dalian&nationalities… · dalian&nationalities&university&–&china ......

73
Dalian Nationalities University – China Debate Education Network Workshop for Teachers of Debate May 20 – 21, 2016 Robert Trapp, Workshop Director, Willamette University Yang Ge, Workshop Host and Operation Manager, Dalian Nationalities University

Upload: doankhue

Post on 11-May-2018

217 views

Category:

Documents


2 download

TRANSCRIPT

   

 

Dalian  Nationalities  University  –  China  Debate  Education  Network  Workshop  for  Teachers  of  Debate  

May  20  –  21,  2016    

   

 

   

 

             

Robert  Trapp,  Workshop  Director,  Willamette  

University    

 

   

 

 Yang  Ge,  Workshop  Host  and  Operation  Manager,  Dalian  Nationalities  University  

 

         

   

 

   

   

 

 

Table  of  Contents    About  the  DNU—CDEN  Team    ................................................................................................  1    Schedule  ..................................................................................................................................  3    Public  Speaking  Materials  

 Understanding  and  Engaging  the  Audience  

Assignment  Idea:  Using  Surveys  to  Analyze  Audiences  ...................................  5  Understanding  Audience  Lesson  Plan  .............................................................  6  Activity:  Using  Impromptu  Speaking  to  Emphasize  Audiences  .......................  10  

 Teaching  Argument  Types  and  Fallacies  

Fallacies  ...........................................................................................................  11  Argument  Types  ..............................................................................................  12  

 Monroe’s  Motivated  Sequence  ...................................................................................  15  

Monroe’s  Motivated  Sequence:  Example  .......................................................  17    Public  Speaking  Assignments  

Public  Speaking  Narrative  Assignment  ............................................................  21  Declamation  Assignment  .................................................................................  23  Tribute  Speech  Assignment  .............................................................................  25  Informative  Speech  Assignment  ......................................................................  27  Persuasive  Speech  Assignment  .......................................................................  29  

 Debate  Materials  

 Ethical  and  Educational  Dimensions  of  Debate  

Handout  ...........................................................................................................  31  Questions  for  Discussion  .................................................................................  32  

 Managing  a  Student  Debate  Organization  in  the  Post-­‐CDEN  Era  ................................  33    Teaching  Argumentation  

Elements  of  Argument  .....................................................................................  35  Fallacies  ...........................................................................................................  39  

     

   

 

Worlds  Style  Debate  Speaker  Responsibilities  in  Worlds  Style  Debate  ............................................  45  Outline  of  a  Prime  Minister  Speech  .................................................................  47  Exercises  for  Creating  a  Prime  Minister  Speech ...............................................48 Outline  of  a  Leader  of  Opposition  Speech  .......................................................  49  Exercise  for  Creating  a  Leader  of  Opposition  Speech  ......................................  50  Outline  of  a  Deputy  Prime  Minister  Speech    ...................................................  51  Outline  of  a  Deputy  Leader  of  Opposition  Speech  ..........................................  52  Outline  of  a  Member  of  Government  Speech  .................................................  53  Outline  of  a  Member  of  Opposition  Speech  ....................................................  54  Exercise:  Extending  the  Debate  as  Member  of  Government  or  Opposition  ...  55  Outline  for  a  Government  Whip  Speech  .........................................................  57  Outline  for  an  Opposition  Whip  Speech  ..........................................................  58  Exercise  Government  and  Opposition  Whip  Speeches  ...................................  59  

 Teaching  Debate  Skills  

Refutation  and  Rebuilding  ...............................................................................  61  Exercises  for  Refutation  and  Rebuilding  ..........................................................  63  Points  of  Information  ......................................................................................  65  Exercise  for  Offering  and  Responding  to  Points  of  Information  ......................  66  

 Judging  and  Evaluating  Debates  

Mechanics  of  judging  .......................................................................................  67  Sample  Worlds-­‐Style  Ballot  .............................................................................  69  

     

   

   

1    

  About  the  DNU—CDEN  TEAM    

 

Yang  Ge  is  an  English  Instructor  and  Debate  Coach  at  Dalian  Nationalities  University.  In  addition  to  teaching  debate  at  DNU,  she  has  been  a  debate  trainer  in  several  countries  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.    

 

Robert  Trapp  is  a  Professor  of  Civic  Communication.  He  has  taught  debate  in  over  40  countries  and  is  the  primary  author  of  Building  Global  Relations  Through  Debate  (FLTRP  Press)    

   

 

Brian  Shipley  was  a  nationally  and  internationally  award-­‐winning  debater  for  Willamette  University.  Dr  Shipley  has  taught  debate  in  the  US  as  well  as  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  Most  recently  He  served  as  Chief  of  Staff  to  Oregon  Governor  Kate  Brown.  He  has  served  three  successive  Oregon  governors  at  the  highest  levels.    

 

Ma  Shuang  is  an  Associate  Professor,  Associate  Dean,  Asia-­‐Australia  Business  College,  Liaoning  University.  Both  she  and  her  teams  have  won  national  awards  for  debate  in  China.  

   

2    

 

Yang  Xigang  is  a  Lecturer  and  Chief  Coach  of  English  Debate  Association,  School  of  Foreign  Studies,  Nanjing  Forestry  University.  He  has  served  as  a  partner  for  the  China  Debate  Education  Association.    

 

Russ  Taylor  is  an  English  Teacher  and  Debate  Coach  at  Northeast  Normal  University.  Has  taught  debate  to  teachers  and  students  in  China  for  the  past  10  years  and  has  been  invited  judge  and  DCA  to  many  prestigious  events  in  China.      

     

   

3    

DNU—CDEN  Workshop  for  Teachers  of  Debater    Schedule  

 Date   Time   Topic  Friday  May  20    

  Anytime    Saturday  May  21       8:30  am   Opening  assembly    

Robert  Trapp  and  Yang  Ge     9:00  –  10:20  am   Ethical  &  educational  dimensions  of  debate.  Robert  Trapp     10:20  am   Break  and  group  photo     11:00  am  –  12:20pm   Managing  a  student  debate  organization  in  the  post-­‐CDEN  era.    

Yang  Xigang,  Ma  Shuang,  and  Russ  Taylor     12:30pm  –  2:00  pm   Lunch  on  your  own     2:00  –  3:20  pm   Creating  a  case  for  First  Government.    

Yang  Xigang  &  Robert  Trapp     3:30  –  5:00  pm   Creating  opposition  arguments.    

Brian  Shipley     5:00  pm   Conversation  and  visiting  time     Afterwards   Dinner  on  your  own        Sunday,  May  22       9:00  –  10:20  am   Teaching  Fallacies  

Robert  Trapp     10:20  am   Break     10:30  am  –  12:00pm   Teaching  refutation  and  points  of  information.    

Brian  Shipley     12:00pm  –  1:30  pm   Lunch  on  your  own     1:30  –  2:50  pm   Judging  and  evaluating  debate.    

Brian  Shipley  and  Russ  Taylor     3:00  pm   Presentation  of  certificates  for  debate  teachers.  Robert  Trapp  

and  Yang  Ge     3:30  pm   Departures  

   

4    

   

   

5    

Understanding and Engaging the Audience McKean & Richards

Assignment Idea: Using Surveys to Analyze Audiences

Objectives: Help students understand the audience they will be speaking to; help students develop rhetorical strategies that will address the beliefs and attitudes held by their audience. This activity is designed to be done while students are working on a persuasive speech. Students will have already learned about different kinds of audiences and will have developed a thesis about a policy that they will argue in their speech (for example: “Congress should enact legislation supporting free tuition for all public colleges”). Instructions:

1.   Drawing on the different types of audiences (uninformed / informed, interested / uninterested, favorable / hostile) students should brainstorm questions that will illicit demographic and attitudinal information from their classmates that relates to their thesis.

2.   The survey should consist of 15-20 multiple choice, agree/disagree, or true/false

questions. Survey questions should fall into four categories:

a.   Questions of value, which ask about the underlying moral / ethical commitments that audience members hold. For example: “Do you agree or disagree with the idea that higher education is a fundamental human right?”

b.   Questions of policy, which ask about what audience members believe should

be done. For example: “Do you agree or disagree with the idea that the federal government should do more to help low-income families?”

c.   Questions of fact, which assess how much audience members already know

about your topic. For example: “Do you believe that student loan debt has decreased or increased in the last 5 years?”

d.   Questions of definition, which ask questions about the meaning of key terms

associated with a student’s topic. For example: “Is access to higher education a right or a privilege?”

3.   Instructors should give students tips for writing clear questions that are easy to

understand.

4.   Students should circulate the survey to their classmates and do a reflection activity that allows them to classify their audience.

Understanding and Engaging the Audience (Continued) McKean & Richards

   

6    

Understanding Audience Lesson Plan Goals: Help students understand different kinds of audiences; help students to analyze how a speaker adapted to a hostile audience; have students think deeply about the audience(s) they may face in delivering a speech; provide students with strategies for adapting to particular kinds of audiences Clinton Hostile Audience Activity:

•   Students watch a video clip of a speaker confronted with a hostile audience o   In my example, students watched a clip of former president Bill Clinton

confronted by Vietnam veterans •   Explain to students that this is practice for coming up with strategies to appeal to

your audience •   Debrief – how did Clinton address his hostile audience? (Brainstorm on board)

o   Addressed the hostility directly: you are being heard; didn’t pretend it didn’t exist

o   Presented a solution to some of the distrust – opening up the Vietnam records o   Acknowledged the limitations of the speech – we aren’t going to agree on

everything o   Personal narrative – I had friends that died o   Appealed to universal values (freedom of speech, freedom to disagree); if we

can’t agree on the war, we can agree on these values (transcendence) o   Asked for his audience’s respect / good faith / give me a chance

Addressing Your Audience

•   Clinton had to address the audience in front of him, not the one he would have ideally wanted to address

•   Clinton had to adapt to his hostile audience while meeting the goals and objectives for his speech

•   So Clinton developed rhetorical strategies to adapt to that audience •   But first, Clinton had to understand his audience. Let’s talk about how to break down

and understand the audience you are going to address in your speech. Audience Types and Approaches (This could also work as a hand out)

•   Today, we are going to map out three different axes (spectra) to gauge how audiences relate to your speech topic.

