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    n

    An Introduction o FlintworkingSecondEdition

    DonE. Crabfree'

    IDAHO MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORYPOCATELI,O, DAHO

    1982

    .:-a

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    Part I

    An Introduction to the Technologyof StoneTools

    Don E. Crabtree

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    NT'MBER 2EOCCASIONAL PAPERSOF THE

    IDAHO MUSET'M OF NATURAL ITISTORYSecondEdition

    F,ditomFirst Edition:Earl H. Swanson,Jr.B. Robert ButlerSecondEdition:Lucille B. Harten

    Museum l)ircctor: Michael Perry

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    An Introduction to Flintworking

    Part IAn Introduction to the Technologyof StoneToolsDon E. Crabtree

    Part IIA Glossaryof Flintworking TermsDon E. CrabtreeEditorial Assistants

    Guy MutoChristineLovgrenEarl H. SwansonIllustrationsMary Keeler

    The support of the National Science oundation n making possible hispublicationand the experimental lintworking program s acknowledgedand appreciated.

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    An Introduction to the Technologyof StoneToolsby Don E. Crabtree

    A study of lithic technology eveals he progressof primitive man for approximately 2,000,flX)yearsof making and using tools and weaponsofstone,wood, and bone, which is a predominanceof approximately 99.570 of human history. Butartifacts made of organic materialsare generallyperishable and the most enduring identifiabletools of prehistoricman are thosemade of stone.The earliestman can be identified as human asmuch by associationwith stone tools as by hisanatomy. For this reason, he techniquesof mak-ing stone ools are of great mportance n the studyof human origins and dispersals.Flake scarsonthe artifactsare theresultof various lintknappingtechniquesand consequently urnish evidence nddiagnosticcharacteristics f at least he last stageof manufacture. Further, a microscopicstudy offunctional scarson the edges an give somebasisfor theoretical functional analysis. Reducing heinitial massof lithic material to the finishedpro-duct requiresmany stages f manufacture,discar-ding waste flakes during the process. Thesedebitage lakes are usually more diagnostic hanflake scars, for their size, thickness, shapeand

    degree f curvaturecanrevealseveralmanufactur-ing steps. They can indicate the technique, forthey retain the bulb of applied force (platformarea), show the method of platform preparationand innumerable other characteristicswhich in-dicate the technique. For this reason, a carefulstudy of the flaking debris s a prime requisite ndetermining he manufacturing technique.Flintknapping is one of the earliest ndustrialarts of man-a processof man's ability to induceand control the fracture of stone to form func-tional implements.Thepebbleor cobbleculture of

    Olduvai is the oldest known form of workingstone by a simple percussion technique ofdetaching one or more flakes from a cobble toleavea sharp cutting edge. Certainly man's firstattempt at flintknapping was elementary,but asculturesdevelopedn the stoneagewe see he pro-gressof new and more sophisticated ool typesevolvewhich required new flaking techniques.Prehistoric lithic technology is the scienceofsystematic nowledgeof forming stone nto usefulcutting, chopping and other functional im-plements.But lithic technologycompriseswo fac-

    tors-the method and the technique.The methodis in the mind; the technique n the hands.Method is the logical manner of systematicandorderly flaking process,or the preconceived lanof chipping action based on rules, mechanics,order and procedure.Method verifies historians'

    theories hat flintknapping was not a haphazardart but, rather, a carefully planned processofmaking stone tools to suit a specific functionalpurpose. The shape, length, width, thickness,form andtechniqueof applied orce to fashion hetool was predeterminedby the toolmaker beforethe initial fracture of the raw material. He alsodeterminedwhat tools he would use n the processbefore the initial break of the lithic rnaterial.The technique epresents he applicationof themethod by the worker with a suitable abricator toform the stone into his mental conception;each

    techniqueproducesdistinct flaking charactbrandtechnological attributes. Manner is part of thetechniqueand is themode or characteristic tyleofpreparationand application of forces o form theartifact by a definite method. Manner s the deter-mined angle and application of force-whetherpercussionby the straight line or curved blow,pressureby pressingor snappingor indirect forceby percussion or pressure. Technique is theultimate result of the method applied in apredeterminedmanner.A single echnique s the simple basicprinciple

    of detaching, by percussionor pressure,a sharpusable lake. But eachof thesemannersof deliver-ing force varies with the intention and tool typeand consequentlywe have multiple techniques.Techniquevariablescan also be modified to suitthe material, intention or the fabricator.If the pattern of applied force is consistentlyrepeated, hen a more sophisticated ool can beformed by reducing he mass o the desired unc-tional form. The freshly detachedlakesserveade-quately as cutting implements and if they showfunctional scars they are utilized flakes. Most

    techniques are complex. Blademaking, per se,whether by percussion,pressureor indirect per-cussion s not a single echnique.But bladesmadeby simulatedconditions, represented y a varietyof platform preparation, degrees, kinds andanglesof force, useofrests or anvils,variationsofrhythms and muscular motor habits, and use ofdiversified fabrication tools representvarietiesofblademaking echniques.A complex echnique s a combination of multi-ple individual techniques. For example-theFolsom point mergesa percussion echnique for

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    preforming, a pressureechnique or forming andthe fluting technique for detaching the channelflakes (Crabtree1966).Other methodscombinepercussion,ndirect percussionand pressure oform more sophisticatedools. Most tool typesarethe end esultof a methodof independently pply-ing forces n alternatedegrees,ways, and at vary-ing anglesfrom the initial to the final stageoffabrication.

    A study of technology s pertinentto typology,for careful analysisof the various stagesof themanufacturing process can give clues to thetechniqueand the functional need.Technologicalevaluations based,n part, on understandinghemuscularmotor habits and rhythmic removal offlakes.After the rough materialhasbeen educedto a stage where the worker can repetitiouslyremove a seriesof flakes from the margin, themind, eyeand muscular esponsesften developrhythmic and subconsciouseaction o applyingthe force. Experienceand habit eventuallycausethe worker'smuscleso respond ubconsciouslyoinduced orces.The hand holding he piecebeingworked subconsciouslymoves or rolls tocounteract he force appliedby the percussor rcompressor.As a result of the subconsciousresponse f maneuvering nd manipulation, heholding hand generallybecomesmore fatiguedthan the hand applying he force. The directionand amountof forceneededo detacha flake of agiven dimension becomes ntuitive when theworker becomesamiliar with the components fthe ithic material,can elate he sizeandweightofthe fabricator, and expertlyapply the technique.

    The finished artifact usually reveals only thefinal seriesof flakes so the modern typologistgenerally relies primarily on theory and mor-phology o define he technique.Typology basedsolelyon morphology mplies function-such asscrapers, edges, wls,borers,or burins,but tellsor verifies nothing of the living habits of thegroup. Morphology is certainly a part of themethod and techniquebut the technologymustbedefinedto verify the typeswhich emerge rom in-dustries. Artifacts may be identical mor-phologically, but made by entirely differenttechniques.There is nothing as potent as experiment forverifying ithic techniques.t allows he worker orecord all the stagesof manufacture, o study thecharacteristicsf the debitagelakes,and o proveor disprovehe theory.The analyst anbestverifyhis theoriesby experiment.He neednot becomeproficient at flintknapping but even a try will

    familiarize him with the mechanicaland physicalproblems involved in the manufacture, and em-phasize the importance of preparation and thecorrect angle and proper application of the re-quired amount of force. Different tool typeswithlike characteristicsare pertinent to individualassemblageso eventhe experiment emainsem-pirical until the worker has produced an exactreplica of the aboriginal artifact. Experiment isthe end resultof hypothesis asedon theory butnot supported by fact even though, in this in-stance,the aboriginal approach may parallel orvary slightly.

    The important factor of both analysisand ex-periment s to considerhe traits of eachstageofmanufacture and evaluate he technicalmethodsof the work from start o finish. Many techniqueshave been replicated by the stoneknappingex-periments of Francois Bordes.;'JacquesTixier,L.S.B. Leakey,Alfred S. Barnes,Leon Coutier,Francis H.W. Knowles, D.F.W. Baden-Powell,Kenneth Oakley and Don Crabtree. Their ex-perimentshave defined the intentional from themiscalculation,he novicework, therejuvenation,the importance of preparation of cores andpreforms,grindingandpolishingof platformsandedges, he aboriginaluseof thermalalterationoflithic materials, he value of debitageanalysis, heamount and angles of applied force, thesignificanceof the correct percussoror com-pressor, he subtle blendingof techniques, ndmany more factors which are technologicalfeatures.

    Limited space prohibits the analysis andclassification f the hundredsof prehistoricithictechniquesand their 'variable attributes whichmakeup the StoneAge. Complete overage f in-dividual techniques and their pert inentcharacteristicswould fill volumes. Descriptivedetailswould have o be givenof eachexperimentandthen relatedand compared o aboriginalworkwith the text profusely illustrated.Therefore,descriptions ill be condensedo a dictionaryver-sion of the basic techniques of percussion,pressure nd some ndirectpercussion.MATERIALS

    The first concern of the toolmaker is obtaininggood lithic material (Crabtree 1967a).The shapeand functional performanceof the tool is govern-ed by the quality of the materialand the skill ofthe worker. Flint, fine-grained basalt, chert,chalcedony,asperandvolcanicglasses erewide-ly used aboriginally for they are solidshaving theproperties of a heavy liquid. All have the

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    necessary ualitiesof elasticity, homogeneity,arecryptocrystalline, isotropic and highly siliceous.Homogeneity allows the worker to fracture thestone n any direction. The material must alsobefree of flaws, cracks and inclusions;otherwise twould break prematurelyor causestep and hingefractures. Coarse-grained ock will not fracturesmoothly but tends to crumble from the appliedforce. Other materialssuch as feldspar and slatewill fracture only along certain inesand cannot becontrolled by the worker. The quality of materialhas a direct relationship to the applied techniqueand determines uperioror inferior workmanship.Of course, here s always he human actor of fin-ding good work on poor material and poor workon good material, which reflects the skill of theworker.

