-tu / 1 ma-na sa-pi gin DILMUN kù:babbar / su-bal-ak / su + sa gin DILMUN kù-sig17 / nun-za-sw / 1 gin DILMUN kù:babbar / run-du-ga-tum I zu-LAGABxME llsi-sù "Wi (shekels) of tin to be melted with 2 minas 30 (shekels) of copper: 1 mar-tu dagger; 1 mina 40 heavy shekels of silver to be exchanged for 20 heavy shekels of gold: its decoration; 1 heavy shekel of silver: the mounting of a lahmu-hook32 (and) 2 horns (inlaid?)." Note also TM 75.2428 r. I 33-11 2 (not collated), where the term mar-tu is omitted: Wi ku:babbar / su-bal-ak / Vi kù- sig17 / Vi ZU.PIRIG / 2 gir / 4 gin DILMUN ku:babbar / zi-du-su II 2 NI kù:babbar / run-du-ga-tum-sù "P/2 (shekel) of silver to be exchanged for Vi (shekel) of silver: Vi lion( -decoration)?33 (of) 2 daggers; 4 heavy shekels of silver: their decorations; % (shekel) of silver: their mountings." Hence, the Eblaite run-du-ga-tum is probably to be considered as Semitic equivalent of Sumerian kesda.

i) gir mar-tu ti. This type of dagger is characterized by a precious point, or a precious side part.34 Its purchase price is stated in MEE VII 47 r. VI 7-11: su + sa-5 gin DILMUN kù:babbar níg-sám 1 gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 77-ra-NI maskim En-mar su-du8 in Ma-rikì"25 heavy shekels of silver: purchase price of 1 mar-tu dagger with golden point: Tira-NI, agent of Enmar, collector/has collected35 in the city of Mari." The bodies of these artifacts hoarded ~ 123.33 g of copper, see MEE VII 34 r. XIX 17: 26 ma-na sa-pi a-gar5-gar5 UNKEN- ak 1 mi-at mar-tu ti [...] "26 minas 40 (shekels) of copper to make 100 mar-tu daggers with point (...)." The term ti is sometimes denoted as 'à-lum, to be connected with akk. ellu, "clean, pure, holy, sacred,"36 possibly with cultic implications. The purchase price of "à-lum daggers fluctuates between 15 and 20 (heavy) shekels of silver.37 An additional element denoted as an -dui is attested in TM.75.G.1560 o. V 8 and TM.75.G.1560 r. VIII 1, both concerning gir mar-tu ti an-dùl kù-sig17.

j) gir mar-tu zú, zú-ak, zú-LAGABxA and variants.38 The term denotes probably a decoration at the end of the blade, perhaps in the shape of a hook or a tooth.39 The bilingual lists give the translation KA. AN. A.LAGABxHAL

29. The figure is slightly different from the one offered by Waetzoldt (1990:9), who does not take into consideration the fact that the shekels mentioned in the text are referred to as DILMUN (see above note 18).

30. See Pasquali 2005: 72-76; Waetzoldt 1990: 15. 31. See Pasquali 2005: 88-89; Waetzoldt 1990: 11-12. 32. The term z ú -LAGABxME is apparently a variant of z ú -LAGABx A, see below. 33. On the term ZU.PIRIG see § 2.6. 34. This guess is merely based on the equivalence ti = sêlu "side (as a structural part of a manufactured object)," see CAD S sub sêlu and

AHwsub sê/ïlu. Accordingly, Waetzold (1990: 16) translates gir mar-tu ti as "Martu-Dolch mit Mittelrippe." 35. On the meaning of the term su-duö see Pomponio 2003. 36. See CAD E sub ellu: Pasquali 2005: 103; Waetzoldt 1990: 14-15. 37. See Waetzoldt 1990: 15 with references, and Table 1. 38. The term zu-LAGABxA is mentioned in ARET I 16 o. XI 2, ARET II 30 o. V 6, and in TM.75.G.1447 o. II 2. Other known va-

riants are: gir mar-tu zú -AN. A.LAGABxHAL (VE 202b), gir mar-tu zu-AN.LAGABxHAL (ARET III 109 o. II 2'), gir mar-tu zu- AN.LAGABxHAL.A (ARET III 630 o. Ill 2'; 635 v. IV 5), gir mar-tu zú-LAGABxHAL (MEE XII 37 r. XVII 4), gir mar-tu zu-AN. LAGABxAN (ARET III 302 o. I 1'; 864 o. Ill 1'), gir mar-tu zu-LAGABxAN (ARET III 831 o. I 2'), gir ma-tu zú-AN.A.AMA (MEE II 49 o. VII 3; M££XII 25 v. V 7), gir mar-tu zú-AMA (ARETW 15 o. V 9), gir AN.A.AMA (ARET VII 9 o. IV 4; M££XII 25 o. XI 5), gir zú-AN.A.AMA (ARET VII 16 o. Ili 5).

39. For zú-ak as "hook" see D'Agostino 1995, contra Waetzoldt 1990: 14 n. 76.



6 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

= si-nu a-ha-mu/ m'x' (VE 202b = MEE 4, 221) "tooth" (the sign KA hence has to be read zu = sinnu) possibly of a

deity related to water.40 Some information on the metallurgical composition of these artifacts is provided in ARET III 630 o. Ill l'-2': 3 ma-na su + sa gin DILMUN an-na / sub 26 gir mar-tu zu LAGABxHAL-a "3 minas 20 heavy shekels of tin: (for?) fusing of 26 mar-tu daggers with a hook."

Additional parts denoted as si, "horn(s)," are, on one occasion at least, purchased on the market, as stated in MEE VII 34 o. XVIII 7-11: 1 ma-na nagga / kin5-ak / rxn mi-at gir mar-tu zabar / rxn ma-na rx1 gin DILMUN ku:babbar /níg-sám / si-si-sw. It is unclear if the term si refers to horns or to a horn inlay. The reference to horn in connection with mar-tu daggers is exceptional.

Other terms related to daggers are mah, "heavy, big"; hul, "of bad quality"; sa6, "of good quality"; gib il, "new"; and lib ir, "old." The terms nun-za (read also s ir- za)41 and zi-du are also often mentioned in connection with daggers and other artifacts, denoting a precious ornament usually made of gold. Most probably, both of these terms simply mean "decoration."42 Hence, they do not denote a particular kind of dagger, as opposed to the ones listed above, but rather an artifact with additional parts.43 It is also noteworthy that decorations referred to as

nuH-za occur without further reference to the object they modify.44 This fact implies that they are evaluated per se, as other standardized items often are, and could circulate independently from the original artifact they were

originally attached to. As far as daggers as concerned, some relevant data are given in ARET VIII 534 (= MEE V

14)45o. IV3'-4':21/2gín DILMUN bar6:kù /nu u-za 1 gir mar-tu Ib-al6k[ "2 Vi heavy shekels: the decoration of 1 mar-tu dagger: the city of Ibal"; note also ARET VIII 534 (= MEE V 14) o. IX 5'-12': 9 gin DILMUN kir.babbar / su-bal-ak / 3!! gin DILMUN ku-sig17 / nun-za 1 gir mar-tu 10 ku-SAL / nig-ba / en / d'À-da I lú ha- lamki "9 heavy shekels of silver to be exchanged for 3 heavy shekels of gold: the decoration (of) 1 mar-tu dagger (and?) 10 straps:46 gift (of) the king (to) the god 'Ada, the one of Halam."

2.3 The Classification oj 'mar-tu Daggers

In order to understand better the circulation of these artifacts among officials and court personnel, we have to

classify the various types according to their value, that is according to the amount of precious metals used to make them. The prices (níg-sám) of mar-tu daggers are summarized in Table 2. One notes that the kind denoted as

gir mar-tu kù- s ig 17 is by far the most frequently purchased. Its value varies from 60 to 40 shekels of silver, but

exceptional values are also attested. Other mar-tu daggers, however, such as ' à-ma-da-num, Dó-NE-LUM, ga- me-uy GIS.SAL, ra-'à-tum, and rul2-du-ga-tum are never purchased. This may be explained partly by the paucity of attestations of some of these varieties. The reason for lack of information on the prices of gir mar-tu ga-me-u-a well-attested class of artifact - is not evident.