   

7    

A.)  Audience Interest The first is your audience’s general interest in the topic. Your audience will fall somewhere along this axis: Interested -----------------------------------------Indifferent

•   Gauges how much the audience cares about the topic. •   High interest typically results from having personal experience with the issue. •   Lack of interest typically means that the audience members feel like the policy or

issue is not relevant to them. •   For instance, many male students might not think about the importance of the birth

control pill because they aren't women. Women, however, would have more connection to the issue because they take the pill

Important questions to ask about audience interest:

•   What is your interest level in the topic? •   Why is this topic interesting? •   What would make the topic interesting to the audience? •   What makes the audience interested or not interested in this topic (values? Personal

experience? Media?) Strategies for building audience interest in a topic:

•   Get their attention. Use introduction to explain how this issue affects them and why it is important. Tell them the “So what?”

•   Make them see why they should care, tell them how it affects them •   Use a mixture of emotional and rational appeals to keep them focused and motivate

interest and action. If already interested:

•   Keep their attention by expanding their knowledge of the topic—tell them new reasons to care beyond the ones they already have.

•   Easier to persuade if they are interested. So, what do they need to know in order to be convinced?

B.)  Audience Information Level Misinformed-------------------Uninformed--------------------Informed

•   Gauges how much the audience knows about the topic. •   Similarly, if your audience already has a large amount of knowledge about your

topic, then you don't have to explain as much. Important questions to ask about audience information:

•   What details does the audience know? •   How complex is the topic?

   

8    

•   What relevant experiences does the audience have that will let them understand the topic (for forming analogies)?

•   What does the audience need to know in order to understand your argument? Strategies for dealing with uninformed or misinformed audiences:

•   Educate them on the topic. Tell them the most important information so they are made aware of the issue.

•   Simplify the problem/issue. Make the issue understandable to the audience using the information they do have or similar issues they DO know about.

•   Address the barriers to accurate information. Sometimes ignorance of an issue is cultivated, or left unaddressed in the media. For instance, the U. S. has a larger prison population than any other industrialized nation. How often, though, do you hear about this in the news?

•   Talk about how we know the information. It isn't enough to simply state facts, but rather, emphasize how we know the information that we have (I.e we know how learning happens because of specific experiments, or we know based on survey results, etc.).

C.)  Audience Attitudes Hostile----------------Undecided-----------------Favorable

•   Gauges how the audience is likely to react to your policy or stance on the issue. •   A more hostile audience means that you will have to ask less of them. A more

favorable audience is more likely to go along with what you say. •   Think of it this way: a hostile audience is likely to resist things you say, so its really

important to recognize this and provide way more support to make your argument convincing. A favorable audience is likely to go along with what you say.

Important questions to ask about audience attitudes:

•   Why is the audience hostile or favorable? Where do feelings on this issue come from?

•   What is the audience's relationship to the topic? •   Does the audience directly and obviously benefit or lose something from your

policy? •   What shared or different values underlie the audience's stance? •   Are there elements of your policy that the audience would be hostile to/favorable of?

Does this differ from other parts of your policy/stance? •   Is the audience likely to change their stance through persuasion? •   What could be done to change hostile to favorable? What mistakes might lead to a

change from favorable to hostile? •   How deep does the hostility or favorableness go?

Strategies for Dealing with Hostile Audiences This group disagrees with your thesis, often for explicit reasons related to attitudes, beliefs, and values

   

9    

•   Refutation Strategy: Engage reasons why your audience opposes your and prove

those reasons faulty. You recognize what they believe and systematically refute it with clear evidence

•   Be Clear: Make sure you are specific about the exact issue you audience disagrees with

•   Make sure you know what your audience actually disagrees with o   Do they disagree about the nature of the problem? o   Do they not agree on which solution to choose?

•   Do they not have facts or is this about personal values and beliefs? •   Use rational appeals with clear, well-argued evidence •   Know your facts and be aware of counter arguments. Address these arguments!!!! •   Don’t expect huge change. You cannot change values and beliefs in one speech, but

you can persuade on solutions or suggestions. •   Careful what you ask for. Make sure your action step reflects the audience’s

willingness or capacity to act. •   Make sure you are informing and persuading. Do not discount your audience’s

opinions or knowledge and do not attack your audience. Strategies for Dealing with Favorable Audiences This audience agrees with your thesis. They may, however, feel that you are preaching to the choir. They may not feel moved for change or action. Strategies for dealing with a favorable audience:

•   Refocus thesis to emphasize action •   Ask more of your audience •   Acknowledge agreement you share and push for commitment to action •   Remind them why the issue is important •   Remind them why they agree •   Arm them with facts and reinforce their opinion •   Emotional appeals: Stories, examples, etc. can work well here.

Final Thoughts: You will most likely have a mix of audience members/types. Combine strategies. Acknowledge each type you have.      

   

10    

Understanding and Engaging the Audience (continued) McKean & Richards

Activity: Using Impromptu Speaking to Emphasize Audiences

Objectives: Students will practice impromptu speaking; students will work on targeting arguments to particular audiences; students will reflect on audience types Materials: Two sets of notecards Before Class: Create two sets of notecards. One set represents different potential audiences. The other represents different products. Some audiences and products should not easily fit together (for example, selling cat food to an audience of dog owners). Procedures

1.   Have students take turns drawing an audience card and a product card 2.   Students should analyze their audience

a.   What does your audience want? b.   What is your audience likely going to think about your product? c.   What assumptions can you make about the people in your audience?

3.   Students then develop a short (1-2 minutes) speech advertising the product to the audience they have chosen

4.   Students deliver their short speech to a partner, to groups, or to the whole class that sells the product they chose to the audience they chose

Reflection Questions

1.   What choices did you make to adapt to your audience? 2.   What qualities of the product did you emphasize? Not emphasize? 3.   Was your audience likely to be receptive to your product? Why or why not? 4.   How would you classify your audience in relation to your product?

a.   Hostile or favorable? b.   Informed or uninformed? c.   Interested or uninterested?

5.   How did these classifications shape your strategies?    

   

11    

Teaching  Argument  Types  and  Fallacies  McKean & Richards

Fallacies  •   Failed attempts at argumentation •   Related to argument types •   Three types of fallacies

• Data does not support the claim • The warrant does not link the data and claim together • The claim itself is flawed

Post  hoc  fallacy  •   “False Cause” •   Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B •   Assuming that correlation and causation are the same thing

o   Ex: The University raised tuition last year. Grades in CMN 111 courses also decreased. That must mean that increased tuition causes lower grades in CMN 111.

   Slippery  Slope  

•   “If we take an action, there will be dire consequences” •   If we take one step onto the “slippery slope,” we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom. •   Slippery slope arguments are fallacious only if each step on the “slippery slope” is not well

documented.    Ad  hominem  

•   “Against the person” •   Ad hominem: Focusing on the person you’re arguing against, rather than their argument. •   An ad hominem argument is fallacious only when the attack on the person is irrelevant to their

argument.    Tu  Quoque  

•   “You too!” •   Tries to prove the other person wrong by accusing them of doing the thing they are arguing

about (hypocrisy). •   Again, distracts from the substance of the argument. •   Example: “Grandma told me that you used to stay out late when you were my age...why

should I have a curfew?”  Straw  man  

•   Setting up a weaker, more ridiculous argument and arguing against that instead of your opponent’s real argument.

•   Ex: “The other party has suggested we make cuts to Social Security. Why do they want to kill grandma?”

       

   

12    

Argument  Types    Argument  About  Causes  Example    “Something  happened,  therefore  we  can  predict  that  something  else  will  happen  in  the  future”  (D)  I  studied  for  my  test      (C)  I  will  do  well  on  my  test        

(W)  Studying  causes  me  to  do  well  on  tests        Argument  Based  on  Deduction  Basic  Form    “I  can  say  this  is  true  based  on  a  general  rule”    (D)  A  is  a  member  of  category  B         (C)  A  is  also  a  member  of  

category  C    

 (W)  A  general  rule  tells  us  that  members  of  category  B  also  

belong  to  category  C        Argument  Based  on  Deduction  Example    “I  can  say  this  is  true  based  on  a  general  rule”      (D)  John  Smith  is  a  professor  at  U  of    I       (C)  John  Smith  has  a  PhD        

 (W)  Professors  must  have  PhDs  before  they  will  be  hired.                

   

13    

Argument  By  Sign  Basic  Model    “According  to  my  observation,  this  is  true.”      

(D)  X  is  observed.        (C)  We  may  assume  Y.        

(W)  X  is  a  sign  of  Y.        Argument  By  Sign  Example    “According  to  my  observation,  this  is  true.”      (D)  Lucy  is  bleeding  profusely.       (C)  Lucy  must  have  Ebola.        