    Flint was widely used and made almost in-destructible tools, but when obsidian wasavailable t seemedo be preferred by stone ageman. Undoubtedly this is becauset is a volcanicglassand leavesan extremelysharpcutting edge.But when obsidian s used, he percussormust bedifferent from that used or harder materials,andthe blows essenedr dampened.For digging, bor-ing or scraping tools the worker preferred atoughermaterial and was not so much concernedwith the sharpedge.Stoneageman wasvery selec-tive about his raw material, for his very survivaldependedon his knowledgeof suitable stone forimplementsof specific function. Certain groupsranged n areaswhere here was a scarcityor lackof good material and, in this case, hey had tomake do with what they had. Very often theanalystwill refer to work as "crude" whereas hematerial s poor and only superior skill would per-mit flaking. So the word "crude" should bequalified according o the material.

    Many lithic mineralscan be improved for flak-ing by the aboriginalmethodof thermal alteration(Crabtree and Butler 1964) which recent ar-chaeological evidence indicates is contem-poraneouswith the advent of pressure laking.The stone s buried in sand and slowly heated omoderate emperatures f from 400o o 900" F.,dependingon the type of material. Then it is leftto cool undisturbed or at least welvehours. Thisprocess elievesstresses nd strains in the stoneand it becomesmore elastic without becomingbrittle. The alteration makes the stone morevitreousand the worker canmake ools with moreprecision and with much sharper edges. Eachmaterial respondsdifferently to heating and onemust become amiliar with the stonebeingalteredto determine he temperatureand allotted time of

    heating and cooling. The alteration time perioddependson the size of the piece being heated,largerpieces equiring more time than flakes.Theworkability of naturalglassymaterials, ike quartzcrystal and obsidian, are mproved by heating,butthe texture changes renot asnoticeableas reatedsiliceousrocks. Some materials do not requirealteration for they respond very well to pressureflaking in their natural state. t is not necessaryotreat materials to accomplishpressurework, butthe alteration improves the material. It requireslessenergy o induce fracture, and the worker hasgreater control over flake removal. Whentoughnesss a prime factor such as that requiredfor diggers,choppers,awls, borers, or scrapers,then untreatedsiliceousmaterial is desirable.

    After heating, the natural surface retains itsoriginal textureand only the insidepart under thecortex will show the change. This makes t dif-ficult to determinealterationon finished ools thathavehad all the surface emoved n the final stateof flaking. But if a facetof the original surface e-mains on a thermal-treated artifact, the changecan be easilynoted. Heatingalsooften causes ol-or changes n the material-yellows changingtored and other natural colors altering accordingly.Alteration can be verified on aboriginal flakes ifthe dorsal sideof the flake is coarse-textured ndthe ventral side s glassy.THE CONE PRINCIPLE

    When a flake is detachedrom the ptuentmass,it forms a coneor a part of a cone.The flake is thepositiveconepart and the scar s the negativeconepart. This principle works in much the samewayas he cone ormed on plate glasswhenshotwith aBB gun. When the pellet strikes he paneat rightangles o the flat surface, he force radiates out-ward in widening circles at an angle angential othe direction of impact and finally the force ex-ceeds he elastic imit of the glassand atone isremoved rom the oppositesideof the point of ap-plied force. If the energy of the pellet is insuffi-cient and the force is dissipated,the cone willpenetrateonly part way-or not at all-and only aconepart will form. If the velocity of the pellet istoo great, then the conewill shatter.

    The ideal whole cone is formed by percus-sion-having the ratio of the size, weight andhardnessof the projectile proportionate to theforce and velocity of the blow. Detachmentof acomplete conb is generally by percussion andusually used only for perforation. Removal ofcone parts is synonymouswith both percussionand pressureflaking. When using the pecking

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    technique, he worker removeshalf cones,quartercones, overlapping and intersecting cones, orleaves he cone ntact with the parentmass.Flakesare coneparts and the fracture angleofthe cone s the ventral side of the flake. The apexof the cone(proximal end of the flake) where heforce is applied is called the platform part. Ex-amination of the platform angle and the fractureangle of the conewill determine he direction ofapplied force. Because f the amorphous natureof most raw rnaterial,the worker must constantlycalculate he fracture angle of the cone to deter-mine the direction of applied force in order toremove lakes at an angledifferent from the direc-tion of force by thepercussor r compressor.Boththe position of the materialbeingworked and thedirection of the applied force are constantly

    changing n the initial stages f manufacture.Thisenableshe worker to select he platform area anddetermine he correct angle of applied force.Cone splitting is an exception o the rule of us-ing the fracture angleof the cone.The cone s splitby supporting the working piece, thereby settingup opposing orces and causing he cone o shear.In this case, the fracture is quite flat and thepositive and negative surfaceshave little or nobulbsof force.

    FLAKING IMPLEMENTSThe forming of the artifact from the initialbreak of the raw material to the finished toolusuallyrequiresseveral tages f manufactureandthe use of severaldifferent kinds of fabricators(Crabtree1967b).Some ools aremadeentirelybypercussionand someentirely by pressure.Othersare nitially startedby percussionand then finish-ed by pressure.Othersaremade by the punch (in-direct percussion) technique. Each method rc-quires a separate ool kit. But the compressororpercussor(fabricators) must be of material dif-ferent from the stonebeingworked.Quarryingmaterial n situ requiresa specialoolkit including levers, large hammerstones, hickpick-like objects of either flintlike stone orpointed piecesof bone or antler and large broadflat scraping lakes o removedebris. f the rock issurface material the quarrying tools are un-necessary,but the stone must be tested for thenecessarylaking quality. The stone s struck witha simplehammerstoneo exposehe inner surfaceto test or fine texture andhomogeneity.When theblow produces a ringing sound, it denotes

    homogeneousmaterial free of cracks, flaws andinclusions. f the blow emits a dull thud-then theworker knows the piece s not homogeneous.

    ABRASIVESImplements and artifacts formed first by flak-ing or pecking and then ground or polished areusually associated with the Neolithic period.However,abrasivematerials and polishingagentsare not necessarily ffiliated with this period andwere used early in time for platform preparationand for removing sharp edges or hafting pur-poses.Abrasivesserveboth to weakenand strengthenthe platform area. When the platform is roughlyabraded, he surface s weakened, he pressureorpercussion ool will not slip, and the amount offorce necessary o induce fracture is reduced. Ifthe platform part is rounded, it is strengthenedwhich prevents ts crushing, thereby insuring thecomplete emoval of the flake or blade.Abrasive stoneswere also usedto sharpen hetips of pressureools and punches.Continual useof the abrasivestone ormed groovesof a distinc-tive pattern which are often mistaken for arrowshaft smoothers.Flakes of coarsegranular stonewere used as saws o form implements of bone,antler, wood and soft stone.They were far moreefficient than the edgeof a vitreous lake or blade.

    PERCUSSIONPercussion equires hat the fabricator be large

    and heavyenough o inducesufficient force to ex-ceed he elastic imits of the stone to cause rac-ture. Percussion ools arehaftedor unhaftedham-merstonesof different hardness, exture and size;billets or rods of wood, an tler, bone, ivory andhorn; andthe worker may evenusean avil for sup-port of the working piece.The type of hammerstonematerial and thetechnique s determinedby the quality of materialbeing worked and the stageof manufacture. Thehardnessor softnessof the hammerstone ontrolsthe interval of contact between he percussorandthe flintlike material, for the time of contact isproportionate to the yield and density of the per-cussor. f the hammerstone r billet is of sand-stone, wood, antler or bone, then the interval ofcontact is prolonged. If the percussor s of flint,steelor hard wood, then the interval of contact sshortened. f the percussors soft, it mustbe largeand weighty and the velocity of the blow must beincreased; or if the piecebeing worked is smalland a soft percussordeliversa slow blow, the ar-tifact will move with the appliedforce. The densi-

    ty of the percussormust correspond o the sizeandtype of material being worked, and the appliedtechnique. f the stonebeingworked s sufficiently

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    inert, the sizeand weightof the percussormay beincreased nd the velocityof theblow decreasedothe point where the applied force will almost ap-proach pressure.A very hard percussoroften willcrush or shatter he flake or artifact and so s usedfor only a few techniques.Relatively soft per-cussors ontact a largerarea han hard percussors,causing he cone of force to havea larger trunca-tion and the flakes to have diffused bulbs of per-cussion.

    The wear pattern on percussors an be ofdiagnostic value in interpreting techniques.Theposition and depth of the wearpattern, striations,bruising and battering aid in reconstructing hemanner n which he percussorwas held, the waythe blow was deliveredand the probable stageofmanufacture. Experiments revealed that anelongated cobble with a wear pattern on onemargin was actually a hammerstoneused forblademaking,whereast hadpreviouslybeen den-tified as a rubbing stone Crabtreeand Swanson1968).Scarring an ndicatewhether he percussorwasprojectedn an arclike or straight ine blow.Battering on one or both ends can indicate thatthe tool was usedas a hammer o section argepieces f lithic material.The wearpatternon somepercussorsevealshat they wereused or peckingrather than for flake removal.