By correlating the figures in Table 2 with the content of some texts listing various types of daggers it is possible to classify some of these artifacts in decreasing order of value, as shown in Table I:47

40. Taking a-ha-mu as a writing for lahmu or lahamu, see Pomponio and Xella 1984: 27-28. 41. On the reading of this term see Waetzoldt 2001: 51, with previous bibliography. 42. The term zi-du has been connected either to Akk. sïtum, sâdu, or sïdu, see Mander {MEE X, 92). For a possible interpretation as a

Semitic equivalent of Sumerian nu n-za see Fronzaroli 1996: 64. Pasquali (2005: 93-94) points out a possible connection with the Semitic root

*wsm "to be decorated." 43. This is evident from MEE XII 37 r. I 26-IV 1, where precious parts belonging to various types ol daggers (gir mar-tu ku-sig17, gir

mar-tu yà-lum, gir mar-tu ti, gir mar-tu ba-du-u4, gir mar-tu GIS.SAL) are denoted as zi-du. 44. See for instance MEE VII 2 r. XI 4. 45. MEE V reads the initial figure as s u s a n a x, without further comments. The photo provided in ARET VIII actually supports the reading 2.

46. These items are often quoted with harnasses, as already noted by Lahlouh and Catagnoti (2006: 559, with previous references;, wno

translate kù-SAL as "monile." For further references see Civil 2008: 16, 114, 121, 123. 47. See especially ARET IV 16 r. XIV! 8-XIII1 4 (a list of artifacts).; ARETXll 335 o. V l'-2', VII 3-6, r. 1 1'-5', VII l'-6', VIII l'-5 (a record




Table i. The Classification of mar- tu Daggers.

Type [ Translation Daggers with golden parts

0 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 golden mar- tu dagger ìj gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 "à-lum mar-tu dagger with a "pure" gold point

gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 mar-tu dagger with a gold point gir mar-tu ba-du-umkx'-sigl7 mar-tu dagger with a gold ring gir mar-tu GIS.SAL (ku-sig17) mar-tu dagger with a (gold) sheath? gir mar-tu ga-me-ù k'x-s''gi7 mar-tu dagger with a golden handle gir mar-tu zu-AN.LAGABxHALku-sig17 mar-tu dagger with golden lahmu-hook

Daggers with silver parts gir mar-tu kù:babbar silver mar-tu dagger gir mar-tu ti kù:babbar mar-tu dagger with a silver point gir mar-tu ba-du-u4 ku:babbar mar-tu dagger with a silver ring gir mar-tu GlS.SAL mar-tu dagger with a (silver) sheath? gir mar-tu ga-me-ù kùibabbar mar-tu dagger with a silver handle (gir mar-tu zu-AN.LAGABxHAL) (mar-tu dagger with a (silver) lahmu-hook)

I gir mar-tu zu-ak mar-tu dagger with a (silver) hook

Some remarks are in order. First of all, the relative position of gir mar-tu ba-du-u4/9, GIS.SAL, and ga-me-ù are merely inferred from ARET II 30 o. VI 7- 1 1 , VIII 6-8, r. 1 9- 1 2,48 and MEE XII 37 r. XVII 7-9. Second, one has to keep in mind that exceptions may occur especially in regard to golden mar-tu daggers, whose prices fluctuate between ninety and ten heavy shekels. Finally, the decoration called zu-AN.LAGABxHAL attached to the daggers is almost invariably made of gold, while the z ú - a k is presumably made of silver, though this is not explicitly stated in the texts. In other words, there are no attestations of *zu-ak ku-sig17. Due to paucity of available data, mar- tu daggers denoted as = ' à-ma-da-num, 3ó-NE-LUM, ra-'à-tum, and run-du-ga-tum are excluded from the listing.

2.4 Patterns in the Circulation of Daggers

A dozen Eblaite texts deal with internal (re) -distribution of daggers and other artifacts. Most of them have been discussed by Amadasi Guzzo (1988: 123-24) and Pomponio (1998b: 32-39).49 In these documents, precious objects listed in decreasing order of value are allotted to various individuals. Though some variations may occur, the pattern usually followed in these texts may be resumed as follows:

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 1 mar-tu golden dagger PN2 PNj

of precious artifacts); MEE VII 40 o. I 1-VI 7 (a register of various kind of daggers received by, or allotted to officials). 48. This document is written using abbreviated forms of terms (for instance, [gir] mar, [gir] ga-me, [gir] ba-du). Note also that a (gir)

zú-ak is mentioned before a {gir) ga-me in r. I 11-12. To my knowledge, this fact is exceptional and has not been taken into consideration in the chart provided above.

49. Texts concerning daggers: ARET II 15 r. Ill 1-IV 8; ARET IV 7 r. VII 20- VIII 13; ARET IV 16 r. VII 10- VIII 3; MEE VII 50; TM.75.G.1781 v. Vili 2-13. Texts concerning decorative disks (DIB): ARET I 1 r. XII 7-19; ARET I 10 r. XI 13-24; ARET IV 7 r. Vili 14-IX 4; ARET IV 8 r. V 13-VI 4; TM 75.G.2281 o. II ll-III 18; TM.75.G.1784 r. V 18- VII 2; TM.75.G.1793 v. VII 16- VIII 1; TM.75.G.2242 r. VIII 3-IX 3.



8 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

Table 2. The Price (níg-sám) of Daggers (gír).

_ . Price Price r per item Weight per _ r _ Typology /r

. o/ , . . . c .. x , , . . r c ., x .; Reference _ r

/r o/

I (shekels , . . . of c silver) .. x | (shekels , , . . of c silver) ., x | item .; | gir mar-tu kù-sig17 sa6

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 I lma-na27[,N I 127[+N(gin I „9 I M££ II 49 r. VI 3 sa6 gin (DILMUN)] DILMUN)] ö

5 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 5ma_na ^ ^^^ ARETYlln o.yl6 Sa6 I I | |

gir mar-tu kù-sig17

r^gir mar-tu kù- I 13

ma-na^M gin I

90ginDILMUN I _ 10575 g I M££ x 23 r. IV 4-5

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 54 gin DILMUN 54 gin DILMUN ~ 634.5 g MEE VII 34 r. XII 14"-15"

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 * ^¡ImUn'" 50gínDILMUN ~ 587.5 g MEE X 22 o. III 2-4

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 50 gin DILMUN 50 gin DILMUN ~ 587.5 g ARET Vili 534 r. V 21

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 50 gin DILMUN 50 gin DILMUN ~ 587.5 g MEE XII 36 o. XXVII 21-22

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 50ginDILMUN 50ginDILMUN ~ 587.5 g MEE VII 34 r. XII 6'-7'

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40ginDILMUN 40ginDILMUN ~ 470 g ARET II 13 o. IV 11

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40 gin DILMUN 40 gin DILMUN ~ 470 g ARET III 635 r. V 6'-7'

2 gir mar-tu 2ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE X 29 r. VIII 4-5

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 37 o. XXIII 7-8

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 37 o. XXII 44-45

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gín) ~470g MEE XII 36 r. XXVII 1-2

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gín) ~470g MEE XII 36 r. XII 23-XIII 1

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gín) ~470g MEE XII 36 r. Vili 5-6

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 36 o. XXXI 20-21

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 35 o. XXVII 1-2

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 36 o. V 6-7

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 36 o. XXVII 10-11

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE VII 34 o. XVI 1-2

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE X 20 r. XII 18-19

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gín) ~470g MEE X 29 o. I 19-20

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~ 470 g MEE X 29 r. VI 30-3 1

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60 (gin) -470 g ARET Vili 534 r. V 13

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60(gin) ~470g ARET 1 45 r.?+IX 3