(W)  Profuse  bleeding  is  a  sure  sign  of  Ebola.        Motivational  Arguments  Basic  Form    “If  we  act  now,  something  good  will  happen.  I  know  we  all  want  something  good  to  happen.”    

(D)  Action  X  will  result  in  Y.        (C)  You  should  do  X.        

 (W)  You  want  result  Y.            

   

14    

Motivational  Arguments  Example    “If  we  act  now,  something  good  will  happen.  I  know  we  all  want  something  good  to  happen.”    (D)  If    you  use  your  phone  in  class,         (C)  You  should  keep  your  phone  away.  

I  will  get  angry            

 (W)  You  wouldn’t  like  me  when  I’m  angry.    

   

15    

Monroe’s  Motivated  Sequence    

     

   

   

16    

   

Monroe’s  Motivate  Sequence    

Created  by  Alan  Monroe,  a  rhetoric  professor,  in  1930    

Inspired  by  advertising    

Way  of  structuring  an  argument  that  is:  •   Powerful  •   Memorable  •   Persuasive    

MMS  Basics  1.   Get  your  audience’s  attention  2.   Convince  your  audience  that  there  is  a  need  that  requires  satisfying  or  a  

problem  that  needs  to  be  solved.  3.   Demonstrate  how  that  need  can  best  be  satisfied  

by  presenting  a  solution.  4.   Help  the  audience  visualize  the  solution  working  in  the  future.  5.   Get  the  audience  to  do  something  to  carry  out  the  solution  through  direct  

action.      

MMS:  In  Short  1.   Attention  2.   Problem  /  Cause  3.   Solution  4.   Visualization  5.   Action  

 

   

17    

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence: Example McKean & Richards

Note: Here is my annotated copy of JK Rowling’s 2008 commencement address, which I have used to illustrate Monroe’s Motivated Sequence in action.

“The Fringe Benefits of Failure, and the Importance of Imagination.”

Harvard University, 2008

[ATTENTION] The first thing I would like to say is ‘thank you.’ Not only has Harvard given me an extraordinary honour, but the weeks of fear and nausea I have endured at the thought of giving this commencement address have made me lose weight. A win-win situation! Now all I have to do is take deep breaths, squint at the red banners and convince myself that I am at the world’s largest Gryffindor reunion.

Delivering a commencement address is a great responsibility; or so I thought until I cast my mind back to my own graduation. The commencement speaker that day was the distinguished British philosopher Baroness Mary Warnock. Reflecting on her speech has helped me enormously in writing this one, because it turns out that I can’t remember a single word she said. This liberating discovery enables me to proceed without any fear that I might inadvertently influence you to abandon promising careers in business, the law or politics for the giddy delights of becoming a gay wizard.

You see? If all you remember in years to come is the ‘gay wizard’ joke, I’ve come out ahead of Baroness Mary Warnock. Achievable goals: the first step to self improvement.

Actually, I have wracked my mind and heart for what I ought to say to you today. I have asked myself what I wish I had known at my own graduation, and what important lessons I have learned in the 21 years that have expired between that day and this. [HOW DOES SHE GET HER AUDIENCE’S ATTENTION? HOW DOES SHE TARGET HER ATTENTION STEP TO HER AUDIENCE / THE SITUATION? WHAT CHALLENGES DOES ROWLING OVERCOME IN THIS ATTENTION STEP?]

I have come up with two answers. On this wonderful day when we are gathered together to celebrate your academic success, I have decided to talk to you about the benefits of failure. And as you stand on the threshold of what is sometimes called ‘real life’, I want to extol the crucial importance of imagination. [PREVIEW STATEMENT]

These may seem quixotic or paradoxical choices, but please bear with me.

Looking back at the 21-year-old that I was at graduation, is a slightly uncomfortable experience for the 42-year-old that she has become. Half my lifetime ago, I was striking an uneasy balance between the ambition I had for myself, and what those closest to me expected of me.

I was convinced that the only thing I wanted to do, ever, was to write novels. However, my parents, both of whom came from impoverished backgrounds and neither of whom had been to college, took the view that my overactive imagination was an amusing personal

   

18    

quirk that would never pay a mortgage, or secure a pension. I know that the irony strikes with the force of a cartoon anvil, now.

So they hoped that I would take a vocational degree; I wanted to study English Literature. A compromise was reached that in retrospect satisfied nobody, and I went up to study Modern Languages. Hardly had my parents’ car rounded the corner at the end of the road than I ditched German and scuttled off down the Classics corridor.

I cannot remember telling my parents that I was studying Classics; they might well have found out for the first time on graduation day. Of all the subjects on this planet, I think they would have been hard put to name one less useful than Greek mythology when it came to securing the keys to an executive bathroom.

I would like to make it clear, in parenthesis, that I do not blame my parents for their point of view. There is an expiry date on blaming your parents for steering you in the wrong direction; the moment you are old enough to take the wheel, responsibility lies with you. What is more, I cannot criticise my parents for hoping that I would never experience poverty. They had been poor themselves, and I have since been poor, and I quite agree with them that it is not an ennobling experience. Poverty entails fear, and stress, and sometimes depression; it means a thousand petty humiliations and hardships. Climbing out of poverty by your own efforts, that is indeed something on which to pride yourself, but poverty itself is romanticised only by fools.

What I feared most for myself at your age was not poverty, but failure.

At your age, in spite of a distinct lack of motivation at university, where I had spent far too long in the coffee bar writing stories, and far too little time at lectures, I had a knack for passing examinations, and that, for years, had been the measure of success in my life and that of my peers.

I am not dull enough to suppose that because you are young, gifted and well-educated, you have never known hardship or heartbreak. Talent and intelligence never yet inoculated anyone against the caprice of the Fates, and I do not for a moment suppose that everyone here has enjoyed an existence of unruffled privilege and contentment.

[PROBLEM section begins to develop – note how she targets her audience here…]

However, the fact that you are graduating from Harvard suggests that you are not very well-acquainted with failure. You might be driven by a fear of failure quite as much as a desire for success. Indeed, your conception of failure might not be too far from the average person’s idea of success, so high have you already flown.

Ultimately, we all have to decide for ourselves what constitutes failure, but the world is quite eager to give you a set of criteria if you let it. So I think it fair to say that by any conventional measure, a mere seven years after my graduation day, I had failed on an epic scale. An exceptionally short-lived marriage had imploded, and I was jobless, a lone parent, and as poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain, without being homeless. The fears that my parents had had for me, and that I had had for myself, had both come to pass, and by every usual standard, I was the biggest failure I knew.

   

19    

[WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? Students don’t understand failure, see it as a thing to be feared, not as an opportunity to learn.]

Now, I am not going to stand here and tell you that failure is fun. That period of my life was a dark one, and I had no idea that there was going to be what the press has since represented as a kind of fairy tale resolution. I had no idea then how far the tunnel extended, and for a long time, any light at the end of it was a hope rather than a reality.

[SOLUTION BEGINS]

So why do I talk about the benefits of failure? Simply because failure meant a stripping away of the inessential. I stopped pretending to myself that I was anything other than what I was, and began to direct all my energy into finishing the only work that mattered to me. Had I really succeeded at anything else, I might never have found the determination to succeed in the one arena I believed I truly belonged. I was set free, because my greatest fear had been realised, and I was still alive, and I still had a daughter whom I adored, and I had an old typewriter and a big idea. And so rock bottom became the solid foundation on which I rebuilt my life.

You might never fail on the scale I did, but some failure in life is inevitable. It is impossible to live without failing at something, unless you live so cautiously that you might as well not have lived at all – in which case, you fail by default.

Failure gave me an inner security that I had never attained by passing examinations. Failure taught me things about myself that I could have learned no other way. I discovered that I had a strong will, and more discipline than I had suspected; I also found out that I had friends whose value was truly above the price of rubies.

The knowledge that you have emerged wiser and stronger from setbacks means that you are, ever after, secure in your ability to survive. You will never truly know yourself, or the strength of your relationships, until both have been tested by adversity. Such knowledge is a true gift, for all that it is painfully won, and it has been worth more than any qualification I ever earned.

So given a Time Turner, I would tell my 21-year-old self that personal happiness lies in knowing that life is not a check-list of acquisition or achievement. Your qualifications, your CV, are not your life, though you will meet many people of my age and older who confuse the two. Life is difficult, and complicated, and beyond anyone’s total control, and the humility to know that will enable you to survive its vicissitudes. {STOP 11:12}

[WHAT IS HER SOLUTION?] [VISUALIZATION / ACTION STEP BEGINS]

[START: 17:29] One of the many things I learned at the end of that Classics corridor down which I ventured at the age of 18, in search of something I could not then define, was this, written by the Greek author Plutarch: What we achieve inwardly will change outer reality.

   

20    

That is an astonishing statement and yet proven a thousand times every day of our lives. It expresses, in part, our inescapable connection with the outside world, the fact that we touch other people’s lives simply by existing.

But how much more are you, Harvard graduates of 2008, likely to touch other people’s lives? Your intelligence, your capacity for hard work, the education you have earned and received, give you unique status, and unique responsibilities. Even your nationality sets you apart. The great majority of you belong to the world’s only remaining superpower. The way you vote, the way you live, the way you protest, the pressure you bring to bear on your government, has an impact way beyond your borders. That is your privilege, and your burden.

If you choose to use your status and influence to raise your voice on behalf of those who have no voice; if you choose to identify not only with the powerful, but with the powerless; if you retain the ability to imagine yourself into the lives of those who do not have your advantages, then it will not only be your proud families who celebrate your existence, but thousands and millions of people whose reality you have helped change. We do not need magic to change the world, we carry all the power we need inside ourselves already: we have the power to imagine better.