    THROWINGThe simplestand probably one of the earliestmethodsof toolmakingwasby throwing the rawmaterialwith great force againstan anvil stone obreak or shatter it into usablepieceswith sharpedges.These lakescould be used"as is" or theedges harpened y modification. Observers avenoted this technique n recent times among theAustralian aborigines Gould and Tindale, per-sonal communication 1969). However, it issometimes ecessaryo use his method o makethe first break on sphericalmaterial havingno flatsurfaceon which to apply the force. Roundedsur-facesslantwith the directionof the blow, so theforce must impart great energy to prohibit thericochet of the cobble or percussor.Spheroidswhich are broken by throwing often shatter,splinter, exfoliate or split, depending on theweightof the cobbleand he velocityof the hrow.Throwing generally detaches planoconvex ex-foliated flakes with closely spacedcompressionringsbut no bulbs of force. If the cone shatters,the flakes will be angular and pointed with a flatsurface. When angular material is thrown, theresultsare'unpredictable.

    HAND.HELD DIRECT PERCUSSIONUsing his technique, he worker holds the ob-jectivepiece n the hand, or hands,and strikes tagainst an anvil stone. This is a hazardousmethod, for the flakes fly in the direction of theworker and the fingers between he anvil and thepiece being struck are vulnerable. However thistechniquecan be used o makeburins from flakesor blades, o removeends rom tranchet cleavers,to detachLevallois flakes from speciallypreparedcores, o removeblades rom cores,and to severelongatedpiecesof lithic materialby holding bothendsand striking the midsectionagainst he anvilstone.The break s flat andeachhalf is well suitedfor a blade or flake core.

    BI.POLARThis technique requires placing the objectivepieceon an anvil stone and striking with a per-cussor. Small pebblesand cobbles may be frac-tured in this way, much the sameas one wouldcracka nut. Force s induced rom both the anviland the percussor, ausing ones f force o format both ends of the pebble or cobble, notnecessarilyeavingconescars.Whenthe force s indirectopposition, heconeexceedshe elasticimitof the material and it shatters.The debris willresemble egments f an orange.The ideal bi-polar fracture is to form a coneateach end of the material by directing one of theforcesslightly off-center which will split or shearthe pebble.Shearing adiates he force waves romone end or the other,usually rom the endhavingthe leastcontact with the percussoror anvil. Thistechnique seldom leaves a positive or negativebulb of force scar. But the bi-polar shearingtechnique eaves orce wave scars at the area ofleastcontactand the oppositeend may show signsof crushing.Archeological texts often erroneously ndicatethat bladesmade by the bipolar technique havebulbs of percussionat both ends. Experimentscontradict this theory. Blades removed from ananvil-supportedcore must have the leading edgeof the core'sbase ree of contact with the anvilwhich prohibits a bulb at both ends. Also, theforce must be directed tangentially rather thanperpendicularly o the face of the core, and thedetachedblade will haveone bulb of force at theproximal end. If the bi-polar technique s used orblademaking, the force is in direct opposition

    from anvil and percussorand the blade will col-lapseand there will not be bulbs of percussiononboth ends.Corescanhavebladesczus n thesame

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    faceand bulbar scarsat both ends,but this is nottrue of blades. Anvil-supportedcores produceflatter blades han when handheldor placedon ayielding support. The anvil is useful in manytechniques ut the force s normally not applied ndirect opposition to the anvil. A true bi-polartechnique s used o shapeand to back a flake orblade. It involves detachingcrushed lakes fromone margin to form a right angle and blunt theedgeopposite he cuttingPart.DIRECT FREEHAND PERCUSSION

    This is a technique of holding the objectivepiece in one hand and striking with a ham-merstoneor billet to detach lakesor blades'Al lof thediverse ariations f this echniquewill pro-bably neverbe known,but it prevailed uringtheentire Stone Age until metal implements wereavailable.The techniquewasused o make simpletoolsby strikingvertically o themarginof a lithiccobblewith a hard hammerstoneo remove apid-ly expanding flakes with pronounced bulbs offorceandsharpedges.f theprocesss continued,the workercanremoveseverallakes rom a cob-ble, makinga corechopping ool. If the cobble sturned after each flake is detached and theprevious flake scar s usedas a striking platformfor the next flake removal, he worker canmakeabifacial tool suchasa simplepointedhandax' Thehandaxservedas a multipurposemplement, orcutting, chopping,boring, and digging. Clacto-nian implementswere made with this techniqueand were thick and strong and able to withstandconsiderable buse.Progressivelyhrough time'man improved his percussion methods anddevelopedmore diverseand sophisticatedechni-quesof flake removalwith greatercontrol of (l)platform, (2) width, (3) length, (4) thickness' (5)curvature,and (6) termination.

    (1) A platform area may be a natural orprepared lat surface o receiveand withstandtheapplied force. The platform can be made byremovinga flake or flakes,or canbe preparedbyabrasion,by creating he proper angleby pressureor percussion, r by removing he overhang'

    (2) The width of the flake or blade s controlledby the surfaceareaof the material. Plane or flatsurfacesallow the flake to spreadwhilea ridge,orridges, will confine the force and allow a longflake or blade o be formed f theangleand degreeof force is correct. The natural or preparedangleof the ridge or degreeof convexitycontrol thewidth of the flake or blade.(3) Length s controlledby the surfacearea. f aridge is established nd continuous orce applied,

    the flake or bladewill be onger andwill terminateat the endof the ridge.If the surfaces plane, heflakeswill spreadand terminateshort. Termina-tion is controlled, in part, by the angleof the ap-plied force.(4) Thickness s primarily controlled by where

    the force s appliedon theplatform. Near the edgegivesa thin flake or bladeand awayfrom the edgegivesa thick flakeor blade.However, f the plat-form is madestrongby abrasion,he blow may benear the edgeand a thick flake detachedwithoutthe platform collaPsing.(5) The straightnessof the flake or bladedependson the inertia of the material. Largemasses f stonewill remain nert because f theirsizeand weight. f thepieces small t canbe sup-portedeitherby a clampor placedon an anvil. If

    the working piece s held oosely n the hand androllswith the blow, the flakeor bladewitl 6t tutu-ed.Another factor s the mannerof the blow-anarclike blow will cause urvingwhile the straightline blow will produce straighter flakes andblades.(6) Flakesor bladesmay terminateby predeter-mined techniques-feathering, hingeor stepfrac-tures, or by carryingthrough to detach he op-posite end of a core or margin of the artifact(tamdsoutrepassde, ixier, 1963).The trait offlake and blade termination is the result ofregularityor irregularityof the material surfaceand the amountand angleof force.

    INDIRECT PERCUSSIONIndirect percussion'is used for making andfinishing tools and requires he useof a punch (in-direct tool). The punch is a semi-pointedor bluntrodlike object of tenacious tone,bone, antler,horn, ivory or hard wood. The selectionof thepunch type dependson the quality of the materialbeing worked, the techniqueand the worker'spreference. The percussor imparts the forcethrough the punchto the established latform. In-directpercussion llows he worker to place he tipof thepunchon the platform accuratelyandmain-tain, with precisionand control, a constantangleduring the percussion.The punch technique ismore accurate han directpercussion nd detachesstraighter and more uniform flakes and bladeswith small platforms (Bordesand Crabtree1969).However,the punchtechniquedoespresenta pro-blem of holding the preformedmaterial.For good

    results,wo persons rerequired-one to hold thestone ool or core and the other to hold the punchand deliver the biow; or the worker can hold the

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    working piece betweenhis feet and deliver theblows himself. He may also mprovisea visebylashing wo piecesof wood togetherwith sinewand using a stoneas a wedge o hold the materialinert.For indirectpercussiont is necessaryo placethe tip of thepunchon the edgeof a preparedplat-form of a preformed oreor biface,depending nwhether bladesare to be made or the biface is tobe thinned and made regular. The piecemay beplacedon an anvil of stone,bone or antler. Thepunch s held at an angle angential o the propos-ed flake or blade scar and a blow struck with thepercussorn a straight ine to the punch.The per-cussormay be a simplehafted or unhafted ham-merstone, illet of hardwood,antleror bone-theweight and size dependingon how much force is

    needed o fracturean areaof predeterminedize.Characteristicsof punch flakes and blades aresmallplatformsand a standardization f sizeandform. A lip is often present n the ventralsideatthe proximal end of the flake or blade and it willhave essundulations han thosemade bv directpercussion.Another techniqueof indirectpercussions toplace he objectivepieceat an angleon an anvil ora fixed punchand strike he blow on the artifact.A yieldingpercussors used o eliminatebruisingand to detacha flake from the part contacting heanvil or punch.A simpleburin coremay be madeby placingthe corner of a truncated lake or bladeon an anvil and striking the margin of the flakewith the percussore removea burin blade.Thefixed punch can-be used to notch large bifacialtools ike hoesand arge anceolates. he tip of thepunch is seatednear the margin on the oppositeface. The bifaceedge s placedhorizontally to thevertical ixed punchand a light blow is deliveredata ninetydegree ngle o the exposedace of the ar-tifact andslightly nward to the fixed punch.Aftereach flake is removed, the biface is turned overand the operation is repeateduntil the notch hasreached he desireddepth. The resulting lakes arelunate, esemblinghe quartermoon.