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 1 ma-na 60 (gin) ~ 470 g MEE XII 35 o. VII 45-46




1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 35gínDILMUN 35gínDILMUN -411.25 g MEE X 29 r. I 25-11 1

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40(gín) 40(gín) ~313.2g MEEX20o. XII 19-20

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40(gín) 40(gín) ~313.2g MEE X 20 o. XVIII 22-23

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 40(gín) 40(gín) ~313.2g ARET 1 44 o. IV 22

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 40(gín) 40(gín) ~313.2g MEE VII 47 o. V 15-16

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40(gín) 40(gín) ~313.2g MEE VII 47 o. V20-21

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 40 (gin) 40(gín) ~313.2g MEE VII 47 o. XVIII 4-5

2 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 1 ma-na 30 (gin) - 235 g ARET VIII 534 r. XV 4'

2 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 1 ma-na 30 (gin) - 235 g ARET VIII 539 r. IV 11 '-12'

2 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 40gínDILMUN 20gínDILMUN - 235 g MEE XII 36o. III 9-10

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 20gínDILMUN 20gínDILMUN - 235 g MEE XII 35 o. II 6-8

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 20gínDILMUN 20gínDILMUN - 235 g MEEXll 35 o. X 14-15

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 30(gín) 30(gín) - 235 g MEE XII 37 r. IX 26' -27'

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 30(gín) 30(gín) - 235 g MEE XII 37 o. XVI 2-3

1 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 30(gín) 30(gín) - 235 g MEE XII 37 o. II 6-7

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 30 (gin) 30 (gin) ~ 235 g ARETXll 450 IF 4'-5'

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 30(gín) 30(gín) - 235 g MEE VII 34 o. XVIII 2-3

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 30(gín) 30(gín) - 235 g ARET VIII 539 r. IX 20'

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 25 (gin) 25 (gin) - 195.75 g MEE VII 47 o. VI 7-8

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 20(gín) 20(gín) ~156.6g MEE X 20 o. XII 21-22

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 20(gín) 20(gín) ~156.6g MEE XII 35 r. XXIII 12-13

1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17 lOginDILMUN lOginDILMUN -117.5 g MEE XII 35 o. VII 7-8

gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 à-lum 1 gir mar-tu 3à-lum , 20ginDILMUN 20ginDILMUN - 235 & g MEE X 29 r. VII 11-12 , ku-sig17 _

g &

l^gir^mar-tu^ti ku-

20ginDILMUN 20ginDILMUN - 235 g AŒ£X20o. V29-31

ir,N81cIiriar"tU a Um

15ginDILMUN 15ginDILMUN - 176.25 g MEE XII 36 o. III 16-17 KU-Slg17 | | | |

gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 3 gir mar-tu ti kù- 3ma-nal0gín 43 1/3gín I sig,7 DILMUN DILMUN ~509-178 ^£riI13o.VI8

10 lá-2 gir mar-tu ti 3ma-na40gin kù-sig17 DILMUN 20 g.n DILMUN - 235 g MEE VII 47 o. IV 3-4

1 gir mar-tu ti kù- sig

30 (gin) 30 (gin) ~ 235 g MEE X 23 r. VI 2-4

1 gir mar-tu ti kù- ^ . , , , ci„ 25 ^

(gin) . , , 25 (gin)

, -195.75 g MEE VII 47 r. VI 9 S1517 ci„

| | I



10 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

1 gir mar-tu ti kù- I 1A , nTT1UTTXT I 1A , niTx*™ I -117.5 7^1 I MEEX 29 r. Ill 9-10 .& 1A lOginDILMUN

, nTT1UTTXT 1A lOginDILMUN , niTx*™ -117.5 g

sigi7 1 gir mar-tu ti ku-

lOginDILMUN lOginDILMUN -117.5 g MEE XII 35 o. IX 47-48 S1gl7 1 gir mar-tu ti kù- r dilmun 10 in DILMUN - 117,5 g MEE X 20 r. XXIV 27-28 sigiy I I I

g |

gir mar-tu ba-du-u4 1 gir mar-tu ba- du-u4ku:babbar- 9 gin DILMUN 9 gin DILMUN ~ 105.75 g ARET III 635 r. V 1 '-2' sigiy 1 gir mar-tu ba- du-u4ku:babbar 8 gin DILMUN 8 gin DILMUN -94 g ARET III 635 r. VI 2'-3'

ku-sig17 1 gir mar-tu ba- du-u4kù:babbar- 10 (gin) 10 (gin) ~ 78.3 g MEE VII 47 r. XIII 9

sigiy 1 gir mar-tu ba- du-u4kù:babbar kù- 8 (gin) 8 (gin) -62.64 g MEE VII 29 o. IX 7

sigi7 1 gir mar-tu ba- du-u4kù:babbar- 5 (gin) 5 (gin) -39.15 g MEE VII 47 o. VI 1 7

sign 1 gir mar-tu ba-

4(gin) 4(g,n) .3L32g MEE VII 34 r. IV 3 du-u4 | I | |

gir mar-tu zu-LAGABxHAL.A

1 gir mar-tu zú- ìSginDILMUN 15ginDILMUN -176.25g ARET III 635 r. IV 4'-5'

LAGABxHAL.A | | | | gir mar-tu zú-ak

1 gir mar-tu zú-ak 17gínDILMUN 17ginDILMUN - 199.75 g MEE VII 29 r. Ili 9-10

1 gir mar-tu zú-ak 7 (gin) 7 (gin) - 82.25 g ARET I 44 o. V 3 30 gir mar-tu zú-ak 46 gin DILMUN -1% gin DILMUN - 18.01 g MEE VII 29 o. Vili 10'-ll'

ì-na-sum PN2 TITLE2 ès 1 gir mar-tu ti 3à-lum kù-sig17 PN2 ì-na-sum PN3 TITLE3 ès 1 gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 PN3 ì-na-sum

gave to PN2 TITLE2 then 1 mar-tu dagger with a "pure" gold point PN2 gave to PN3 TITLE3 then 1 mar- tu dagger with a gold point PN3 gave to



DECORATIVE PARTS AND PRECIOUS ARTIFACTS AT EBLA 1 1

PN4 PN4 TITLE4 TITLE, es then 1 gir mar-tu ba-du-u4k'i- sigl7 1 mar- tu dagger with a gold ring PN4 PN4 i-na-súm gave to PN5 PN5 TITLE5 TITLE5

To the documents belonging to these group is to be added ARET XII 313 r. VI 7'- 16', whose initial line, trans- literated [...] by the authors, is integratable on the basis of existing parallels as follows:

ARET XII 313

7'. [1!! gir!! mar!!-tu!!] ku-sig17 [1] golden [mar-tu dagger]: 8'. Bù-da-Nl Buda-NI 9'. lú Ü-gú-sum the"man"ofUgusum; 10'. es then IT. 1 gir mar-tu ti kù-sig17 1 mar-tu dagger with a gold point: 12'. lûBù-da-Nl the "man ' of Buda-NI 13'. i-na-sum gave 14'. Run-zi-di-lam to Ruzi-Ilam 15'. ses the "brother" 16'. Ra-ù^tum1 ofRautum.

We see here another instance of a chain of dagger allotments, where the first person receives the most valuable object, and then delivers a less valuable one to the next individual. The people involved belong to the elites of the royal court, as is the case for most of the documents of this group. Buda-NI appears in fact in ARET III 214 r.? IV 3' and ARET III 458 r. VI 12, as well as in ARET I 16 r. V 2 as the dumu-nita2 of Ugusum, who is titled pa4-ses en in the same texts.50 Ruzi-Ilam is also titled pa4-ses en in later texts,51 while in earliest documents he is referred to as ses Ra-ù-tum. The latter is a high-ranking wife (dam) of the king, being mentioned in the first entries in the lists of royal woman (see Archi, Biga, and Milano 1988: 250-59). Hence, this text is to be dated to the late reign of Isar-Damu. Pomponio (1998b: 39) connects this peculiar movement of artifacts with the "promotion" of an individual to a higher status. Thus, this official would get a more valuable dagger suitable for his new position, at the same time giving the one he owned previously to his successor in his old office. This pattern is attested also for circulation of decorative disks and textiles, though the occurrences are few. As mentioned above, the officials involved in these movements of precious objects are mostly pa- ses4 en, but a couple of fragmentary texts suggest a similar pattern also outside the royal palace.