I am nearly finished. I have one last hope for you, which is something that I already had at 21. The friends with whom I sat on graduation day have been my friends for life. They are my children’s godparents, the people to whom I’ve been able to turn in times of trouble, people who have been kind enough not to sue me when I took their names for Death Eaters. At our graduation we were bound by enormous affection, by our shared experience of a time that could never come again, and, of course, by the knowledge that we held certain photographic evidence that would be exceptionally valuable if any of us ran for Prime Minister.

So today, I wish you nothing better than similar friendships. And tomorrow, I hope that even if you remember not a single word of mine, you remember those of Seneca, another of those old Romans I met when I fled down the Classics corridor, in retreat from career ladders, in search of ancient wisdom:

As is a tale, so is life: not how long it is, but how good it is, is what matters.

I wish you all very good lives. Thank you very much]

WHAT IS HER ACTION STEP?

How does she relate to her audience?

What choices does she make to relate to her audience?

   

21    

In job interviews, prospective employers will often ask for what has come to be called a “career narrative.” This narrative is meant to be an opportunity for the candidate to identify a few key moments in their life that guided their decisions and brought them to the juncture where they see themselves moving into the job in question. Writing a career narrative is a useful exercise because it enables you to share a significant part of your life history by honing in on a few formative moments and articulating just what made them so formative. In this sense, it is also a good exercise in making rhetorical choices that are appropriate to a given speech (or, in this case, writing) situation.

To reflect upon your history and goals as a public speaker, you will craft a narrative of your public speaking experience. Be selective about the events you choose to discuss—this essay should give a detailed, thoughtful account of a few formative experiences, not a chronological list of each situation in which you have uttered words in public!

Think back through your personal history to one or two public speaking moments that had a significant impact on you. What role did you play in this particular moment? Where and when did it occur? Who were the various people involved? Why was this situation so uniquely influential in your “public speaking career”? What might it indicate about your potential strengths and challenges as a speaker in this public classroom? This writing assignment should provide a brief narrative of your most formative experience with public speaking, whether as a speaker or as a listener. It should also identify and discuss some of your potential strengths and weaknesses as a public speaker. Finally, this paper should outline your goals for this course. Give this paper substantial thought in order to set the course for your experience in this class.

Papers should be typed in 2-3 double-spaced pages, with one-inch margins and 12 point Times New Roman font. Be sure to turn in an electronic copy of your paper by uploading it to WISE (under the “Assignments” tab).

Public Speaking Narrative Excellent Good Adequate Poor

Description of formative speaking experience

Discussion of strengths and challenges

Descriptions of specific goals for course

Clarity / quality of writing Spelling / grammar Appropriate length and depth

Total: / 25          

Public Speaking Due by pm

   

22    

   

   

23    

Public  Speaking Speaking Assignment 2: Declamation Most of the speeches that you will craft and present in this course will be extemporaneous or impromptu, so that they incorporate your ability to create and organize a great speech together with your ability to deliver it well. In order to incorporate another kind of speaking and to practice elements of great delivery, this assignment challenges you to deliver an excellent expressive reading of a text of your choice.

Your assignment includes four aspects: 1. Select a passage from a speech, short story, poem, or article and modify it (if

necessary) so that it can be delivered within the time constraints of 3-4 minutes. 2. Be prepared to describe the context and authorship of your text to the audience

at the beginning of your presentation (we’ll just need to know who wrote it, when it was written, and where you found it). You might also tell us why you selected the text or why it is meaningful to you.

3. Practice delivering the text with excellent expression, focusing on the principles of good delivery that we read about and discussed in class. Your vocal inflection, rate, and pitch will be particularly important.

4. Remember that your body language speaks volumes. To do an outstanding job, practice enough that you will be able to speak with confidence, and use your gestures / body movement to emphasize the meaning or feeling of the message.

On the day of your presentation, turn in: • A copy of the text • A bibliography detailing where you obtained the text and any sources you

used to learn about its history / context (cited according to a standard style guide such as MLA.)

Tips for Success: * Be aware of the differences between language that is written to be read and that

which is composed to be spoken. Some texts do not work well as manuscripts for oral presentation. Those that do often include narratives, and other texts with short and straightforward sentences, clear language, and excellent organization.

* If you are not sure what text to use, an excellent bet is to present part of a great speech. Pick a text that you connect with, and interpret it. Use the aspects of your delivery – from your voice to your movement – to bring out the aspects of the text that matter to you, and to maintain audience attention.

* Most speakers can perform 1 typed, double spaced page in 2 minutes. So if your performance is intended to be 3-4 minutes, plan to deliver approximately 1 ½ to 2 pages of text.

* Practice!

   

24    

   

   

25    

Public  Speaking  Speaking  Assignment  3:  Tribute  Speech   Due:  2/23  and  2/25 In our personal and professional lives, we are often called upon to pay tribute to others—we may give a toast at a wedding, deliver a eulogy, speak at an award ceremony, participate in an anniversary dinner or retirement party, or honor a great idea or accomplishment. Aristotle classified these kinds of speeches (which he called epideictic) as an important form of rhetoric. Epideictic rhetoric, Aristotle noted, performs the powerful functions of drawing a community together, giving a community a model for action, and defining a community’s values. For this assignment, you will prepare and deliver a 4-5 minute speech paying tribute to a person, a group of people, or an organization. Or, if you prefer, you may pay tribute to the most important idea you’ve encountered in your education. The subject of your tribute may be historical or contemporary, famous or obscure. It should simply be someone (or some organization / idea) you admire and that you believe exemplifies important values. One key to delivering a successful tribute speech is to do more than simply describe the accomplishments of the honoree. Rather than providing a lot of information about the honoree or telling random stories, a good tribute speech draws on a few specific examples to make a larger point about a “life lesson” or value the honoree exemplifies.

For instance, a good tribute speech about Abraham Lincoln would not recount his political biography in great detail (describing all of the offices he held and the bills he signed). Instead, it would draw on specific examples to support a thesis like, “Abraham Lincoln was a great American because he risked his own reputation and security to improve the lives of others.” Similarly, a good speech praising a marriage (such as an anniversary talk or wedding toast) wouldn’t just talk about how the couple met or how long they have been together. It would use a few examples or stories about the couple to convey something about what it means to love well. The examples could be humorous or serious, but they should relate to the larger point of the speech. Here’s they key: Don’t just talk about the accomplishments of your honoree. Convey to your audience the specific things that make the honoree extraordinary, and make a point about what the audience should learn or “take away” from this example. As we prepare this assignment, we will work on relating the topic to the audience, crafting a good thesis, organizing material, and speaking (extemporaneously) from a key word outline.

On the day of your presentation, turn in:

• A copy of your strategy report • The note cards from which you speak (with your speaking outline) This presentation is worth 100 points. This speech will be recorded, so you will have the opportunity to view your performance and analyze your progress. We will sign up for speaking times on a first-come, first-served basis in class on 2/18.

   

26    

         

   

27    

  McKean & Richards

Informative Speech Format: 6-8 minute speech. Keyword outline, formal (full sentence) outline, APA bibliography (with at least 5 sources) Objectives: This is a speech in which you will demonstrate your mastery of the skills we have covered thus far: working with sources, summarizing and paraphrasing, conducting research, argumentation, public discourse, and issues and questions of controversy. At this point, you are an expert on your controversy topic. You have studied the history of the issue, the present status, the multiple sides of the controversy, and the language pertinent to your controversy. You have practiced academic research and you have learned how to identify sound scholarly and authoritative sources. Finally, you have begun to recognize how certain questions of fact, value, policy and definition become ways to frame arguments within all public controversies. Assignment Details: What you will turn in: With this speech, you will be expected to turn in the following:

Ø   A keyword outline: One sheet, typed. Words and phrases only, unless you are using a direct quotation.

Ø   A formal full-sentence outline, with in-text citations. You do not need to write out every word of your speech, but this full sentence outline should give a basic overview of what you will say

Ø   A Bibliography attached to the full sentence outline. What you will speak about: The bulk of your speech will consist of informing your classmates about the main issues and questions that arise in your controversy.

1.   Begin with an attention getter. Then, CLEARLY identify your controversy and explain what makes it controversial. Then, introduce a clear thesis and preview. Your thesis should be informative, NOT your opinion on your controversy.

For example: “today I will demonstrate how state laws regarding abortion have created a heated controversy over access to abortion services since the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court ruling of 1973. First, I will give some background on the Roe v. Wade decision, then I will discuss how some states have tried to deal with abortion since then, finally I will discuss a few common arguments for and against state abortion laws in the United States.”

2.   After your introduction, begin with background information and a short history.

This should be concise—no need to trace your topic back to 1783. Carefully choose which details you feel the audience must know to understand the controversy as you discuss it in your speech. Use your history section from your paper to help you.

3.   Then, explain the current status of your controversy. Remember what we talked

about regarding status quo and choose those things you feel your audience should know (e.g. What is the current legal status of the controversy? Who are the key

   

28    

players in this debate? What terminology and language is central to this controversy?

4.   The remainder of the speech will discuss the arguments surrounding your

controversy (much of which you will have learned during your research for the history and current status-you are just organizing these ideas). If you notice issues of Fact, Definition, Value, and Policy, point those out to us and explain why they matter. Again, consider your audience and what they need to know to fully understand the issue.