    PRESSUREFLAKINGPressure laking tools are of many materialsand are of various forms and sizes.They rangefrom a simple elongatedpebbleor deer antler tineto the more complex composite ools such as theelaboratepressureools of the Arctic carved romivory to fit the hand and with replaceablebits.

    Stonepressureools are rare. The most commonlyused were of organic materials such as bone,ivory, hardwood, horn, shell and whatever

    materialswere available(Crabtree1970).Rodentteeth and small bits of shell were used for den-ticulations, notching, barbing and serrating.There areethnographicaccountsof the Australianaborigine using his teeth in a biting motion tosharpen ull stone ools.Pressureools areused oapply force with accuracyand precision to theedgeof the proposedartifact to detachcontrolledflakes.The pressureechniquepermits he workerto feel and control individual flake detachment oproduce an artifact that is regular in form andwith a sharp cutting edge.

    Pressure lides can be removed rom a corebyusinga chestor shouldercrutch or a staff held byboth hands. When using both hands, the coremust be securedn a vise or clamp-two logs ash-ed togetherwith sinewand a stoneusedasa wedgeto hold the piece irmly in place Crabtree1968).

    There are many methods of detachingflakes-random, parallel,diagonal,chevron,col-lateral, oblique, and others.But, technically,al lhave basic methods that involve placing thepressureool on a preparedor natural platform onthe margin of the preform and applyingpressingforce to detacha flake on the obscureside.Thevarieties of pressure echniquesare infinite andvary with (1) the worker's designof the artifact,(2) combinations of inward and downwardpressure, 3)varioushand and body positions, 4)many designsof platforms, (5) use of supportssuch as anvils or hands, (6) varietiesof pressuretools, (7)methodsof holding,(8)superiorand n-ferior lithic materials, and (9) intended function.

    The artifact is held at a right angle on a pad inthe cupped palm of the left hand with one endresting on the heavy muscle of the thumb. Thecurled fingers apply gentle but firm pressure okeep he artifact in position. The back of the lefthand holding the artifact is positionedon the in-side of the left thigh, giving additional support.The tip of the pressure ool is firmly seatedat aright angle to the long axis of the artifact on theleadingedgenear he base.The edgehasprevious-ly beenmade regular and a platform establishedby removing small flakes or by abrading to pre-vent crushing. Inward and downward pressuresare applied simultaneouslybringing together theknees and applyrng pressure from the hands,arms, and shoulders.The width of the flake,rather than the length, generally governs theamount of pressingenergy. Flakes are detachedfrom the underside obscureside) of the artifactand the worker must "feel" rather than seehiswork.

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    Generally,pressure lakesare small and thin ascompared o thosemadeby percussion r iadirectpercussion.An exception s the pressureechniqueof detaching burin blades which are relativelythick compared to their width' Contrary topopular beiief, flakes detachedby the hand-heldprirtot. technique may exceed two inches iniength and are often mistaken for percussionflaies. Pressurebladesmadeby using the crutchmay be as long as ten inches when the lithicmaierial is vitreous. Unfortunately, the last stageof pressurelaking detaches mallflakeswhich areseliom recovered or analysis'They are also thinand havea tendency o collapseeven hough theydetachandterminateproperly. Breakages due' inpart, to support of the artifact by the palm of the't uni. pt.t*re flakes are usually twice the widthof the flake scar.When a ridge s used o guideflake removal, the detached lake retainshalf thepreviousscaron the dorsalside'

    Therearetwo methodsof using he coneprinci-pleto applypressure.Pressureorceapplied n on-iy a do*tt*atd directionwill cause he flake to beremovedtangentially to the direction of the ap-plied force, much the sameas directpercussion'These lakes are generallyshort with a featheredtermination and have salient bulbs of pressure'Thesecond ndmostcommonlyusedmethod s oapply pressuren two directions-pressing inwardi" - itti direction of tt(e desired flake andsimultaneouslypressing away from the margin'This shifts the fractureangleof theconeandwhenthe proximal end of the flake startsdetachment'the iownward force is stopped but the inwardforce is continued. If the applied force is guidedby ridgesor convexities, ong, narrow flakes canbe rernoved.Without the ridge control, the flakeswill spread egardless f the technique'

    Pressurelaking is used or shaping, oolmak-ing, sharpening,modification or

    preparation'Sp-ecialeiectedlakescanbe modified into smalltoolsor projectilepoints,andpercussionreformsp.rrrur. flakes into bifaces' Also, flakes andtlud"t are straightened by removing pressureflakes from the ventral surface at the proximaland distal ends until the curve is eliminated'Pressure flaking is also used to remove ir-regularities and make uniform margins onpr"fotrnt and other implements o be finishedbypressurelaking.

    When the artifact has beenmade regular, theworker can rhythmically remove uniform flakesand developa systematic onstantuseof muscularmotor habitswhichrespondo consistentatiosof

    inward and downwardpressing orces' The tip ofthe pressureool is seatedn line with a ridge leftby the detachmentof the previous flake and theworker presseso removeone-half of the previousscar.Correctplacingof the pressureool on themargin demandspractice and skill to insure firm.ont".t and prevent slipping as the downwardforce s applied."Feel" is developedo coordinatethe ratio of the inward and downward forces' Im-proper ratio of too much downward force willcauie ttre flake to terminate short and make anacuteedgeon the margin of the artifact' The plat-form must adhere o the detached lake to leaveasharpedge.A series f such lakesdetachedroma margin will leave an extremelysharpedgeeventhough slight irregularitiesmay exist. A pressureflaked marginon an artifact, flake or bladecanbemadeeither acuteor obtuse,dependingon the in-tended unction.

    Pressure lakes and their correspondingscarsaregenerallymoreuniform, havebetterdefinitionand constantelementsof characterand thereforeare more diagnostic han thosemadeby percus-sion. It is often necessaryo pressure lake someartifacts several imesbefore they are sufficientlyuniform for the final flaking. Sinceonly the laststageof flake scarsremains on the artifact, theanalyst may not consider previous stages ofpressure ork in his analYsis.Early ethnographic accounts of explorers'historians and observers have noted differentmanufacturing techniques of stone implements(Ellis 1940)of both the North American Indiansand other groups n the world. Comparativelye-centwork by Ishi, oneof the ast Indians o flakestone T. Kroeber1964; ndpersonal ommunica-tions A.L. Kroeber 1939)and a few Australianaborigines Gould, Tindale and Birdsell, personalcommunication,1969)are our most dependablesourcesof information. Of all the accountsof

    manufacturing flaked implements, he only men-tion of thermal alteration s an observationmadeby J.W. Powell in 1875and quoted by Lowie(1924) egarding he stonework of the PlateauShoshoneans:"The obsidianor other stoneof whichthe mplementis to be made is first selectedby breaking up largermasses f the rock andchoosinghosewhichexhibit thefracturedesiredand which are freeof flaws; thenthesepiecesare baked or steamed'perhaps might say an-nealed,by placingthem in damp earth coveredwith abrisk fire for twenty-four hours' Then, with a sharpblow they are still further broken into flakes approx-imating the shapeand sizedesired'For the more com-plete ashioningof the mplement,a tool of horn' usual-ly of mountain sheep,but sometimesof the deer or

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    antelopes used.The flake of stone s held n onehand,placedon a little cushion made of untanned skin ofsomeanimal, to protect thehand from the flakes vhichare o be chippedoff, andwith a suddenpressure f thebone ool, theproper shapesgiven.They acquiregreatskill in this, andthe art seemso be confined o but fewpersonswho manufacture hem and exchangehem forother articles."

    Materials Common To Flaked StoneTools(Highly siliceousmineral compounds)Kinds of StoneObsidianIgnimbriteBasaltRhyoliteWelded uffChalcedony Flint and ChertAgate

    JasPerSilicified SedimentsSilicifiedwood and other PseudomorphsOpalQuartziteQuartz CrystalGradeDesirable IsotropicCryptocrystallineHomogeneousElasticVitreousAdequatesizeUndesirable Cleavage lanInclusionsNon-homogeneousVesicularInherent stress r strainCrystalpocketsFissuresChecksMolecularunbalanceFrozen

    SourceSurfaceAlluviumIn situ QuarriesVeinsOutcropsLedgesConcretionsFault zonesFilled voids

    TextureVitreous GlassyDullMicro-impuritiesGranularFineMediumCoarse

    ColorAll colorsand combinationsof colorsLithic ResidueFractured By:

    Natural elementsNatural expansionNatural contractionDiastrophismRapid ternperature hangesRelieving nternal pressureNatural therrnal treatmentNatural plant cover firesVulcanism, ava flows, etc.Internal forceExfoliationDehydrationExpansionContractionExternal forcePressuresrom overburdenUnconsolidated ower strataFreezingIce MovementWater MotivationGravitational adjustment

    Artificial elementsHoofed animalsManIntentional thermal fractureIntentional fracture, producing flakes and coresIntentional thermal treatmentHeatedMore elasticTexture changeRelievestressSharperedgesColor changeUnheatedOverheatedCrazedHeat cracksand checksPotlidsExfoliationNo bulbs of forceCores

    ConicalCylindricalRectangularUnifacialBifacialMultifacialBi-polarExhaustedUtilizedNuclei implementsLena River coreLevallois coreShirataki coreOthers

    FlakesPercussionIndirect percussionPressurePressure nd percussion

    2.