50. These observations were already made by Pomponio (1998b: 34), although in relation to the wrong individual. The alleged bu-da-[Nl] in TM.75.G1781 = MEE VII 50 r. VII 18 is actually bu-da-na-im, as correctly read by by Amadasi Guzzo (1988: 123, whose reading pu-ta- [na-im] is apparently to be corrected to pu-tá"-[na-im]) and D'Agostino in MEE VII (pu-tá-na-im, without square brackets). The reading of D'Agostino is supported by ARET III 458 o. VI 4, where bu-da-na-im is listed as the recipient of textiles together with il-e-i-sar, su-na-im, na- am6-'- gis, and na-am6-ha-lu, i.e., the same individuals mentioned in TM.75.G1781 = MEE VII 50. In addition, one may note that Buda-I(l) is usually written either bù-da-Nl or bù-da-il, that is with bù and not bu.

51. See, e.g., ARET IV 22 r. I 6-7 and ARET IV 23 r. VII 8-9.



12 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

ARETXII718

r. IF r.!! [1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17] [1 golden mar-tu dagger] 2'.!! [PN] [PN] 3'!! rin-na1-s[úm] ""gave1 t[o] 4'.!! Isu-gur-li-im Isgur-Lim 5'!! lú A-mur-li-im the "man" of Amur-Lim; 6'.!! ès then 7'.!! 1 gir mar-tu [(ti?!!) kù]-s[ig17] 1 mar-tu dagger [with] a go[ld point?]

m- [...] [...] I'. Isn-gur-li-im Isgur-Lim 2'. su-du8 collector/has collected y. in in 4'. U9-rux^ the city of Uru.

Isgur-Lim appears as a "man" of Amur-Lim also in MEE XII 35 r. Ill 21-24, in conection with a decorative disk (DIB) of 40 shekels. His activities in the city of U9-rux^ are also attested in ARET III 467 o. VI l'-7'. It is also

noteworthy that this individual receives valuable textiles and a dagger related to the anointment of the king of Kakmium in MEE XII 35 o. XX 7-15. Amur-Lim is known from a couple of documents, but the information provided in these texts is not sufficient to outline his office.52 In any case, his "men" (lú) seem to carry their functions outside Ebla.

2.5 Additional Precious Parts: gir kun.

The term kun is glossed sè-ne-bux(Nl) wa lí-sa-núm in VE 1372' = MEE IV 337, meaning "tail and tongue" (see Waetzoldt 1990: 19-20; Pomponio and Xella 1984: 28). The term gir kun has been often translated as "curved

dagger," in the sense of "shaped as the tail and tongue of an animal."53 This interpretation has been criticized by Waetzoldt (1990: 18-20), who convincingly argues that this is a metal element used to hang the dagger (or better the sheath) from the belt ("Dolch- Aufhängung"). The term kun also occurs alone, referring to a precious object. Though in some context kun may indeed refer to an ornamental tale of an animal or a bull-headed figure, it is rather clear that it may also stand for an abbreviated form of gir kun.54

Further indications may qualify these objects. Accordingly, one can list the following subcategories: a) gir kun kù:babbar, gir kun kù-sig17, gir kun z ab a r. They usually come with ceremonial belt (ib-

lá) and sheath (si-ti-tum), with which they form a standard set. The amount of precious metal contained in these artifacts fluctuates between 1 mina 45 heavy shekels and 20 shekels. It is noteworthy that golden sets are mentioned more frequently than the others. The weight of kun daggers is standardized according to the series 60, 40, 30, and 20 shekels, but note that golden and silver sets usually weight 30 or 60 shekels,55 the ones made of silver+gold 20 or 40 shekels (see Table 3).

52. To my knowledge, the PN A-mur-li-im occurs in ARET I 4 r. XI 9'; ARET I 17 o. IV 8; ARET III 635 r. V 5'; ARET IV 15 o. VII 1; MEE

XII 35 r. Ill 23; MEE XII o. XVIII 2. 53. For a Middle Bronze Age representation of such a dagger on a basalt basin see Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 422.

54. As already noted by Waetzoldt (1990: 19-20; see note 1 10 for references). 55. As far as silver sets are concerned, note that 40 gin DILMUN is the more frequent value, corresponding to 60 (gin ) = 1 ma- na, see

above note 18.




Table 3. gír kun and Textiles.

Artifacts Metal hoarded/stored Reference

gir kun ku-sig17 1 íb-lá lsi-ti-tum 1 gir kun 3 ma-na ku-sig17 MEE VII 23 r. V 1-2

1 1 ib-la 'k 1 - 1 lst-tt-tum • ♦• ♦ 1 i-i kun GÁxLÁ 1 ma-na 45 gin & DILMUN An^^m 1 1 ib-la 'k 1 - lst-tt-tum 1 • ♦• ♦ 1 i-i gir kun . & ARET An^^m VII 115 o. I 1 ku-sig17

.

1 íb-lá lsi-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na 30 (gin) ku-sig17 ARET VIII 525 (= MEE V 5) r. XI 6' 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun kù- GÁxLÁ 1 ma-na 25 gin DILMUN 1 > • ARE 1 VII I 1 s»gi7

1 ku-sig17 > •

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun lma"na 20 §in DILMUN kÙ"

MEE XII 36 r. VIII 3-4 S1êl7 _____ 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun kù- ^ t GAxLAl ^ t ma-na 10 gin DILMUN ARET XII 1010 o. XI l'-2' S1fel7 _ 1 íb-lá i si-ti-tum lgír kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 MEE XII 36 r. VIII 10-11 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 MEE XII 36 o. XXXI 18-19 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na ku-sig17 MEE XII 35 o. VII 39-40 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 ARETW 18 o. II 3 1 íb-lá 1 gir kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 ARET VII 76 o. II 1 1 íb-lá lgír kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 MEE XII 36 o. VI 17-18 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun kù- .

1 ma-na GAxLA-sw AÄFT III 915 o. I 2

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na ku-sig17 ARETlll 732 o. III 9' 1 íb-lá i si-ti-tum lgír kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 ARET II 4 (= MEE VII 17) o. V 8-9 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 ARET II 4 (= MEE Vil 17) r. W 7 2 íb-lá 2 si-ti-tum 2 gir kun 2 ma-na ku-sig17 MEE XII r. XI 5-6 1 íb-lá I si-ti-tum lgír kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 ARET VII 66 o. II 1 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 40 gin DILMUN ku-sig17 ARET III 587 r. I 2 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 40 gin DILMUN kù-sig17 MEE XII 37 r. IX 24'-25' 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 40 gin DILMUN ku-sig17 MEE XII 35 o. XXVI 16-17 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 46 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET VIII 539 (=MEEV 19) r. VII 11' 1 íb-lá lgír kun 40 (gin) kù-sig17 A££TI6r.X31 1 íb-lá I si-ti-tum I gir kun 40 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET XII 819 o. I 3' 1 íb-lá I si-ti-tum lgír kun 40 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETXll 796 III' 13 1 íb-lá lsi-ti-tum lgír kun 40 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE VII 23 o. I 2 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun GÁxLÁ 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET XII 1047 r. II' 1' 2 íb-lá 2 si-ti-tum 2 gir kun 1 ma-na kù-sig17 MEE VII 27 r. VII 2-3 6 íb-lá 6 si-ti-tum 6 gir kun [3] ma-na kù-sig17 M££ VII 34 r. XIII 1-3 13 íb-lá 13 gir kun 6 ma-na 30 [kù-sig17] MEE XII 37 o. XXV 17-18 70 lá-1 ib 70 lá-1 si-ti 70 lá-1 gír-kun 34 ma-na 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 27 r. II 9 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 35 o. XXIV 19-20