5.   You must verbally cite at least 3 sources during the speech. Cite them clearly! For

example, you might say, “Paul Krugman, an editorial writer for the New York Times, argues that the U.S. economy is falling apart.” OR “According to recent statistics from the U.S. Department of Health, as quoted in this month’s TIME magazine…” And remember your outline should have in-text citations corresponding to these.

6.   Your conclusion should summarize the main points and end with a “so-what?” or

why this controversy matters. You should also include a short discussion about why this controversy is relevant to the class. Leave us with something thoughtful.

Delivery:

Ø   This is an informative, extemporaneous speech that must be given within the 6-8 min. window. More weight will be given to delivery this time, so be sure to rehearse! You have a 30 second grace period on either side of the 6-8 minutes. Speeches falling outside the required length will lose 3 points per 15-second infraction.

Ø   Remember to use the Reporter’s Voice when discussing your controversy. The class

should not be able to identify your position on the topic. If you happen to be a passionately pro-choice Democrat…great…but we shouldn’t be able to figure that out in this speech.

Ø   Don’t forget to work on your speaking skills including your extemporaneous

delivery, effective gestures, minimal nonverbal distractions, conversational tone, sound organization, transitions, and pace or rate of speech.

Ø   PRACTICE! PRACTICE! PRACTICE! Both for timing and internalizing these ideas.

   

29    

McKean & Richards Persuasive Speech

Format: 5-6 minute speech + Q&A from the audience; properly formatted full sentence outline and brief speaking (keyword) outline; properly (MLA) formatted works cited page with at least 4-5 sources Objectives: To argue the most compelling case possible for your particular policy and specifically adapt it to your audience. Assignment Details: Procedure / Q&A session:

•   You and your partner will deliver your speeches back-to-back, with each partner arguing their position on your proposition (affirmative & negative).

•   After both speeches, you will field 2-3 questions from the audience. You should be prepared to address these questions professionally and fully. Ask for clarification if you do not understand the question and strategically reframe the question if needed. For example: “Good question. Though my research does not specifically address your point about the effect of this policy on children, I can tell you that…”

•   As an audience member, pay close attention. Note any questions you want to ask. Each audience member must ask at least one thoughtful, quality questions over the course of the two delivery days. Your participation in Q&A will be factored into your grade.

Content: •   This speech should:

1.   Get our attention 2.   Define the problem(s) 3.   Explain how your policy addresses the problem 4.   Provide a well-researched analysis of why your audience should get involved

with this problem and what they should do about it (action step) 5.   Your action step should be specific and realistic. Don’t just say “raise awareness

about this issue” or “write to Congress.” Tell them who to write to and what to say, or what specifically to read or check out to learn more.

6.   Strategically utilize your research and survey data •   The speech should very clearly use the rhetorical strategies outlined in your Rhetorical

Strategy Paper. Adapt to the specific characteristics of your audience. •   You must cite 4-5 sources aloud. Organization:

•   Monroe’s Motivated sequence is the preferred method for organizing this speech. How much time you devote to each section will vary based on your audience’s attitudes about your thesis.

•   As always, you should state a clear and concise thesis and preview, develop the thesis with clear main points, support your main points with appropriate

   

30    

evidence/research, cite all sources used, effectively transition, summarize your main points and thesis in your conclusion, and open and close with thoughtful remarks.

Delivery:

•   This speech, as always, should be extemporaneous. You may even want to engage the audience by asking them questions, sharing what you know about your audience, or mentioning specific people’s names.

•   You will be graded on advanced speaking skills: sophisticated non-verbal skills such as gesturing, movement, avoiding verbal fillers (such as “like”), extended eye contact, minimal non-verbal distractions, etc.

•   Speaking time: You are allowed a 15 second grace period. I will not allow students to speak after that period is over. This prevents you from a significant point deduction and allows us to stay on schedule.

   

   

31    

Educational  and  Ethical  Dimensions  of  Debate    

I.   Educational Dimensions of Teaching Debate  

A.  Education and Competition  

B.  Educational Dimensions –   Language  and  speaking  –   Critical  thinking  –   Expanded  perspectives  

   II.   Ethical Dimensions of Teaching Debate

A.   Ethics and Competition

B.   Moral Purposes of Debate 1.   Communicating Responsibly 2.   Using  Arguments  to  Resolve  Disagreements  3.   Using  an  Adjudicator  to  Resolve  Differences  4.   Reaching  an  Outcome  to  a  Conflict  

    C.   Ethical  Guidelines  for  Debate  

 1.     Employ  ethical  guidelines  for  the  use  of  evidence.  2.     Employ  ethical  guidelines  for  choosing  arguments  patterns.  3.     Implement  mutual  equality.  4.     Interact  respectfully  with  others  prior  to,  during,  and  after  debates.    5.     Champion  clashes  of  ideas  and  reject  personal  attacks.  6.     Engage  the  clash  of  ideas  toward  creating  the  most  elevated,  comprehensive,  

and  well-­‐reasoned  arguments  7.     Debate  as  a  global  citizen,  active  and  participatory,  toward  generatively  

embracing  vital  issues.    

 

   

32    

Questions about Ethics for Discussion

 •   In what ways is each of the four essential features of debate important to the guidelines for

ethical debate?  

•   Why do arguments in debates sometimes migrate away from the topic and toward the speakers themselves?

 •   Often debaters are called “opponents.” How is the term, “opponent,” problematic for ethical

debaters? How might that term contribute to character attacks during debates? What other term might be more appropriate?

 •   Identify ways evidence or use of evidence might be clearly unethical. Why are they unethical?

 •   How is mutual equality signaled in a debate? What nonverbal cues might indicate one debater

seems to perceive themselves as superior to another? Is that message about the issue or the speaker?

 •   Relate observed or experienced episodes of disagreement between debaters and adjudicators,

episodes that generated difficulty. How might respect be shown in those circumstances?  

•   Is everyone a global citizen? Why would it be important for a debater to position himself or herself as a global citizen? What if the issue were a local issue? Are local issues related to global issues? Global issues to local issues?

 •   What problems arise if debaters choose to be unethical or not as ethical as they could be?

How would these actions function in everyday life after college?    

   

   

33    

Managing  a  student  debate  organization  in  a  post-­‐CDEN  era      

Goal:    To  maintain  the  sustainable  development  of  our  tournament  in  Post-­‐CDEN  era    

 Challenge:    

Resource  Supply     Influence    Solution:    

Increase  Income  Reduce  Expenditures  

  Establish  Incentive  Mechanisms    Student  Centered:    

Daily  or  Weekly  Training     Management  of  the  Organization     Tournament  Organizing    Why  do  We  Choose  Students?      

Young     Energetic  and  Passionate     Competent     Organized  to  Receive  Funding    Project  Based:    

Sponsorship,  Money  is  crucial     More  Concern  for  Authority  

College  Student  Innovation  Training  Program    College  Student  Competition  Program    Student  Social  Practice.  

 Increase  Income:    

Potential  Resources  on  Campus  Teaching  and  research  system  

Students  Affairs  system  Students  Employment  system  Alumni  Association  Overseas  Education  system  

     

   

34    

Tournament  Connected:    Ss  need  improve  themselves  though  tournaments.  We,  teachers  need  tournaments  to  communicate  with  each  other.  (to  prove  ourselves.)  All  levels  of  tournaments  are  needed.  

 Daily  Management  of  the  Association:      

The  committee  of  the  association  (5  Ss  )  Rely  on  Ss  ,  believe  them.    They  can  do  much  better  than  you  expect.  They  only  need  guidance.  Show  you  concern,  but  don’t  interfere  too  much.  Create  a  reasonable  points  system  to  select  better  debaters.    

     

:        

   

35    

!

!

Elements of Argument and Debate Two Sets of Related Concepts Persuasion and Debate Persuasion is a symbolic process where by people try to convince others to change their ideas about ideas, issues, or actions. Debate is one kind of persuasion, but debate is limited to situations where at least two participants are directly engaged with one another about some conflict. In most cases, debates include external adjudicators whose role is to decide the outcome of the conflict. Thus, persuasion is the broader of the two concepts and debate is one kind of persuasion. Arguments and Argumentation Argumentation can be defined as the process whereby an advocate uses arguments to advocate a position. During the process of argumentation, a person uses what are called arguments to communicate their views about the positions they advocate. Arguments includes specific claims, along with supporting material, that a debater introduces during the process of argumentation. The process of argumentation also includes other elements such as refutation, delivery, etc. The illustration below shows the argumentation process along with some other elements included in the process. Those other elements of the argumentation process will be discussed later. !

Argumentation,Process,,!!Arguments!

Refutation!

Delivery!

Stories!

Metaphors!

   

36    

! Elements!of!Argument!

!

Components of Arguments Building Global Relations Through Debate will introduce four components of an argument. For the purposes of this discussion, those four components have been simplified and reduced to two components: a claim and supporting material Claims and Supporting Material To be an argument, the claim needs some kind of support. A statement without any kind of support is merely an assertion. When support for the claim is added to the claim itself, it becomes an argument. As stated earlier and as will be further developed in later chapters, many different kinds of materials can be used to support claims. In this chapter, a few examples are presented to clarify the ways that supporting material can be tied to a claim to create an argument. Claim!Supported!By!Evidence The simplest way to think of an argument is that it involves a claim supported by evidence. Evidence is supporting material that has been observed or is potentially observable. The following diagram illustrates a claim supported by evidence.

!

1

! Support!

Claim!

Argument!++!

=!

Argument,

Evidence:!Observations!of!the!

fossil!record!

Claim:!!Humans!evolved!from!other!species!

++!

2

   

37    

 

Elements of Argument !