    1 .

    3.

    4.

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    SizeSmallMediumLargeMicro-flakesMinute retorrchNdtching :Serrating'Platform preparation

    One dorsal ridieTrryoor more dorsal ridges. Burin bladesSidestruck flakes.. Channel lakes.Hinge flakes (dorset klife)EraillureReversehinged flakesRejuvenation lakesTransient flakesLevallois flakesShirataki platform flake

    5. TechnologicalFeatures(of flakes artifacts, projectiles,knifes)FacesDorsal and ventralIrregular, random (indiscriminatepressureor percus-sion)

    Regular

    Rough outBlankPreformWideMediumNarrowParallel (right angle to margin)ObliqueDouble obliqueFlaked from one edgeand one marginFlaked from one edge o opposite marginSequenceof flake removalIndicate direction of force by compressionAngle of flake removalThinning techniqueTermination of flakesFeatheringStePHingeMeet at medianDepths of ridges and troughsCharactbrof bulbs of forceUnflaked surfaceFlat flakingCurved flakingNumber of flakesper inch

    EdgesAngleIrregularRegular CurvedStraightBeveledSharpDullSinuousAlternatingDetachedopposite ridge on other faceAbraded (functional)GroundPolishedSerratedShallowMediumDeep :

    LengthShort: width = lengthMedium: 2 x width = lengthL o n g : 3 xw id t h = le n g t hExtra long: 4 dr more x width = length

    widthConchoidal (flat)Circular @i-convex)Expanding (sub-triangulate)Wide expanding: width several imes len$hThicknessThinNormal or averageThickStraightFlatCurvedSpiralOne dorsal ridgeTwo or more dorsal ridgesMarginsParallelSub-parallelOvateIrregularProximal endSizeof platform

    Preparation of platformFlakingCharacterOrderIsolationAbradingGrindingAngle of platformCharacter of bulb of forceSalientDiffuseForce scarsEraillureMarginal striationsDirection of dorsal scarsSize of conetruncationPlatform overhand

    Distal endCompressionringsUndulationsShock fractureFeathered erminationHinge fractureStep fractureReversehingeTermination removing distal materialSiecialized flakesBlades PrismaticMicroParallel sides .

    l0

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    antelopes used.The flake of stone sheld n onehand,placed on a little cushion made of untanned skin ofsomeanimal, to protect thehand from the flakes rvhichare o be chippedoff, andwith a suddenpressure f thebone ool, the proper shapesgiven.They acquiregreatskill in this, and the art seemso be confined o but fewpersonswho manufacture hem and exchangehem forother articles."

    Materials Common To Flaked StoneTools(Highly siliceousmineral compounds)Kinds of StoneObsidianIgnimbriteBasaltRhyoliteWelded uffChalcedony Flint and ChertAgate

    JasperSilicified SedimentsSilicified wood and other PseudomorphsOpalQuartziteQuartzcrystalGradeDesirable IsotropicCryptocrystallineHomogeneousElasticVitreousAdequatesizeUndesirable Cleavage lanInclusionsNon-homogeneousVesicularInherent stressor strainCrystal pocketsFissuresChecksMolecular unbalanceFrozen

    SourceSurfaceAlluviumIn situ QuarriesVeinsoutcropsLedgesConcretionsFault zonesFilled voids

    TextureVitreous GlassyDullMicro-impuritiesGranularFineMediumCoarse

    ColorAll colors and combinationsof colorsLithic ResidueFractured By:

    Natural elementsNatural expansionNatural contractionDiastrophismRapid ternperaturechangesRelieving nternal pressureNatural thermal treatmentNatural plant cover firesVulcanism, ava flows, etc.Internal forceExfoliationDehydrationExpansionContractionExternal forcePressuresrom overburdenUnconsolidated ower strataFreezing

    Ice MovementWater MotivationGravitationaladiustmentArtificial elementsHoofed animalsManIntentional thermal fractureIntentional fracture, producingflakes and coresIntentional thermal treatmentHeatedMore elasticTexture changeRelievestressSharperedges

    Color changeUnheatedOverheatedCrazedHeat cracksand checksPotlidsExfoliationNo bulbs of forceCores

    ConicalCylindricalRectangularUnifacialBifacialMultifacialBi-polarExhaustedUtilizedNuclei mplementsLena River coreLevalloiscoreShirataki coreOthers

    FIakesPercussionIndirect percussionPressurePressure nd percussion

    2.

    1 .

    .gs

    3.

    4.

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    SizeSmallMediumLargeMicro-flakesMinute retorrchNotchingSerratingPlatform PreParation

    One dorsalridgeTwo or more dorsalddgesBurin bladesSide struck flakesChannel lakesHinge flakes (dorset knife)EraillureReverse inged flakesRejuvenation lakesTransient lakesI-evallois flakesShiratakiPlatform flake

    5. TechnologicalFeatures(of flakes artifacts, projectiles,knifes)FacesDorsal and ventralIrregular, random (indiscriminatepressure r percus-sion)

    Rough outBlankPreformRegular WideMediumNarrowParallel (right angle o margin)ObliqueDouble obliqueFlakedfrom one edgeand one marginFlakedfrom one edge o oppositemarginSequence f flake removalIndicatedirectionof force by compression inAngle of flake removalThinning techniqueTermination of flakesFeatheringStepHingeMeet at medianDepthsof ridgesand troughsCharactbrof bulbs of forceUnflaked surfaceFlat flakingCurved flakingNumber of flakesPer nchEdges

    AngleIrregularRegular CurvedStraightBeveledSharpDullSinuousAlternatingDetachedopposite ridge on other faceAbraded (functional)GroundPolishedSerratedShallowMediumDeep

    LengthShort: wihth = lengthMedium:2 x v/idth = lengthL o n g : 3 xw id t h = le n g t hExtra long: 4 or more x width = lengthwidthConchoidal(flat)Circular (bi-convex)Expanding (sub-triangulate)Wide expanding:width several imes engthThicknessThinNormal or averageThickStraightFlatCurvedSpiralOne dorsalridgeTwo or more dorsalridgesMarginsParallelSub-parallelOvateIrregularProximal end

    Sizeof platformPreparationof PlatformFlakingCharacterOrderIsolationAbradingGrindingAngle of PlatformCharacterof bulb of forceSalientDiffuseForce scarsEraillureMarginal striationsDirection of dorsalscarsSizeof cone runcationPlatform overhand

    Distal endCompression ingsUndulationsShock fractureFeathered erminationHinge fractureStep fractureReverse ingeTermination removing distal materialSpecializedlakesBlades PrismaticMicroParallel sides

    10

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    6.

    TechniqueOne faceBoth facesAlternate facesSerrated as retouchedCrushedBasal aspects

    ThinningFlutingGrinding (one o threeflakes from one or both faces)GrindingPolishingHafting techniqueStemmedor shoulderedNotchedCornerSideBase StraightConcaveConvexRecurvedBarbingUnstemmedUnnotched Tracesof adhesiveTransverseSectionPlano-convexConvexBi-convexDiamondRectangularTrapezoidalBeveledTips

    TransverseAttenuated o bluntMicro-burins on tipsRe-pointedDirection of flake scarson points

    Tools For Making FlakedStoneArtifactsDirect Percussion

    Quarries Large tenacioushammerstones2040 poundsPicks StoneAntlerDigging sticksLeversand barsWedgesStoneWoodAntlerHafted and unhafted hammersStone

    Quartering Medium size,hard hammerstonesCortex removalMedium hard, medium size,hammerstonesBladesand flakesPointed or bi -pointedhard hammerstonesEdge of medium size and medium hardhammerstones

    Medium size, soft hammerstonesGlassymaterialsAnvils or supportsShapeof percussorSphericalRoundOvateBi-convexCylindricalDiscoidalFacetedConsumedor exhaustedPercussors onforming to materialand sizeFor flakesor bladesCore preparationCoresand core toolsHammerstones f assorted hapes, izesandhardnessBilletsAntler, Horn, Wood, Bone and StoneRough outsLarge flakesBlanksPreforms HammerstonesBilletsThinningFinishing, soft hammerstones nd billetsSharpening Wooden billets

    Indirect percussionPunch and percussorAnvil and percussorHolding deviceSecondpersonPreqsurelakingAntler tinesMooseDeer?CaribouElkHom AntelopeGoatSheepBovinesBuffaloCattleIvory MammothElephantWalrusNarwhaleWhaleBone Mammal ribs and long bonesWood Selected, ard resistantwoodsTeeth RodentExterior enamelCarnivoreMetal CopperIron

    1 l

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    Shell MoliuscaNotchingBarbingSerratingDenticulations

    REF'ERENCESCITEDBordes,Francois and Don E. Crabtree

    1969 The Corbiac Blade Technique and Other Ex-periments. Tebiwa ll:,2:l-21. Idaho StateUniversityMuseum.Pocatello,Idaho.Crabtree,Don E.

    1966 A Stoneworker's Approach to Analyzing andReplicating the Lindenmeier Folsom. Tebiwa9: :3-39.

    1967a Notes on Experiments in Flintknapping: 3. AFlintknapper's Raw Materials. Tebiwal0: l :8-2.1967b Noteson Experimentsn Flintknapping:4. ToolsUsed or Making FlakedStoneArtifacts. Tebiwal0:l:50-?3.1968 MesoamericanPolyhedralCores and PrismaticBlades.American Antiquity 33:446478.l97O Flaking StoneTools with Wooden Implements.Science 69:3941146-153.