14 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

líb-lá 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 35 r. XIX 4-5

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 35 o. XIV 29-30

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 M££XII 35 o. XX 9-10

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 35 o. II 14-15

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE VII 48 r. Ili 11

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETXll 872 o. I 1'

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETXll 860 II' 6'

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETXU 708 r. V 5'

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET Vili 524 (= MEE V 4) r. VI 21

líb-lá lsi-íilgír kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET VII 54 o. Ili 1

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 A#£TIII80o. I 1'

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETlll 628 o. 5 1'

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETl 12 o. V8

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARETl 1 r. V 10

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET IV 9 o. Ili 2

líb-lá 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 37 o. VII 3-4

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 36 r. VII 18-19

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù-sig17 ARET Vili 524 (= MEE V 4) r. VI 21

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 20 gin DILMUNkù-sig17 MEE XII 36 r. XIX 15-16

líb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 2 gin DILMUNkù-sig17 MEE XII 36 o. XXVIII 25-26 10 íb-lá 10 gír-kun 17 (gin) kù-sig17 MEE XII 37 o. XXV 13-14

líb-lá i si-ti-tum i gir kun 1 gin DILMUNkù-sig17 MEE XII 36 r. V 18-19

gir kun kùibabbar

1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na (ku:babbar) ARETl3r. IV 12

1 íb-lá i si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 1 ma-na ku:babbar ARET III 265 o. IV 4'

1 íb-lá i si-ti-tum lgír kun GÁxLÁ 1 ma-na kù:babbar ARETlll 168 v. II 1'

m'ui'io - i 10lá-3ma-na lOgínDILMUN MEE ,_Yín7 XII 37 I ... 5-6 m'ui'io 10 íb-lá 13gir & - i kun . , , ,. MEE ,_Yín7 XII 37 r. I ... 5-6 & . ku:babbar , , ,.

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkù:babbar ARET III 666 o. IV 2'

[...] lgír kun 40gínDILMUNku:babbar ARET XII 724 II' 1'

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkùibabbar MEE XII 35 o. X 8-9

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkù:babbar MEE XII 35 o. VIII 12-13

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkù:babbar MEE XII 35 o. VII 1-2

[líb-lá lgír kun] 40 gin DILMUNkùibabbar MEE XII 35 o. I 37-11 1

1 íb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkù:babbar MEE XII 36 r. X 8-9

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkùrbabbar MEE XII 36 r. XXX 27-28

líb-lá lgír kun 40 gin DILMUNkùibabbar MEE XII 37 o. XVII 34-35 20 íb-lá 20 gir kun-40 40 gin DILMUNkùibabbar MEE XII 37 o. XXV 21-22




líb-lá 1 gir kun 44? (gin) kù:babbar MEE XII 35 r. XIV 26-27

20 íb-lá 20 kun-40 40 (gin) ARETlll 42 o. VI 3'

fui-, ib-la - i kun Aixf > m ku:babbar < u uu ARETVlll 539 (= MEE V 19) r. VII fui-, 1 ib-la 1 gir - kun i 40 Aixf (gin)

> m ku:babbar < u uu

12 íb-lá 12 gir kun 10lá-2 ma-na kù:babbar MEE XII 37 r.X 20-21

21íb30lá-2gír kun-sa-pi 15 ma-na lOgínDILMUN MEE XII 37 r. X 26-27 líb-lá 1 gir kun 30 (gin) ku:babbar MEE XII 35 r. II 42-43 1 íb-lá lsi-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kù:babbar MEE VII 47 o. VIII 5 1 íb-lá 1 si-ti-tum 1 gir kun 30 (gin) kùrbabbar MEE VII 34 r. XIII 17-18

[...]4gír kun-30 30 (gin) ARETXll 1080 II' 1' líb-lá 1 gir kun 20 (gin) kùibabbar MEE XII 35 r. XXIII 6-7 1 íb-lá 1 gír-kun 20 (gin) kù:babbar ARET Vili 539 (= MEE V 19) r. IX 8' 1 íb-lá 1 gír-kun 12 gin DILMUN kù:babbar MEE VII 34 o. XI 16-17 líb-lá ì si-ti-tum ì gir kun 1 gin DILMUN kùrbabbar MEE XII 35 o. XX 16-17

gir kun kùrbabbar MA$.MA$kù-sig17

1 íb-lá 1 gir kun I 40(gin)kù:babbarMA§.MA§kù- I ARETXUmo n siliz líb-lá 1 gir kun 20 (gin) kùrbabbar MAS.MAS A#£TI3r.X14 1 íb-lá 1 gir kun bar.:kù MAS. _. , ~TTWTT1,T1, , ,, ^ MAS UA,P ku . LAGABxLA-sw ta^adtX < 20 _.

gin , DILMUN ~TTWTT1,T1, kùrbabbar , ,, ARETlV13oA2 ^

MAS UA,P ku - s i . g 17 ta^adtX LAGABxLA-sw <

1 íb-lá 1 & gir kun MAS.MAS kù- n/W , X1 , u uu & 20 n/W (gin) , X1 kùrbabbar , u uu AMT 1 1 r. Vili 15

S1ël7 | |

b) gir kun (kùrbabbar) MAS.MAS kù-sig17. These artifacts have extra decorations made of gold, referred to as MAS.MAS, possibly denoting "stripes" or "bands" of precious metal (see Waetzoldt 2001: 68-70). The accessory parts are presumably made of composite materials, being silver and gold sometimes referred to as decorations (ni-zi-mu) of gir kun.56 The term MAS.MAS appears also in connection with spears (gis-gu-kak-gid), straps (kù-SAL), and in the abbreviated form MAS with lion-head decorations? (ZU.PIRIG).57

e) gir kun (kùrbabbar) TARTAR kù-sig17. The term TAR.TAR maybe read has-has in relation to non- worked metal,58 but its reading and meaning in relation to belts and daggers remains unclear. The comparison with the above-seen MAS.MAS suggests an additional element made of precious metal, attached also to bracelets (gú- li-lum). As already noted by Waetzoldt (2001: 73), the TAR.TAR-parts are rather heavy compared to the standard weight of bracelets and belts, being composed by an amount of precious metal fluctuating between 5 and 22 heavy shekels.

d) gir kun si. This kind of artifact has some extra decorations, either made of horn or ivory, or in the shape of horns (si). On the one hand, the latter assumption fits well the interpretation of gir kun si as "part of a dagger

56. See for instance MEE VII 27 o. VIII 10-IX 4: 5 gin DILMUN kù-sig17 / ni-zi-mu I MAS.MAS / 4 íb-lá 1 gir kun MAS.MAS "5 heavy shekels of gold: the decoration of stripes (of) 4 ceremonial belts and 1 pendant."

57. As far as spears are concerned, see Waetzoldt (1990: 4). MAS.MAS related to kù-SAL are attested in MEE XII 35 r. Ill 36-40 {et passim): 5 gin DILMUN ku:babbar / su-bal-ak / 1 gin DILMUN ku-sig17 / ni-zi-mu I MAS.MAS 4 kù-SAL. Stripes? in correlation to lion-head decorations? occur in MEE XII 35 r. I 36 (MA$-ZU.PIRIG).