!

Claim Supported By Explanation Claim Supported by Analogy Claim Supported by Other Claims

Argument,

Explanation:!!When!Robert!was!a!child,!a!snake!bit!

him.!!

Claim:!!Robert!is!afraid!of!

snakes.!++!

Argument,

Analogy:!!Like!Mao!Zedong,!Xi!Jinping!is!taking!China!in!new!and!positive!directions.!

Claim:!!Xi!Jinping!is!one!of!China’s!greatest!

leaders.!!++!

Argument,Claim!One!

Claim!Three!++!

Claim!Two!

   

38    

! Elements!of!Argument!

!

A frequent pattern of using claims to support other claims involves combining a descriptive claim with an associational claim to support an evaluative claim. The diagram below illustrates this basic pattern.

Argument,

Descriptive!claim!

Evaluative!Claim!++!

Associational!Claim!

Argument,

Descriptive!claim:!Current!laws!allow!smoking!in!public!

places.!!! Evaluative!Claim:!Smoking!should!not!be!allowed!in!public!

places!++!

Associational!Claim:!Smoking!in!public!places!subjects!nonPsmokers!to!health!

risks.!!

   

39    

 

The Quality of Arguments: Fallacies in Argumentation I. Criteria for Logical Assessment of Arguments

A. Arguments are more or less cogent.

B. Johnson and Blair Model of Argument Cogency

C. Johnson and Blair’s Model applied to the Structure of Argument

   

40    

Fallacies

D. The Standard of Acceptability

Evidence must be acceptable to the judge or audience before the argument can proceed. (common knowledge, accepted by published sources or a recognized expert, construction of a cogent sub-argument).

E. The Standard of Relevance

The standard of relevance asks whether the link successfully connects the evidence to the claim.

F. The Standard of Sufficiency

The standard of sufficiency asks if that link is good enough to convince an audience of the claim. In other words, does the link fully transfer the acceptability of the evidence to that of the claim?

   

41    

Fallacies

II. Fallacies and Argument Adequacy

A. Three Basic Fallacies: One fallacy is linked to each of the three criteria mentioned above.

1. Problematic Premises. Unacceptable evidence usually results in a claim that is unsuccessful at gaining support of the audience or judge.

a. Complete lack of evidence is a fallacy wherein the debater provides no evidence at all for his or her claim.

b. Begging the question is a fallacy that occurs in an argument when

the evidence is essentially the same as the claim. Because the evidence and the claim are the same, the argument essentially contains no evidence at all.

c. The fallacy of incompatibility occurs when one piece of evidence is

incompatible with another.

   

42    

Fallacies

2. Irrelevant Reason: In combination with all evidence offered, this fallacy fails to minimally satisfy the criteria of relevance (65-67).

Johnson and Blair present an example of that fallacy in their text:

A Member of Parliament in Canada once charged, in the House of Commons, that the Federal Department of Health and Welfare had been cooperating with the Kellogg Company in permitting the sale of a cereal (Kellogg’s Corn Flakes) that had “little or no nutritional value.” Marc Lalonde, then the Minister of Health seeking to rebut that charge stated: “As for the nutritional value of Corn Flakes, the milk you have with your Corn Flakes has great nutritional value” (65-66).

a. Argument ad hominem: an attack on the arguer’s character or background that is not relevant to the argument.

b. An argument of straw: a debater construes the argument of another

to be other than what it is, then, attacks the misconstrued argument rather than the actual argument. Following the metaphor of “argument of straw,” the debater reconstructs the original argument into a weaker argument of straw, then attacks that argument rather than the original one.

c. A red herring fallacy is another argument that shifts the focus away

from the current discussion to an argument that is similar to but different from the current argument in the hopes that the topic of the discussion will be changed in ways that are irrelevant to the original topic.

d. Poisoning the well is a fallacious argument that attempts to

discredit a person or a source in advance of their argument.

   

43    

Fallacies

e. Guilt by association is a fallacious attempt to attack a person’s

argument not on the issues pertinent to the argument, but on the basis of groups and people with whom the person is associated.

f. An appeal to fear involves an attempt to invoke fear to take the

focus off the argument. An appeal to fear is only fallacious when fear is used solely to shift the focus from the issue. For example, “If we elect my opponent, we should all build bomb shelters for our families immediately and prepare to be attacked because my opponent has very little foreign policy experience.”

g. An appeal to popularity uses the popularity of a person, product, or

belief to justify a favorable conclusion about that person, product or belief.

h. An appeal to tradition attempts to argue in favor of a particular

action on the grounds of tradition rather than on the basis of the merits of that action. Hasty Conclusions. The general fallacy category of hasty conclusions is sometimes called “jumping to a conclusion.” This general category of fallacies is one wherein all of the evidence and arguments that the debater offers, taken in combination with one another, do not meet the test of sufficiency.

3. Hasty generalization, the first example, is a fallacy of reasoning by example. Arguments commit that fallacy when the examples selected to support the claim are insufficient either in number or in their representativeness.

a. Slippery slope arguments sometimes are fallacious. Using such arguments, debaters try to connect a series of events in a causal chain that ultimately “culminate[s] in calamity” (Govier, 439).

   

44    

 

Fallacies

Contrary to popular opinion, slippery slope arguments are not necessarily fallacies (Volokh and Newman; Walton). They only are fallacies when all of the connections in the causal chain are not properly made.

b. Two wrongs is a label used for a fallacy commonly called “Two wrongs don’t make a right.” As “a misplaced appeal to consistency. A person is urged to accept or condone one thing that is wrong because another similar thing, also wrong, has occurred or has been accepted and condoned” (Govier 444).

c. Improper appeal to practice is a fallacy that assumes that a person

is justified in doing things that are common practice, even if that practice is clearly wrong.

d. Fallacy of composition is a fallacy in which the evidence is drawn

from some part of a whole, but the conclusion is about the whole (Govier 439). “He Jingkai, a debater from China, is a superb debater. Therefore, China has some of the best debaters in the world.”

e. Fallacy of division involves a fallacious argument in which the

evidence is drawn from the whole, but the conclusion is about a part of the whole. The argument assumes that what is true of the whole must be true of its constituent parts. “Harvard is an excellent university, therefore Lawrence Tribe, who is a law professor at Harvard, must be an excellent professor

f. Post hoc fallacy, also called by its Latin name post hoc, ergo

propter hoc, which means “after this, therefore before this.” This fallacious argument assumes that, because one thing predates another, the first must have caused the second.

g. Faulty analogy is a fallacy that occurs when two cases are

compared to each other but are not similar in terms of the relationship stated in the comparison.

   

45    

Speaker  Responsibilities  for  Worlds-­‐Style  Debate Speaker Speaker Responsibilities

Upper House (First Half of the Debate)

Prime Minister •   Defines and interprets the motion •   Describes the approach the First Government team will take •   Constructs the case for that interpretation of the motion

Leader of Opposition •   Establishes a stance that both Opposition teams will defend throughout the debate. •   Refutes the case of offered by the Prime Minister. •   Constructs one or more arguments against the motion as the Prime Minister interpreted it.

Deputy Prime Minister

•   Refutes the arguments presented by the Leader of Opposition. •   Rebuilds the case presented by the Prime Minister. •   Constructs one or more new arguments supporting the case of the Prime Minister.

Deputy Leader of Opposition

•   Continues refutation of case presented by the Prime Minister. •   Refutes any new arguments presented by the Deputy Prime Minister. •   Rebuilds arguments of the Leader of Opposition •   Constructs one or more new arguments supporting those presented by the Leader of the Opposition.

Lower House (Second Half of the Debate)

Member of Government

•   Supports the general direction and case of the First Government team. •   Briefly continues refutation of First Opposition team’s arguments •   Refutes new arguments introduced by the Deputy Leader of the Opposition. •   Constructs at least one new argument that is different from but consistent with the case of the 1st

Government (sometimes called an extension).

Member of Opposition •   Supports the general direction taken by the First Opposition team. •   Briefly continues refutation of the case of the First Government team. •   Refutes arguments introduced by the Member of Government. •   Constructs at least one new argument (extension) that is different from but consistent with the case of the

1st Opposition.

Government Whip •   Refutes the extension offered by the Member of Opposition. Sometimes this refutation can be folded into the overall summary of the debate.

•   Summarizes the entire debate from the point of view of the Government, defending the general viewpoint of both Government teams, with a special eye toward the case of the Second Government team. This overall summary may include a defense of the Member of Government’s extension.

•   Usually does not provide new arguments.

Opposition Whip •   Refutes the extension offered by the Member of Government. Sometimes this refutation can be folded into the overall summary of the debate.

•   Summarizes the entire debate from the point of view of the opposition, defending the general viewpoint of both Opposition teams with a special eye toward the case of the Second opposition. This overall summary may include a defense of the Member of Opposition’s extension.

•   Does not provide new arguments.

 

   

46    

   

47    

Outline of a Prime Minister Speech Supporting a Policy Motion

Introduction   Motion for debate: Definition and interpretation: Define any ambiguous terms

Narrow the motion by clearly interpreting the motion to include what the Government will defend.

       

   Statement of advocacy:

Usually the statement of advocacy includes a model of the motion as interpreted by the Government.  

                   

Speech preview:   Argument 1: Argument 2: Conclusion

   

48    

Exercises  for  Creating  a  Prime  Minister  Speech    1. Present a motion to a group of debaters who are divided into teams of two persons each.

Give them 5 minutes to discuss the motion and create their definitions and interpretations of that motion and craft their statement of advocacy. Give each team 1 minute to present their definitions, interpretations, and statement of advocacy.