    Crabtree,Don E. and B. Robert Butler196/. Notes on Experiments n Flintknapping: l. HeatTreatmentof SilicaMinerals.Tebiwa 7:l:l-6.

    Crabtree,Don E. and Earl H. Swanson1968 Edge-groundCobblesand Blade-makingn theNorthwest. Tebiwa I I :2:50-58.

    Ellis, H. Holmes1940 Flint-working Techniquesof the American In-dians: An Experimental Study. Ohio StateMuseum, Columbus,Ohio.

    Kroeber,Theodora1964 Ishi In Two Worlds. University of CaliforniaPress.Berkeley.

    Lowie, Robert H.lgVI NotesonShoshoneanEthnography:Explorationof the Colorado River and Its Tributaries,Ex-plored n 1869-1872. ol. XX Part III. AmericanMuseum Press,N.Y.Tixier, Jacques

    1963 Typologie de l'Epipaleolithique du Maghreb'Memoires du Centre de Recherches An-thropologiques et Ethnographiques II. Arts etMeiiersGraphiques.Paris.

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    Part II

    A GLOSSARYOF FLINTWORIilNG TERMS

    I)on E. Crabtree

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    a

    TermAberrant

    AboriginalAcuminateAlternate FlakingAmorphousAmputatedAngle of ForceorAngle of Applied Force

    AnteriorAnvil TechniqueApplied Force

    ArrisArtifact

    ArtificerAttenuateAttribute of FormAttribute of Technology

    Axis of Applied ForceBacked

    t /

    GLOSSARYDefinition

    Deviation from normal. Odd, peculiar. Exhibiting characteristics eculiarto a particular technologyor technique.Original inhabitant; native inhabitant of a region.Taper-pointed; aperinggradually to the tip: perforator, acuminatebulb.Flakes emovedalternately rom the sameedge rom first oneface and thenthe other. Applies to both pressureand percussionechniques.Denoting an irregular shape.Of no determinate orm, without classifiableshapeespeciallywith reference o somecores.The severingof a flake, blade, or artifact either by applied force or endshock. Truncated, severed.The angle at which the force of flaking is applied either by percussion,indirect percussion,pressureor the combination of pressureand percus-sion. Usually a vector of force representinga straight line. Having bothmagnitudeand direction. An exception s the curved or arclike path offlight when using a specialpercussion echnique,billet or baton, cobbleedge echnique,block on block or anvil.Top. End opposite he posterior.Example: he platform surfaceof a core sthe anterior portion.Objectivepiece s projectedagainsta stationary object of sufficient hard-nesswith sufficient force to accomplish racture. SeeBlock on Block.When the type of force used o fabricatean artifact is unknown, or ques-tionable, the term "applied force" is substituted or pressure r percussionforce until the actual technique is verified. Used until the analyst hasverified whether the object was made by percussion, ndirect percussion,direct pressure,or a natural force.The sharpedgeor salientangle ormed by the meetingof two surfaces.AlsoseeRidge and Crest.Derived rom the Latinwordfocer "to make." Primordial objectsdevised,produced,or modified by man (modification may be either by intent or byfunction). This text is primarily concernedwith lithic artifacts and the frac-turing implements needed or their manufacture.Sameas flintknapper.To make thin, made hin in consistency;o lessen,o diminish.Characteristicsand peculiarities of shape which show an indication ofculture traits. Example:outline.Technique having diagnostic value which shows modes of manufacture,characteristic raits, and patterns of human behavior. Examples: luting,eraillures, issures.SeeAngle of Force.The intentional dulling of one margin of a flake or blade by removing aseries f flakes rom the lateralmarginopposite he sharpedge. n some n-stances, he aboriginal toolmaker took advantageof natural backing, suchascortex, o serveas he samedulling medium.The methodof blunting maybe of diagnosticsignificance.

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    q r

    Anvil technique

    1 5

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    TermBarbBasal Grinding

    Basal Thinning

    Basal Portion (end)BasaltBaton or CylindricalHammer Technique

    BeakBending Flakes

    BeveledEdge

    Bi-directional CoresBi-directionalFlake andBlade ScarsBifaceBilletBi-polar

    Bir

    Blade

    DefinitionA projection on the lateral marginsof an artifact, sometimes earthe base,which slants n a direction from the distal toward the proximal end.Intentional abrading and smoothingof the proximal marginsand end of anartifact. Accomplishedby rubbing the baseof the artifact on some ype ofabrasivematerial. Presumablydone to facilitate hafting.A technique of removing either unifacially or bifacially one or morelongitudinal flakes from the proximal end. Presumablydone to facilitatehafting.The proximal end.Dark igneous ock with variable textures. A stone of volcanicorigin.The use of a rod-like baton to percusshin flakes or blades rom the mass.The percussor houldbe of material which will yield when contact s madewith the objectivepiece.Batons may be of antler, horn, bone, or wood. Abillet.A hooked projection made by unifacial flaking. Generally made by thepressureechnique.A spur. Example: A beakedburin.Usually detachedby pressure etouch. The flakeshavepronouncedcurveson theplaneof fracture.They eavescarson theartifactswhich extend romone ateralmargin toward the oppositeedgeandpass he median ine. Theyare commonly diagonal.An edgewhich hasbeenmanufactured o produce he desirededgeangleorexposure or the removalof a desired lake or flake series.Also may be forsharpeningor strengthening.Nucleiwhich bear scars esulting rom flakes or bladeshavingbeendetach-ed from two directions.Scarson cores or lithic tools which are the result of removing bladesorflakes by applylng the force from two directions.Artifact bearing flake scarson both faces.A clubJike rod of material, other than stone, used o detachflakes fromlithic material. Usually of wood or antler.Technique of resting core, or lithic implement, on anvil an$ striking thecore with a percussor.Contrary to popular belief, bulbs of Forceare notpresenton both endsof bi-polar flakesor blades.This techniquecauseshecone of force to be shatteredor severed.Cone confined to one end and issometimes heared.An insert of bone, antler, vory or metal nto oneend of a handle,or crutch,to make a compositepressure ool. The tip or forepieceof a compositepressureool.Specialized lake with parallel or sub-parallel ateral edges; he length isequal to, or more than, twice the width. Cross sectionsare plano convex,triangulate, subtriangulate, ectangular, rapezoidal.Somehave more thantwo crestsor ridges. Associatedwith preparedcone and blade technique;not a random flake.Tools made from blades detached rom a core. End scraper on a blade,backedblade, burin on a blade, and microliths.BladeTools

    l 6

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    Basal hinningackedblade

    Biface from Rock Creek, Idahot7

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    Bi-directional tabular core Bi-conicalpercussion ore

    Bidirectional cylindrical coreBidirectional coresobverse

    l 8

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    Bi-polartechnique

    t9

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    Split cobbleTechniqueof resting coreon anvil for percussion low. Bulbs of force arenot pre-sent at both ends.The coneof force is shatteredor severed.

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    S.Alternate flakingto produceridge.

    WrestedBladeffi

    7 .SeguenceJ core andblademanufacture.

    2l

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    Dorsal

    A. PlatformB. LipC. EraillureD. Diffuse bulb of forceE. Preparation flake scars

    VentralSoft hammer bladeF. Fissuresor hacklesG. Contact areaH. Previous blade scarI. Dorsal ridge or arris

    Hard hammer bladeD. Pronounced bulb of forceG. Slightly crushedcontact area; absenceof lip

    Dorsal

    22Ventrd

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    (uEclItroctOoor1)c0>aclkAHq)EEG'clE

    ctrC)

    oc)q)qIX

    cOoo

    23

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    iPercussion ore and blades

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    oc)ro6s00O=oL.At r.9IDctEo)J4()apoJ4c)oItrG'|..(ll