58. For a discussion on the meaning and reading of TARTAR see Waetzoldt 2001: 71-73; Civil 2008: 54 with n. 94, 66.



16 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

shaped as "tail" (and/or: "tongue") (and) with horn(s)," possibly referring to a dagger with bull or ram features.59 As far as animal shaped figurines are concerned, note also the exceptional set composed by a ceremonial belt, a kun -

element, and a decoration made of, or in the shape of, feathers (te8muáen)60 mentioned in ARET III 365 o. II 2'. On the other, one also has to keep in mind that mar- tu daggers and textiles may have horn decorations. In this case, an inlaid made of this material in the handle of the artifacts seems more suitable. The parts denoted as kun and si are also decorated with precious metals, as stated in ARET IV 23 r. Ill 1-5: 7 ku-sig17 / nun-za 1 kun / 13 ku- sig15 / nun-za 1 si "7 (shekels of) gold: decoration (of) a "tail" (and/or: "tongue"); 13 (shekels of) gold: decoration (of) a horn (inlaid?)." The same happens in ARET VIII 528 (= MEE V 8) o. II 5-6: 15 gin DILMUN kù-sig17 / 1 nun-za kun-si "15 heavy shekels of gold: the decoration (of) a "tail" (and/or "tongue") (with?) horn(s) (inlaid?)."

To my knowledge, kun daggers are never purchased on the market.61

2.6 Other Structural and Decorative Elements of Daggers

Other terms related to daggers occur only sporadically in the Ebla archives. These are: gi-ba-du, "metallic ring" (see Pasquali 2005: 149), gu-ma-lum, "hilt" (see Pasquali 2005: 139) made of wool and precious metal, ma-ra-za- tum, possibly ma-ra-d -turn, "chain?,"62 perhaps to be compared with ma-ri-tum "an accessory of a pendant or a seal."63 Also noteworthy is the occurence of the term ZU.PIRIG (and the variant SU.PIRIG) in relation to daggers. This might refer to some form of decoration, either made of a hard stone, similar to the skin of a spotted "lion," or to a technique used to obtain a "leopard skin effect," as suggested by Bonechi (2003: 83-86). In some contexts ZU.PIRIG might also refer to lion shaped figurines (hence the sign sequence is to be considered as a graphic variant ofug).MEE XII 35 r. 1 29-39 reads: 2Vi nagga sub si-in 1 16gin DILMUNa-gar5-gar5/MASku:babbar / 2Vi ku:babbar / su-bal-ak / Vi ku-sig17/ MAS ZU.PIRIG / 2 gir / 4 gin DILMUN / zi-du-sù "2Vi (shekels of) tin to be melted with 16 heavy shekels of copper: a silver stripe?; 2Vi (shekels) of silver to be exchanged for Vi (shekel) of gold: a stripe? (for attaching?) the "lions"? (of) 2 daggers; 4 heavy shekels: the relative decoration(s)." A golden lion head figurine dating to the third millennium b.c.e. has actually been excavated in the royal palace of Ebla (see Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 325, 338).

Despite the paucity of attestations, these elements could have been reasonably common as additional or structural parts of daggers and other objects. Unfortunately, the information provided in the available texts is not

enough to allow general conclusions, or to evaluate properly the amount of precious metal involved in these elements.

3. Decorative Disks (DIB)

Together with bracelets (gu-li-lum), decorative disks or plaquettes (DIB) are the artifacts more commonly mentioned in the Ebla archives. Nevertheless, the understanding of the term DIB remains uncertain. A. Archi in ARET VII translates "metal rod or bar," while F. DAgostino in MEE VII writes of a "metal layer." Finally, H. Waetzoldt

59 . Battering- rams (g u 4- s i - d i 1 i ) are well attested at Ebla and in Mesopotamia. They are composed by various elements, among which the

tongue (erne), the tooth (zú), and apparently horns (si), see Pasquali 2005: 38. 60. On this term see most recently Civil 2008: 123-24, where it is noted that this artifact can be used to decorate also some military im-

plement, possibly a helmet, and the yoke of a vehicle, in which case it "does not need to be made actually from a tuft of eagle feathers, it could

simply take its original shape and its name from the bird" 61. To the contrary, the prices of mar- tu daggers are often mentioned in the texts. Note that MEE XII 37 r. IX 22 -32 , lists a gir kun

with the relative weight after the purchase (níg-sám)ofamar-tu dagger. 62. See MEE XII 36 o. V 19, and Pasquali 2005: 167. 63. See Archi (2002: 193-94), listing the few known occurrences.




Table 4. Sixteen-Shekel Decorative Disks.

Manufactured _, , . . Further _ e , Shekels _, , . Agent . . Reference

_ e goods

, data .

textiles, 1 DIB 16 Puzurra from Arugadu s u - d u 8 ARET IV 3 r. V 1 0

tetóles, 1 DIB 16 W-NIfrom^Ada collector of ^ AW VIII 533 o. XII 10 GardaNEdu in Litiba 4

1DIB 16 EN-daza agent of Kitir - ARET VII 54 o. II 2

ÍDIB 16 Adum ^'^T2^CO^r^VV (for) Anisum of Ruzi-Malik - AMTVHI 527 r. XIII'

Adum (for) Anisum agent of Ruzi-Malik IDIB ~6 Abusgu from GN commission (su-ra)

" A«£T VIII 534 r. XIII 18' in Arbatum

IDIB 16 Istama from Dur gi4?é-en ARET VII 54 r. II 1

1 set oft, IDIB ^6 Iluza-Malik from Adab collector (in) "

AMT VIII 533 o. XII 18 Zaar

1 set oft., IDIB 16 A-pusqu from GN commission (su-ra) AMT 1 4 r. IX 1 1 in Arbatum 1 set oft., 1 DIB 16 Adasa "man" of Hara-NI su-du8 ARET VIII 533 o. VIII 4

1 set oft, 1 DIB 16 KUn-DabanWofIddi(n)-Agu "

collector in Aha-Damu 1 set oft., 1 DIB 16 Ilum-Bal agent of Ibbi-Zikir collector - ARET VIII 523 o. V 6

1 set oft., IDIB 16 Puzurra-Malik agent of Redi collector in "

^T VIII 527 r. VII 13 Dammilu

textiles, IDIB 16 Gik-Malik WofSuia-Karru '

Aii£T VIII 524 o. XII 1 collector in GN

lsetoft.,lDIB 16 Napba-NI "man» ofRa-izu collector in ^ AR£T VIII 540 o. VIII 7

1 set oft., IDIB Ü Puzurra-Malik from Madanu collector "

(in) Asuba 1 set oft, 1 DIB 16 Zikir-NI su ba4-ti ARET VIII 536 o. VI 1'

1 set oft., 1 DIB 16 'Ati from Burman collector in NINEzigu - ARET VIII 527 o. XV 23

1 set oft, IDIB 16 Damda-NI from Dasaba collector [...] - ARET VIII 530 r. 1 14

1 set oft, 1 DIB 16 Massur-ahu - ARET VIII 530 r. VII 1

1 set oft, IDIB 16 (for) PN from 3Ane i-na-sum ARET VIII 527 o. XVI 26

2 sets oft, 1 DIB 16 PN from GN - ARET VIII 541 r. 1 10' t,lDIB-20

~~

x DIB_16 16î 20 PNi-2 Umen" of PNr_2, collectors in GN^ - ARET VIII 527 o. XI 14

IDIB TAR IDIB- TTZ ~ "

16 16; 30 for the anointment of PNj_2 - ARET VIII 540 o. V 16

prefers the translation "Schmuckscheibe, Schmuckplatte" (see Waetzoldt 2001: 77), stressing that decorations of various kind may apply to these objects. In this regard, noteworthy is the mention of a golden "decorative disk without stone(s)" (1 dib / ba-lu-ma na4) in ARET XII 708 r. IV 2'-3', which suggests that stone elements might be a standard feature of these artifacts. If Waetzoldt s interpretation is correct, one may think of the numerous



18 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

golden studs belonging to the Middle Bronze Age found at Ebla (see Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 483, 524). In addition, a circular golden disk, found in level IV A, previously analyzed as a shaft handle (see Matthiae, Pinnock, and Scandone Matthiae 1995: 331, 342), may represent what is epigraphically known as DIB. It is uncertain if the cross that is carved on the top refers to its weight, or to its quality (the sign mas was used for an alloy between two equal quantities of metal), or again is to be considered as a rough factory mark, rather than

just a sign left by a temporary owner. Its weight is unfortunately not provided in the catalog. On the basis of its dimensions, one may speculate that this object is actually a 16-shekel gold disk, which is a common weight for this kind of artifact.64

Decorative disks were very carefully standardized (see Table 5). Like daggers, they may have participated in the circulation of silver and gold since in some cases they are decorated with precious metals. Let us consider one

interesting example of their circulation:

ARETXII719

F. l'.!! [1 DIBsa-pi?ku-sig17] [1 decorative disk of 40? shekels of gold] 2'.!! [PN] [PN] 3'.!! [in-na-sum] [gave to] 4'!! [Bar-za-ma-u] [Barzamau] 5'.!! es then 6'.!! 1 DIB TAR ku - s i g 17 1 decorative disk of 30 shekels of silver 7'." Bar-za-ma-ù Barzamau 8'.!! in-na-súm gave 9'.!! En-na-il to Enna-Il 10'.!! lu A-ma-ga the "man" of Amaga

[...] [...]