2. Present a motion to a group of debaters who are divided into teams of two persons . Give

them 15 minutes to discuss the motion and to create a Prime Minister’s speech for the motion. Give each team 3 minutes to present an outline of their speech. After each team has presented their outline, discuss the cases focusing on the arguments suggested as well as whether the outline suggests the speech meets the fundamental obligations of the Prime Minister speech.

3. Modify the exercise listed above by presenting the motion to a single team of two persons

and have one of those persons present a full Prime Minister’s speech. Discuss the speech in terms of the cogency of the arguments and how well the speech fulfills the basic obligations of the Prime Minister speech

   

49    

 

trodu tio        Motio  for   bat        Stat m t  of  Ad o a :       Expl t upp t tatu  qu , upp t tatu  

u  w t  m n  a ju tm nt , upp t  a  c unt al                        Sp r i w:                  futatio :    

     Present  Arguments  against  the  Government’s  Interpretation  of  the  motion.      rgum t  1:                          rgum t  2                    

       Co lu io :                    

   

50    

 Exercise  for  Creating  a  Leader  of  Opposition  Speech    Present a sample Prime Minister speech to a group of debaters who are divided into teams of two persons each. After they listen to the Prime Minister’s speech, give them 10 minutes to discuss the speech and to create at least one argument showing how the Government proposal will not solve the problem. Present a sample Prime Minister speech to a group of debaters who are divided into teams of two persons each. After they listen to the Prime Minister’s speech, give them 10 minutes to discuss the speech and to create at least one argument showing how the Government proposal will create more problems than it will solve.      

   

51    

Outline  of  a  Deputy  Prime  Minister  Speech      

Introduction:          Rebuilding  case  of  Prime  Minister:    Rebuild  

Argument  1    •   The  Prime  Minister’s  argument  was  X    •   The  leader  of  opposition  offered  Y  in  response    •   State  why  X  is  an  inadequate  refutation  of  the  Prime  Minister’s  argument    •   Explain  why  X  is  an  inadequate  refutation    •   Thus  the  Prime  Minister’s  argument  still  stands      

Rebuild  Argument  2,  etc.  (follow  same  procedure  as  above)          

Refute  any  new  argument  offered  by  the  Leader  of  Opposition:         Refute  argument  1       •   “The  LO  said”  (state  the  PM’s  argument)    •   “But  I  say”  (state  your  refutation)    •   “Because”  (explain  your  refutation)    •   Therefore  (explain  the  importance  of  your  refutation.               Refute  argument  2  (follow  the  same  procedure  as  above)        Offer  1  or  more  additional  arguments  of  your  own.                 Argument  1                

Argument  2    

 

   

52    

Template  for  Deputy  Leader  of  Opposition  Speech  

Introduction:      Rebuilding  argument  of  Leader  of  Opposition    

Rebuild  Argument  1  • The Leader of Opposition argument was X • The Deputy Prime Minister offered Y in response • State why X is an inadequate refutation of the Leader of Opposition’s argument • Explain why X is an inadequate refutation • Thus the Leader of Opposition’s argument still stands  

Rebuild  Argument  2,  etc.  (follow  same  procedure  as  above)      

     Refute  any  new  argument  offered  by  the  Deputy  Prime  Minister:     Refute  argument  1      • “The DPM said” (state the DPM argument) • “But I say” (state your refutation) • “Because” (explain your refutation) • Therefore (explain the importance of your refutation.     Refute  argument  2  (follow  the  same  procedure  as  above)      Offer  1  or  more  additional  arguments  of  your  own.         Argument  1      

 Argument  2  

 

   

53    

Outline for a Member of Government Speech  

 

   

trodu tio :        Bri fl  d f d  t  sta  ta  b  t  Fir t  Go r m t  T am        Bri fl  r fut  argum t  from O  a d O:        

I nt  t  a a  cla  b tw n  t t  G nm nt  an t  Opp t n  t am  an  t n  p nt  y u utat n lat  t  t  u .    

   I  n a ,  p nt  m p utat n  an  a t nal  a gum nt  p nt  b O.    

                               

  u t p utat n  m t                    

“ a  .  .  .”    “But  w a  .  .  .”  “B au  .  .  .”  “  .  .  .”    

xt d  t  d bat :  ( a  at  l a t  4  mi ut  for  t i  part  of our  sp        

nt  n w  a gum nt  t at  a  c n t nt  w t  but nt m  t  p nt  b  t t  G nm nt am.    n w  a gum nt ul  t ngu  y u m  t t  G nm nt  t am  w l ma n ng  l al    t  

th m.        Y u  a gum nt  mu t  b nt m t  G nm nt  but  mu t  upp t  t  m l.  Y u  cann t  c ang  am n  t  m el.        Y u  can  ext n  t bat  in  a  numb    wa  in lu ng  but  n t  n a l  l m t  t            

       

A  n w  a gum nt    

An  ext n n  an  a gum nt  b l  m nt n  b  t t    nm nt  t am  t at  u  m  in pt  e n ,  exampl ,  an  

a n ng.             A u  ca tu    

       

   

54    

Outline for a Member of Opposition Speech

 

 

trodu tio :        Bri fl  d f d  t  sta  ta  b  t  Fir t  Oppo itio   am        Bri fl  r fut  argum t  from     d   M:        

I nt  t  a a  cla  b tw n  t t  G nm nt  an t  Opp t n  t am  an  t n  p nt  y u utat n lat  t  t  u .    

   I  n a ,  p nt  m p utat n  an  a t nal  a gum nt  p nt  b   M.    

                           

  u t p utat n  m t                    

“ a  .  .  .”    “But  w a  .  .  .”  “B au  .  .  .”  “  .  .  .”    

xt d  t  d bat :  ( a  at  l a t  4  mi ut  for  t i  part  of our  sp        

nt  n w  a gum nt  t at  a  c n t nt  w t  but nt m  t  p nt  b  t t  Opp t n   am.    n w  a gum nt ul  t ngu  y u m  t t  Opp t n  t am  w l   ma n ng  l al  t  

th m.        Y u  a gum nt  mu t  b nt m t  Opp t n  but  mu t upp t  t  m l.  Y u  cann t  c ang  am n  t  stan .   u ,  i  t  

n  t tatu  qu  a  c unt  p p al,  y u  mu t n  t am .        Y u  can  ext n  t bat  in  a  numb    wa  in lu ng  but  n t  n a l  l m t  t            

       

A  n w  a gum nt    

An  ext n n  an  a gum nt  b l  m nt n  b  t t    nm nt  t am  t at  u  m  in pt  e n ,  exampl ,  an  

a n ng.             A u  ca tu    

       

   

55    

Exercise  for  Extending  the  Debate  as  Member  of  Government  or  Member  of  Opposition    1. Have a group of debaters listen to the first half of an on-line debate. Such a debate can be found at: Willamette.edu/cla/china_debate or at a variety of other places on the internet. Then have the debaters in groups of two discuss possible extension arguments that might be made in the Member of Government speech and two possible extension arguments that might be made in the Member of Opposition speech. Then the debaters should take two minutes to present their ideas to the other members of the group.

2. Based on the information generated in Exercise #1, have the debaters construct and present a complete Member of Government speech to be followed by constructive criticism. 3. Based on the information generated in Exercise #1, have the debaters construct and present a complete Member of Government speech to be followed by constructive criticism.    

   

56    

 

   

57    

Outline for a Government Whip Speech    

 

trodu tio :        urpo  of  W ip  Sp :        

     an n t  an  a u at  c mpa n    t  tw  in  t    bat .        

           

       

m n t at  t up t  t   nm nt    in  tbat .    g l g t  t  c nt but n  ma  b  t  S n  G nm nt  

t am.    

futatio :  R ut  an  ext n n  n w  a gum nt  p nt  b  t  M mb    Opp t n.     utat n  can  b  p nt tl  it  can  b l  int  t   W’ umma .    

   Summariz  t  d bat :    

   n’t  t  t  in lu  e  a gum nt  in  y u umma ,  ju t  

t  m t   mp tant n .        n’t  ju t  in lu  t  a gum nt  ma  b  y u ,  but  

c mpa  y u   ’  a gum nt  w t  t  t t .        Summa  t bat m  a  “ g  p p t ”  l k  t  v wp nt  a  ju g  au n  m mb .            

ow  to  orga iz  t  summar :        

R p at ng  m t b  t  b t  a gum nt  ma  b  y u  (an   u  t am  an  expla n  w  t  a  t  b t  

a gum nt  in  t bat .            R g up ng  m t umma  t bat  b  g up ng  t  a gum nt  a ng  t m  p n pl ,  i . tak l ,

pl n , t ,  et .            R am ng  m t umma  t bat  a ng  t

   

58    

Outline for Opposition Whip Speech  

 

 

     

trodu tio :        urpo  of  W ip  Sp :        

     an n t  an  a u at  c mpa n    t  tw  in  t    bat .    

       

       

       

m n t at  t up t  t  Opp t n    in  t bat .    

g l g t  t  c nt but n  ma  b  t  S n  Opp t n  team.    

futatio :  R ut  an  ext n n  n w  a gum nt  p nt  b  t  M mb    nm nt.     utat n  can  b  p nt tl  it  can  b l  int  

th  OW’   mma .        

Summariz  t  d bat :        n’t  t  t  in lu  e  a gum nt  in  y u umma ,  ju t  t  m t  

mp tant n .        n’t  ju t  in lu  t  a gum nt  ma  b  y u ,  but  c mpa  y u  ’  a gum nt  w t  t  t t .    