    25

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    III

    3.Stop notchandplatform preparation

    4.Angleof burin blow

    5.Detachedburin spall or burin blade

    Sequenceof burin manufacture26

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    TermBlank

    Block on Block

    Bulb of Applied Force

    Bulb of PercussionBulb of PressureBulbar Scar

    Burin

    Burin Blade

    Burin Break

    Burin Core

    Burin Scar

    DefinitionA usablepieceof lithic material of adequatesizeand form for making alithic artifact, such asunmodified flakesof a size arger than the proposedartifact, bearing ittle or no wastematerial, and suitable or assortedithicartifact styles.The shapeor form of the final product is not disclosedn theblank. A seriesof objects n the early stagesn the manufacturingprocessbefore he preform s reached.Method of removing lakes by swinging he core againstan anvil. SeeAnvilTechnique.May be used o produce arge hick flakes as n the Clactonianindustry or bladeswith thin platforms.The bulbar part on the ventral sideat the proximal end of a flake. Therem-nant of a conepart, the result of the application of either pressureor per-cussion orce. Commonlycalled he "bulb of percussion;"however, hissignifiedonly onegroup of specializedechniques.Since he bulb of force sproducedby both pressure ndpercussionhe term "bulb of applied orce"should be used until the manufacturing technique s verified. A cone offorce.SeeBulb of Applied Force.SeeBulb of Applied Force.The negativescar ound on a coreor core ool that results rom the bulb offorce, eitherpercussion r pressure.t is a mirror surfaceor mold of theconepart resulting from flake detachment. n this use bulbar scar s notsynonymouswith eraillure scar.A negativebulb force.A chisel-likemplementderived rom a flake or blade; he modificationofother mplements y using he burin techniqueo remove he edges arallelto their long axisand/or transversely r obliquely. Generally orms a rightangle edgeon one or both margins. The specialized lake removedas aresultof the burin break s calleda burin bladeor spall.A specialized lake removed from a burin core, generallyrectangular ntransverse ection.The dorsal sideof the bladegenerallyshowsa singlebladescarwith lateralmargins at right angles.The first burin bladeremov-ed from the core may show numerousvariants, dependingon the type ofmaterial used and becauset bears scars of the worker's preparation toestablisha ridge to guide the first blade. A burin spall.Scar eft on flake or bladeresulting rom the removal of a burin spall' Theright angleedge or break, severedransversely rom force applied to themargin.A core made from thin, tabular flakes, bladesor lithic implements romwhich oneor moreburin spallshavebeen emoved.May serveasa tool or asourceof burin blades,or both.The negativebulb of force scar ound on a core or core tool. Producedbyeither percussionor pressure.The mold of the cone part resulting fromflake detachment.A burin facet.Specializedlake or bladeremoved rom a burin core.Because f thenatureof the core, the burin blade must be thick in relation to its length and isusually triangular or rectangular n section. Such a blade has importantfunctional value because ts form supplies strength without bulk. Madeboth by the pressureand percussioneclniQues.

    Burin Spall

    27

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    TermCast

    Chalcedony

    ChertChevronFlakingChipChopperCleavagePlane

    Cleaver

    TranchetBlow CleaverCollateral Flaking

    CommingleCompression ings

    CompressorConchoidalFracture

    Cone of Force(Hertzian Cone)

    DefinitionReplicas of artifacts prepared n acrylic fiber, epoxy, plaster of paris orother suitablemedium. Their typesshould alwaysbe specified,as "acrylicfiber castsby Eichenberger."A cryptocrystallinevariety of quartz, predominantly silica and having thenear luster of paraffin wax. May be transparent or translucent and ofvarious ints. Chalcedonywith different colors arranged n strips or layers scalled agate. f the strips or layersarehorizontal, it is onyx. Chrysoprasesgreenchalcedony.Carnelian is flesh-redand sard is either greyish-redorbrown.A fine-grained siliceousrock. Impure variety of chalcedonyresemblingflint. Generally ight colored.SeeDouble Diagonal Flaking.SeeFlake.Heavy core tool presumed o be used for chopping. May be uniface orbiface.Planes along which the mineral may be easily split. Tendency of thematerial to split along either the crystallography,natural structuralplanes,bedding planes, and/or planesof non-homogeneity.The human-inducedfracture may follow or be made o follow a cleavage lane.Flakesstep rac-. tured at intersectionof cleavage lane,as n quartz crystal,petrified wood.A tool approximately U-shapedwith one transverse utting edge. Bifacialcleavers esemble runcated hand axeswith straight or oblique edgeat thetip.Flake cleavers remadeby allowing the "tranchet" (percussion) low to in-tersect he primary flake surface o producea sharp cutting edge.Expanding flakes removed from the lateral edgesof the artifact at rightangles o the longitudinal axis.The technique s variedand doesnot requireusing ridgesor crests o guide the flakes. Can be producedby percussion,indirectpercussion, r pressure,dependingon the desiredsizeof the flakes.To mix or mingle material from two or more sources.Ripple rings radiating from the point of force. Can be both positive andnegative positiveon the flake and bladeand negativeon the core. Can be.compared o ripples formed in a pool of still water after the dropping of apebble. Compression ings are generallymore prominent with percussionthan with pressure.A wave motion that canbe usedas an indication of thedirection of force.Implement used by the flintknapper to exert pressure o the artifact.Synonymouswith "indenter" used n the litho-mechanic iterature.A diagnostic fracture on a plane surface which resemblesand has thecharacteristics nd form of half a bivalve shell. It is the result of definitestriking patterns. The striking area would be at the "hinge" part of thebivalve shell and the conchoidal racturebelow on the part that wasplane.The formation of a cone s the result of force applied to materialswhichhavethe property of isotropism. When force is applied vertically to a flatsurface, he force will spreadcausinga cone o form. The apex of the conewill be truncated in proportion to the surface contacted by the agenttransferring he force.Each lake is a conepart, or part of the bulb of force.

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    Coneof force (Hertzian Cone)

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    TermConeShear

    Conical CoreCore

    Core Tool

    Core Type

    CortexCrateringCrazingCrest

    CrestedBladeCrude

    DefinitionShearof midsectiondue to cleaving rom opposing orces, from inertia orfrom support. This happensmore often with rounded cobbles. There isoften minor crushingat cone runcation. The scar s distinctive,beingquiteflat with the bisectionof the cone, closelyspaced adiating nundationsandlittle or no bulb definition.A core lpe resemblinga cone, he apexof which s the distalend. Generallyassociatedwith specialized lade cores.Nucleus.A massof materialoften preformedby the worker to the desiredshape o allow the removal of a definite type of flake or blade. Pieceofisotropic material bearingnegative lake scars,or scar. Cores can be em-bryonic, suchas a pieceof natural, unprepared aw material with scar, orscars, eflectingthe detachmentof one or more flakes such as the Mexicanpolyhedral core. All flaked tool industriesare represented y either flakesor cores.Ambiguous term, usually reserved or techniquesbasedon nodular reduc-tion, such as cobble choppers,or Acheuleanhand axes.Large flakes.servealso as the core for later axes,and in the absence f the original cortex thisdistinction s futile. Carried o its logicalextremeall tools from which flakesare removedare core tools.A corewhichhasa consistency f form and technological raits. Sometimesindicativeof a culture, such as: Meso-american olyhedralcore, biconicalbidirectional core.Natural surface, or rind, on flintlike materials.Multiple intersecting"moon-like" cones on the surfaceof vitreous rocksresulting rom either ntentional or natural pounding, tumbling or bruising.Minute surface cracks,generallycross-hatched, ausing he surface o beweakened.Common to overheated iliceousmaterials.Denotesboth the raisedportion on the marginal parts of a flake or bladescar and the ridge between wo parallel flake scars.Edgesof the concaveplane of fracture. The opposite of trough.SeeLam6a Cr6te.A word often used-and widely misused-to describe character ofworkmanshipof aboriginal artifacts. The refinement,or lack of refinementof the work must be evaluatedand related o the materialbefore the word"crude" is applied. Embryonic, inferior, or bad work found on goodmaterial could well be called crude, but at the same ime, allowanceshouldbe made or the learneror beginner.But the finding of lesscontrolled flak-ing on poor material may indicate that the worker was, indeed, a skilledfabricator to have accomplishedany degreeof flaking. Here, it is almostunnecessaryo allow for the learneror beginner or it is doubtful he coulddo work on bad or inferior material. Also to beconsidereds the intent andultimate designof the worker. For instance,he may havebeen designingapreform, drill, or digging ool and, therefore,not wanted,or botheredwith,the more refined flaking character.Someanalystmay consider he preformwork as "crude" whereas he worker was ntentionally flaking in this man-ner to allow for further thinning.A woodenstaff of varying dimensionswith a chest estcrosspiece t the up-per end and a pressureip insertedat the working end. The shouldercrutchCrutch

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    alh)

    ruo()

    cltrq)

    rdoHo

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    Term

    Cryptocrystalline

    Curved FlakingDampenDebitage

    DebrisDenticulationDetritusDiagonal Parallel Flaking

    Diffuse Bulb

    Direct FreehandPercussion r PressureDirect RestDiscoidalCoreDorsalDouble Diagonal Flaking

    Definitionis a small versionof the chestcrutch. Sizeand constructiondependon in-dividual preference nd the type of work to be accomplished.Usually usedas pressureool, but can be used n a combination of pressureand percus-sion.A fine-grained crystalline rock but having distinct particles which areunrecognizable without the aid of magnification. The size of themicrocrystalsdetermine he texture.SeeBending Flakes.To weaken, abate, diminish. Large piecesbeing worked are frequentlydampenedby support on the thigh of the flintworker.Residual ithic material resulting from tool manufacture. Useful to deter-mine techniquesand for showing technological raits. Representsnten-tional and unintentional breakageof artifacts either through manufactureor function. Debitage lakes usually representhe variousstages f progressof the raw material from the original form to the finished stage.Waste material such as quarrying or mining waste, having little br nodefinitive characteristics.SeeDetritus, Debitage.Prominences esembling eeth similar to those on a saw. Tooth-like ser-rating on marginsof artifacts.Waste of disintegrated ocks, such as accumulatedwasteat a natural ex-posure,having little or no diagnosticvalue.Similar to parallelflaking, except he pressures directedat an obliqueanglefrom right to left. This is the techniqueofright-handed persons,but a left-handedworker would direct thepressure t an angle rom left to right. Thepreform is held n the palm of the left hand with a right-handedworker andin the right hand when the knapper is left-handed. When a right-handedpersonholds the preform in the fingersor the left hand and the pressuresdirected away from the knapper, the resultswill resemble hoseof a left-handedperson.The sameas direction of detaching he flakes.A bulb of force which lacks the definition of 'the conepart. The bulb isdisseminated, ndicating a broad contact with the pressureor percussiontool. Commonto billet technique.Generally acksan eraillurescarand rip-ple marks are much subdued.SeeTruncation.A method of holding the material o be flaked n the unsupportedhandanddirecting the percussionor pressure mplement with the other hand todetach lakes or blades.A method whereby he objectivepiece s supportedon an anvil during theflaking process.Bi-convexcore having flakes or blades removed from the perimeter andusuallyon both faces.Outer surface.Keeledpart of blade or flake. For instance, he dorsal sideofa blade s the face of the coreprior to detachment.Paralleldiagonal lakes removed rom both lateralmarginsand terminatedalong the median ine but directed oward the baseof the artifact. An herr-ingbone, or Christmas tree pattern results. A most difficult techniquebecause ne must eitherbe ambidexterous r must completely everseboththe platform preparationand the direction of force.