The initial lines are restored on the basis of ARET I 10 r. XI 13-24. In this text, a decorative disk of 50 shekels, referred to as gib il, is given to Raizu, who gives to Iphur-NI another disk of 40 shekels. Finally, Iphur-NI returns

(gi4) to the palace a disk of 35 shekels. To my knowledge, almost half of the recipients of decorative disks are officials acting in various cities under

Eblaite control. Such officials are said to be collectors (su-du8, dab5-LÚxTIL)65 in charge of gathering taxes and tribute (see Table 4).

Going back to Table 5, one may note that golden decorative disks are by far the more numerous. According to the overall amount recorded in the texts published in ARET I-IX, MEE IV and MEE XII, the gold casted in these artifact is 136;23 minas (~ 64.1 kg), almost the double in comparison with silver (62;35 minas, that is -29.41 kg). Three possible explanations may apply. First, we may consider that the primary function of decorative disks was the storage of precious metals, gold being the most suitable for such a task. Second, it seems that there was a sur-

plus of gold at Ebla. This consideration is connected with the fluctuating exchange ratio between silver and gold. The ratio seems to change from 5:1 in the earlier texts to 3:1 during the final period covered by the archives, but

64. The disk is 32 mm in diamenter, 9 mm in height. The specific weight of gold is 19,25 kg./cm3. Hence, a golden cylinder with the same

measurements weights 139.18 gr (7ir2-h- 19,25), which is about 18,24 Eblaite shekels. The artifact is pillow shaped, which suggests a slightly smaller value.

65. On these officials see Pomponio 2003.




there is no full agreement on this topic among scholars.66 It is nevertheless possible that the central administration may have stored a part of its surplus in this manner. Third, we may have to reconsider our data. As we will see, administrative documents record several instances of remelting, recycling, and sharing artifacts. This common practice may lead us to overestimate the real amount of metal that was actually circulating, due to a double coun- ting of specific objects, passing among different persons, and therefore there might not be any surplus of gold at Ebla during the time covered by the archives.

4. Selected Decorative Elements

Additional parts made of silver and gold are often attached to artifacts and textiles to increase their value. For example, ARET III 630 o. 4'-8' records a certain amount of tin for the fusion of eagle decorations (te8muáen) as ad- ditions (diri) to the ones already present on gurus -objects, probably decorative parts of bracelets (gú-li-lum).67 Eagle-decorations are also mentioned in partially broken context after a list of daggers (gir mar-tu ba-du-u4, gir mar-tu zu-AN.LAGABxHAL, gir mar-tu zu -ak) in ARET III 109 o. I l'-4' and ARET III 110 r. V l'-4'. As mentioned above, ARET III 365 o. II 2' lists these items as parts of a set composed by a ceremonial belt and agir kun. Hence, it seems that eagle decorations could be attached to various kinds of artifacts. Some decorations seem peculiar to specific objects, though there are exceptions. Thus the "hook" (zu-AN.LAGABxHAL and zu-ak) is almost invaribly associated with mar-tu daggers, but in a few instances one can observe the use of this additional part with kun elements.68 In addition, hooks are sometimes counted per se, although in contexts related to other objects, with which they might be related.69 This fact suggests that they are actually removable. This is partly supported by MEE XII 37 o. IX 4-7, where a decorative hook (zú -LAGABxHAL), which is typical of mar- tu daggers, is attached to a bracelet {gú-li-lum) .70 Another hook (zú - ak) is exceptionally related to a gì r kun in ARET IV 23 r. V 12. In addition, parts made of horn, commonly found in connection with kun daggers, may sometimes be attached to mar-tu daggers. As mentioned above, kun-elements and horns (si) decorated with gold are also recorded as accessories of valuable textiles.71 Though there is no conclusive evidence to relate these parts as the ones that usually characterize daggers, the above-mentioned evidence seems to hint at this interpretation.

Removing precious and semi-precious parts might have been a common practice in the (re)distributive economy of Ebla. The attention of the central administration was in fact focused not only in the artifact itself, but also

66. The discussion is mainly based on the internal chronoloev of the annual accounts of metals, see Pnmnnnin 1 998a 67. The text reads: sa-pi-5 gin DILMUN an-na / sub 10 lá-2 te8mu5en / diri / te8muáen / gurus-gurus. The interpretation of gurus

as an additional element attached to a bracelet {gú-li-lum), possibly peculiar to workers, was already proposed by Archi and Biga (1982: 357). Comparative evidence includes the following texts: ARET I 14 r. VIII 5-12: 2 gú-li-lum a-gar5-gar5 ku-sig17 1 gurus / 1 gir mar-tu ba- dw-M4ku-sig17/lú Is-má-ga-lu / i- na- sum I LAGABxÚS-ra-ar/ dumu-nita / Ib-ga-is-lu "2 bracelets of copper and gold (with) 1 gurus- decoration, 1 mar-tu dagger with golden knob: the "man" of Ismagalu Gave to PN son of Ibgaislu;" ARET VIII 525 r. XII 8-11: 1 SAL-TÚG 1 íb-III-TÚG DAR Bar-zi nagar UNKEN-ak 1 gurus kab-gunû "1 SAL-garment, 1 triple-colored belt: Barzi the carpenter to make 1 gurus -inlaid-object." The term gurus in connection with bracelets is found also in ARET I 14 r. I 6-II 1; ARET TV 10 o .1 1-5, o. IV 9, o.V 6, o. IX 5; ARET IV llv.II-2-7.

68. See for instance AÄ£T IV 23 r. V 12:2gír ^un^ú-ak. 69. See ARET VIII 528 v. VI 14; ARET XII 956 I' l'-3'; ARETXll 1178 V V-5';MEEXll 3 r. I 1-7. 70. 5 ma-na TAR ku:babbar / su-bal-ak / 1 ma-na 6 gin DILMUN / ku-sig17 / 1 gú-li-lum zú-LAGABxHAL-4 "5 minas and 30

shekels of silver to be exchanged for 1 mana and 6 heavy shekels of gold: a quadruple bracelet with lahmu-hookT For a typological subdivision of bracelets see Mander 1995 and note Waetzoldt 2001: 547.

71. See ARET I 29 r. I 3; ARET II 4 (= MEE VII 17) r. V 4, 6, r. Vili 6-7; ARET II 40 o. III 2-3.



20 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

Table 5. Decorative disks (DIB).

Decorative disks explicitly stated as of gold, ex.: N ma- n a kù:babbar su-bal-ak Ngin DILMUNkù-sig17 NDIB

H Decorative disks not explicitly stated as of gold, ex.: N DIB N (gin DILMUN) Sources: ARET I-IX, MEE IV, X, XII

in its typology.72 From this point of view, decorative objects assume various functions: as ceremonial gifts,73 as a standard for "payments" (artifacts having a standard weight), as vehicles for the storage of silver and gold.

It is also interesting to compare the data available for the above-seen mar- tu daggers with those relative to extra decorative parts. Very few texts mention both gir mar-tu andgir kun in the same context,74 but when this

happens, gir-kun objects are usually placed before mar-tu daggers. This fact may suggest that the former artifacts are more valuable than the latter ones. Accordingly, the precious metal hoarded in the most valuable daggers probably comes from these additional parts.