   Summa  t bat m  a  “ g  p p t ”  l k  t  v wp nt  a  ju g    au n  m mb .            

ow  to  orga iz  t  summar :        

R p at ng  m t b  t  b t  a gum nt  ma  b  y u  (an  u  t am  an  expla n  w  t  a  t  b t  a gum nt  in  t bat .    

       R g up ng  m t umma  t bat  b  g up ng  t  a gum nt  a ng  t m  p n pl ,  i . tak l , pl n , t ,  et .            R am ng  m t umma  t bat  a ng  t un am ntal  u t n  t at  a  in nt  in  t  i u  b ng bat .    

   o ot  pr t w  argum t    

   

59    

Exercise  for  Creating  Summary  Arguments  in  Whip  Speeches    Provide a debate motion to a group of students. In groups of 2, ask them to write down the main arguments they would expect each side to make. Then, construct a summary framework for the Government side that could crystalize the debate they imagine might have happened about this topic. Then do the same thing for the other side of this topic.        

   

60    

     

   

61    

Refutation  and  Rebuilding    

Four  Step  Refutation:    

Step  One:     Clearly  state  the  argument  you  intend  to  refute.           “They  say  .  .  .”  

“My  opponents  said  that  education  policies  are  already  being  reformed.”  

 Step  Two:   State  your  refutation  to  their  argument         “But  I  say  .  .  .”  

“But  these  educational  reforms  referred  to  by  my  opponents  are  merely  cosmetic.”  

 Step  Three:   Relate  your  refutation  to  the  argument  you  are  refuting         “Because  .  .  .”  

“The  reforms  mentioned  by  my  opponent  do  not  solve  the  essential  problems  of  employment  opportunities  or  social  benefits,  and  thus  are  just  cosmetic.”  

 Step  Four:   Show  the  judge  or  the  audience  the  importance  of  your  refutation.           “Therefore  .  .  .”  

“My  opponent’s  argument  is  not  sufficient  to  suggest  that  changes  to  education  policy  are  unnecessary.”  

 General  Rebuttal  Tips:       (1)  Do  you  know  how  much  rebuttal  you  are  supposed  to  do?  Be  certain.    

(2)  Listen  very  carefully  before  you  even  try  to  think  of  rebuttal.  Small  details  can  be  crucial.    (3)  Save  nothing  for  later  –  refute  as  hard  as  you  can,  as  soon  as  you  can.    (4)  Good  rebuttal  combines  accurate  criticisms  of  your  opponent,  with  references  to  your  own  team’s  case.    

       

   

62    

 Five  Steps  to  Rebuilding  Your  Original  Argument    Step  1:   Identify  the  original  argument.     “We  said  .  .  .”     “Our  original  argument  was  that  educational  reform  is  a  necessity.”      Step  2:   Identify  the  refutation  to  the  original  argument.       “Our  opponents  said.  .  .”     “Our  opponents  refuted  the  argument  by  saying  that  education  is  already  being  

reformed    Step  3:   State  the  assessment  of  the  opponent’s  refutation.       “But  we  say  .  .  .”     “But  we  say  the  refutation  offered  by  our  opponents  is  insufficient.”      Step  4:   Explain  the  details  of  your  assessment.       “Because  .  .  .”       “The  reforms  mentioned  by  the  opposition  are  cosmetic,  and  taken  as  a  whole,  

current  reforms  do  not  provide  the  kinds  of  reforms  that  are  needed.”    Step  5:   Re-­‐establish  the  original  argument  in  light  of  the  refutation.       “Therefore.  .  .”     “Therefore,  our  original  argument  that  reform  is  a  necessity  still  stands,  even  in  

light  of  the  opposition’s  refutation.”            

   

63    

   Exercises  for  Refutation  and  Rebuilding      Exercise  #1  refutation:  This  exercise  involves  two  students.  Have  the  first  student  present  a  two-­‐minute  speech  that  offers  one  argument  in  support  of  some  action  or  proposal.  Have  the  second  student  present  one  point  of  refutation  in  response  to  this  argument.  This  refutation  should  carefully  follow  the  four-­‐step  refutation  process.      Exercise  #2  refutation:  This  exercise  involves  one  student  constructing  an  argument  and  several  other  students  responding  to  that  argument.  One  student  will  present  a  five-­‐minute  speech  that  involves  two  or  three  arguments  in  support  of  some  action  or  proposal.  The  other  students  will,  using  the  four-­‐step  method  of  refutation,  construct  at  least  three  points  of  refutation  about  the  arguments  in  the  speech.  Then,  the  group  will  discuss  the  points  of  refutation.      Exercise  #3  refutation  and  rebuilding:  This  exercise  involves  two  or  three  students.  Have  the  first  student  present  a  two-­‐minute  speech  that  offers  one  argument  in  support  of  some  action  or  proposal.  Have  the  second  student  present  one  point  of  refutation  in  response  to  this  argument.  The  refutation  should  carefully  follow  the  four-­‐step  refutation  process.  Then  either  the  first  or  the  third  student  will  carefully  rebuild  the  original  argument  using  the  five-­‐step  rebuilding  process.            

   

64    

   

   

65    

Points  of  Information  (POI)      

Describing  Points  of  Information:      •   During  their  opponents’  speeches  debaters  may  get  the  opportunity  to  raise  a  point  

 •   The  opportunity  to  raise  a  point  occurs  only  with  the  permission  of  the  opponent  

who  is  speaking    •   These  points,  questions  or  arguments  are  called  points  of  information  

   

Raising  Points  of  Information    

•   The  debaters  for  the  government  team  may  request  points  of  information  from  members  of  the  opposition  teams  and  vice  versa  

 •   POIs  can  be  requested  after  the  1st  minute  of  a  speech  and  prior  to  the  last  minute  

of  the  speech    

•   To  request  POIs,  a  debater  rises  and  raises  their  hand    

•   If  the  speaker  accepts  the  point,  then  the  debater  has  a  maximum  of  15  seconds  to  make  the  point  

   Accepting  and  Refusing  Points  of  Information    

•   The  debater  giving  the  speech  has  the  authority  to  accept  or  refuse  the  POI  •   To  refuse  a  POI,  the  debater  may  say  something  like  “No  thank  you”  or  “not  at  this  

time”  or  may  simply  use  a  hand  gesture  to  indicate  the  person  should  take  return  to  their  seat  

•   To  accept  a  POI,  simply  say  something  like,  “your  point  please”  •   Debaters  should  quickly  indicate  whether  or  not  the  point  will  be  accepted  •   The  debater  should  finish  their  sentence  prior  to  accepting  the  point  •   Debaters  should  accept  at  least  1  and  no  more  than  3  points  during  their  speech  

 Responding  to  Points  of  Information    •   Respond  to  the  point  immediately  •   Respond  to  the  point  confidently  •   Don’t  allow  the  opponent  to  follow  up  with  additional  questions  

             

   

66    

Exercise  for  Offering  and  Responding  to  Points  of  Information    This exercise can be used for one student speaker and up to six other students who will offer points of information. Have one student deliver a standard Prime Minister speech. This student should be instructed to accept as many offers of points of information as possible, even if it causes the student to exceed the time limit. Other students in the audience should rise to offer points of information as often as they can think of them. Discussion that follows should focus on the effectiveness of both the offers of points of information as well as on the effectiveness of the responses.    

   

67    

   

China Debate Education Network Curriculum Outline

Mechanics of Judging Worlds Style Debate  I.   Role  as  a  Judge                                                      Notes  

A.   Conducting  the  debate  1.   Do  not  start  the  debate  until  all  

debaters  and  judges  are  present.  2.   Introduce  the  debate.  3.   Introduce  each  speaker  in  turn.  4.   Be  prepared  to  keep  time.  5.   After  the  debate,  temporarily  

dismiss  the  debaters.  6.   After  the  decision  is  reached,  

reconvene  the  debaters,  announce  the  rankings  and  provide  oral  feedback.  

 II.                  Filling  out  the  Ballot  

1.   Rank  Teams  1-­‐4    2.   Give  Speaker  Points      

III.                Ranks  and  Speaker  Points      1.  Speaker  points  technically  run  from  1  -­‐  

100.   2. 75 Points is the average

3. To rank higher than 85 the debater should have strong points, be well organized and very persuasive 4. To rank lower than 65 the debater must be totally disorganized or demonstrate poor argumentation skills

IV. The Decision Process 1. Consensus Judging 2. Taking Notes V. Judge as Reasonable and Impartial 1. Judge the topic at hand

2. Do not judge what DID NOT happen in the round

3. Do not judge on preconceived views 4. Be reasonable and impartial

   

68    

VI. Judge Effective Argumentation 1. Evaluate content for both reasoning and impact 2. Questions to answer a. Who does the best job on key issues?

b. Who explains not only claims but reasons and evidence? c. Who best crafts their arguments? d. Who maintains logical consistency? e. How relevant are the arguments to the debate and motion?

VII. Judging agenda setting

1.   Does  the  debater  create  and  contribute  to  the  overall  agenda  of  the  debate?    

2.   Does  the  debater  work  to  ensure  that  the  threads  of  argument  he  or  she  has  introduced  are  discussed  throughout  the  entire  debate?    

 VII.    Judging  Role  Fulfillment    

1.   Role  Fulfillment  is  secondary  a.   It  comes  after  judging  argumentation  b.   Sometimes  debaters  can  be  rewarded  

for  departing  from  their  role  when  circumstances  dictate  

         

   

   

69