72. Precious objects were often evaluated per se, without any further indication or their weignt or value in snems 01 snver; see ior example ARET VII 23: 1 an-zamx 1 kur6-sw 1 a-za-mu ku-sig17 si mu-tum I-bi-zi-kir en in Bù-zu-ga* iti I-ba4-sa "1 a.-container (with?) 1

handle? 1 a.-container (decorated with) gold (and) horn: contribution (of) Ibbi-Zikir (to) the king in (the city of) Buzuga. Month: Ibasa." On

this topic see also Milano 2003b. 73. See, for example ARET IV 24 o. V 1-3 and ARET VIII 531 o. I 7-1 1, both of which mention daggers assigned on the occasion of the

anointment of Ibbi-Zikir. Daggers and other artifacts are also mentioned for the ritual called ÉxPAP, perhaps a funerary celebration, see ARET

I 1 o. VIII 15-IX 7, r. X 13-19. On the term ÉxPAP see D'Agostino (1996: 87). 74. OneofsuchtextsisA#£TI31,seeo.I 1: 1 gu-zi-dumtú* 1 zara6túg 1 íb-«lá»-3dar TÚGsa6 1 íb-lá si-ti-dum gir kun kù-sig17 1 gir

mar-tu kù-sig17 1 bansur kù-sig17; o. Ill 1: 2 íb-lá si-ti-dum gir kun ku:babbar 2 gir mar-tu ku-sig17; o. IV 1: 1 íb-lá si-ti-dum

gir kun kù-sig17l gir mar-tu ku-sig17 1 bansur ku-sig17.




5. The Remelting of Metal Objects and the Term TIL

As clearly shown by Milano (1991), ARET VII 51 carefully records the recycling of precious metal. In this document, three sets of silver bracelets are melted in order to cast an equal number of low quality golden decorative disks. More specifically, the golden decorations ("supports or additional parts" zi-buy and "metal layers" ni-zi-mu) are first taken, then the silver of the bracelets is exchanged for low quality gold (the ratio is 3:1). This metal is melted with the golden decorations (presumably all having the same ratio) in order to cast golden decorative disks weighing 16 shekels each. The final section of this document follows the same pattern, but additional gold, referred to as MU.MU.MU, is added, pehaps to compensate for the loss of metal during the casting process. Unfortunately, the evidence for the complete process of remelting metal is scanty. A couple of texts mention the (re)melting (sub) of bronze items to cast new artifacts, but the interpretation of these passages is not completely clear. For instance, ARET II 37 o. II 1 -r. 1 3 records the (re)melting of a decorative disk, possibly to obtain precious metal for the decoration of another disk: su + sa gin DILMUNkù-sig17/ 1 DIB / Ir-az-Nl / Áb-Su* / sub / ni-zi-mu 1 1 DIB-sw"20 heavy shekels of gold: 1 decorative disk: Iraz-NI of Absu: to be melted with (or: for the melting of) the decoration of 1 decorative disk belonging to him." One may wonder just how common this practice was. We may find some clues by conducting a comparative analysis of the decorative disks mentioned in the published documentation. One notes that the 16 shekels disks, which are unexpected in terms of standardization, are the most attested, the complete series being 10, 16, 20, 30, etc. (see Table 5). Several instances of 16-shekel silver decorative disks are known from many documents in various contexts (see Table 4). Usually they are delivered together with textiles to agents (maskim), "men" (lú) of court officials, or collectors (su-du8) in various cities. It is therefore plausible that the remelting of metal was a widespread practice, even if it is described in detail only in the text quoted above. It is also possible that the common references to "good" (sa6) and "bad" (hul) metal may be related to remelting practices similar to the one of ARET VII 51.

One can get a fairly good idea of the amount of good quality metals involved in such an evaluation system by the following references: 2 [+x] ma-na 7 gin DILMUNku:babbar níg-sám 1 gir mar-tu kù-sig17sa6,"2 [+x] minas (and) 7 heavy shekels (of) silver: purchase (of) 1 excellent mar-tu golden dagger" (MEE II 49 r. VI 1-3); 5 ma-na ku:babbar nig-sa10 5 gir mar-tu ku-sig17 sa6 ás-ti Kab-lu^ul^^S minas (of) silver: purchase (of) 5 excellent mar-tu golden daggers in (the city of) Kablul" (ARET VII 1 1 r. VI 4-8). Since the values attested here do not differ from standard price of daggers, we may conclude that the metal circulating in administrative context was primarily of good quality, and there is hardly any information on low-quality metal, but note the exceptional amount of 1 167 Vi minas (~ 548.72 kg) of low-quality gold attested in ARET VII 69, a monthly account of precious metal and textiles. A few texts mention low-quality mar-tu daggers,75 but without any specific information.

Decorative objects of composite metals may also imply the remelting or reuse of precious parts. Examples of this are bracelets of silver and gold (gu-li-lum ku:babbar-sig17), gold and copper (a-gar5-gar5 ku-sig17), and the above mentioned daggers of silver and gold.

There is also some evidence for incomplete cycles in the circulation and recycling of silver and gold. The text ARET 1 10 documents a decorative disk that was returned into the hands of the administration, and this may be interpreted as an instance of a partially used item. We know from other texts that sometimes metal objects were characterized as TIL (also in the reduplicated form TIL TIL). This term was previously understood as "destroyed" by Pettinato (1988: 31 1), or rather "to end (a commercial trip), to arrive" by Pomponio 1989: 301-5). To the contrary, DAgostino understands the objects characterized by TIL as "lost" (see DAgostino 1996: 48, 78). More recently, L. Milano suggests that in commercial contexts this term has to be understood as "(goods) sold, completely used" (Milano 2003a: 415-16). According to the (re) distributive practices seen above, in a context regarding artifacts this meaning may be clarified further as "worn out."

75. The term hul denoting gir mar-tu is found in ARET IV 16 r. II 6; ARETXll 36 IF 3'; 388 F V;MEE VII 38 o. X 1.



22 MASSIMO MAIOCCHI

6. Conclusions

The total amount of silver and gold cast in small artifacts (pendants, bracelets, containers, decorative disks) delivered to workers, officials, and court personnel over the approximately fifty-year period covered by the archives is small if compared to the large amounts of precious metal exchanged with foreign courts or given as gifts to gods and temples. The (re) distributive patterns described here reveal that the amounts of precious metal actually circulating in the Elba state economy were actually smaller than we previously thought. There can be no doubt that the circulation of valuable artifacts implies a real movement of silver and gold. Nevertheless, the internal (re)distribution seems to be only a small - though significant from the point of view of reconstructing ancient economies- part of administrative practice.

Silver and gold have two distinct contexts of circulation: on the one hand, horizontal movement towards

foreign cities and gifts to temples, involving heavy and valuable objects; on the other, vertical movement in a (re) distributive context, characterized by practices of sharing, remelting, and recycling small quantities of metal cast in decorative objects. The study of such epigraphic material may provide important keys to an understanding of pre-monetary economies, which were based on princeiples not directly analyzable by means of modern catego- ries such as "market economy," "purchase price," "demand and offer," or "inflation and deflation."76 Understanding (re) distributive patterns and the peculiar (re)use of decorative objects is therefore the first step in the difficult research on ancient economic systems, and provides a complementary approach to general conclusions based on the annual accounts from Ebla.

76. The debate on pre-monetary systems is a too broad a subject to be discussed here. For a discussion about circulation of standardized

objects, the use of silver as value indicator, on alleged technical development as a background for Lydian coinage, and the historical context of

metals circulation in the third millennium, see Milano 2003b. For a general overview on household economy and economic history of ancient

Mesopotamia see Renger 2001.

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decorative parts and precious artifacts at ebla

Documents

precious artifacts

jstor terms

jstor archive

precious objects

standardization of artifacts

terms conditions of

important aspects of

amall use subject