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    Term

    Downward and OutwardPressure

    ElasticityElasticLimitElasticReboundEnd ScraperEnd ShockEnd ViewEraillure Flake

    Exhausted

    ExhaustedTools

    ExperimentalFlintworking

    Fabricator

    FaceFacet

    FatigueFeathering

    Definition

    Method of coordination of muscularmotor habits which allows the workerto pushdown and out simultaneouslyn order to start detachment f a flakeor blade from a core at the proximal end, and at the same ime, followthrough to the point of releaseat the distal end. Ratio of downward andoutward pressures adjustedby the worker to control the characterof theflake. SeeAngle of Force. This term appliesprimarily to detachmentofbladesby pressure. ee n and Away.The property of stone o return to its former stateafter being depressed yapplicationof force. Ideal lithic materialsare almost perfectlyelastic.The maximum stressa specimen an withstand before fracture occurs.The nherentproperty n certainmaterialsallowingthe recovery rom elasticstrain.Beveled mplement made on flake or blade with working edge on one orboth convexends.The bevel s formedby unifacial laking or by use.Transverseracturedue o the stoneexceedingts elastic imits. Failureofthe material o reboundand recoilbefore ractureoccurs.Perpendicularview of either proximal or distal end.An enigmatic flake formed between he bulb of force and bulbar scar.Usually adheres o the core in the bulbar scar. The eraillure flake, itself,leaves o scar on the core. The dorsal sideof the eraillure lake bearsnocompressionings but the ventral side doesbear compressionings thatmatch the scar eft on the bulb of force. The eraillure flake is convex.con-cave.Example:Meniscusens.Usedup. Consumed, ither rom function wearor by the flintknapper.Ad-jectiveappliedmost often o cores.Exhaustionmayoccur or the followingreasons: tepsand hinges, eductionof platform size or angle, ack ofmaterial, oo small.Artifacts which havebeen endered selessecause f resharpening hichproducesan angle nadequate or further retouCh.Coresconsumed romflake and blade emovalor from rejuvenation.The experimentalapproach o replicating aboriginal stone work. This in-itially involves replicationof flake and flake scar attributes of technology,after which those techniquesproducing the least satisfactory results areeliminated and the other techniques efined.Any toolsused o apply orce o theobjective iecen theknappingprocess.Includes:hammerstones,illets, batons,pressure nd notching ools, andpunches.The dorsal or ventral surface of the artifact.Either a natural or artificial planesurface. f artificial, facet s producedbyintentionalgrinding.The word "facet" shouldnot be usedwhendescribingpartsof flake scars.Undetectedstrains nduced in the lithic material causing molecular stressand weakness.Generally due to improper recoveryof elasticity.A technique which producesa flake which terminates n an edge with aminimal margin. Producesbladesor flakeswith edges nd distalendswhich

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    /ll lI

    Endshockor amputation34

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    aIt)IU)

    $E

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    Term Definition:re very sharp.Featherededge eaves light ridgeson the objectivepiece,acharacteristicof precisioncollateral flaking.Distinctiveminute cracks n stone,usuallyrectangular n shape.Appears nchalcedonicocks which havebeeneitherheatedor cooled oo rapidly. Maybe associatedwith planned hermal treatment or merelybe the result of ac-cidentalheat contact. Excessive eat will cause ocks to becomegranularand scaly and will usually change he color to a porcelainwhite. SeeCraz-ing, Thermal Treatment.Lines of radii usually orginating at themarginsof the flakeson ventral faceand directed toward the point of force. Fissuresare not cracks, but arecrestsand troughs. The appearance f fissureson the bulb of force usuallyindicates hat a percussionechniquewasused.Fissuresare also known ashacklesor groovedshatter ines.Any pieceof stoneremoved rom a larger massby the application force,either intentional, accidentally, or by nature. A portion of isotropicmaterialhavinga platform andbulb of force at the proximal end.The flakemay be of any sizeor dimension, dependingon which techniquewas usedfor detachment.SeeThinning Flakes.A pressuremplement used o remove lakes during the processof formingor sharpening.Sameas compressor.The word "flaker" relates o pressureflaking whereashe implement used or percussionwork is referred o as a"percussor" or hammer.Process of removing small pieces of material from objective piece bypressure,percussion, ndirect percussionor the combination of pressureand percussion.Groupsof flakeswhich bear technologicalattributes showing hythms andprototypesof their mode of removal from a core. SeeThinning Flake.Techniquewhich removes lakes resulting n a plane surface.Theamountof bendingwithout breakingexhibitedby some ithic materials.Not elasticity.A siliceous material ideally suited for flaked implement manufacture.Respondswell to the application of force, either percussionor pressure.Usually a fine-grained rock of the darker shades. Occurs as nodes ornodules n limestonesand chalks, and as rounded or irregular masses.A general erm denoting all flaked artifactsmadeof stone.Associated,pro-bably, with piecesof flint used n flintlock rifles.One who forms stone implements by controlling the fracture of thematerial. An artificer. A stoneworker using material exhibiting a con-choidal fracture.Used o refer to any ithic material which reacts ike flint whensubjectedoforce. Material having the propertiesof isotropism and somewhatcryp-tocrystalline and homogeneous.A negativesemiconcavelake scarhavingparallelsides.The resultof forceappliedto the objectivepiecewhich haspreviouslyhad specialpreparationof the surfaceand platform areato accomplish luting. A concave roughon the artifact from the proximal toward the distalend. Generally elated oblademaking and basal thinning of projectile points. Produced to allow

    Fire Checks

    Fissures

    Flake

    Flaker

    Flaking

    Flake TypeFlat FlakingFlexibilityFlint

    FlintsFlintknapper

    Flintlike

    Flute

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    Term

    Fluted Point

    FoliateForce

    Fracture

    GeometricMicroliths

    Graver

    Grinding

    Grindstone

    HacklesHand-held

    Hinge Fracture

    Definitionspecialhafting. The act of removing a channel lake the vertical length ofthe artifact. Channel flake scar.A projectilepoint bearingone or two longitudinal channel lake scars rombase oward the tip on one or both faces of the artifact. Cross section sbiconcave f both sidesare fluted. If only one side s fluted, the transversesections then concave-convex,r plano-convex. he scar s convex n sec-tion and s normallyproduced y pressure r indirect.Ordinarilyapplied oFolsompoints.Applied either to willow leaf or laurel leaf type points.The quantity of energyor powerexertedby a moving body; power exerted;compulsorypower;energyexerted o moveanotherbody from a stateof in-ertia.The worker can alter the character of levering force by slowing or ac-celeratinghe actionbut this doesnot alter theamountof force for themoreintense he force the slowerand more limited its action.Irregular surfaceproducedby breaking a mineral acrossas distinguiihedfrom splitting it along the planesof cleavage.Small geometric ools with either pointed or various shapedsharp edges.Usuallymade by severing lades nto transverse ections.Somecommonforms are called rectangular, triangular, lunate. Probably used for themanufactureof composite ools.A stone implement generallymade by pressure laking and intentionallydesigned o have a functional point or points. It is generallyasumed hatgraversare used o inciseor form organicmaterialsand soft stone.A dual-purpose preparation technique. Weakens a plane surface andstrengthensa rounded surface.Accomplished by grinding the platform,core top, or margins of artifacts with an abrasivestone.Abrasive stonecomposedof bondedgranulesof rock. Abrasive stoneswithgranulesof various sizesand different bonding agents.Type of abrasivestone s selectedo conform to the lithic material beingformed or sharpen-ed. Generally, he harder the material being worked, the softer the grind-stone.SeeFissures.Manner of holding the objectivepiece n the left hand while force s exertedby the right hand through the percussoror compressor.Free-hand:objec-tive pieceheld with no support. Free-hand est: objective held in restedhand.A fracture at the distal endof a flake or bladewhichpreventsdetachment fthe flake at its proposed erminal point. A hinge fracture terminates heflake at right angles o the longitudinal axis and the break s usuallyround-ed or blunt. Not to be confusedwith a stepfracture.Of the same structure, nature or kind throughout. Of like substance. nselecting naterial or replication one of the major criteria is homogeneity.A homogeneousmaterial can be worked with consistency ecauset has noplanesof weakness r includedmaterial that would impair the conchoidalfracture process.See nclusion.

    Homogeneous

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    A. Grinding

    B

    B. Polishing

    Grinding and polishing(mag.32.5 x)38

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    ill

    Secondarydecorticationand hinge fracture recoverblade.Ventral

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    Dorsal

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    TermIgneousRock

    Ignimbrite

    Impact Scarsln and Away

    In and DownInclusionIndirect Freehand

    In SituIntermediate ool

    Intervalof Contact

    Intervalof SpacingIsolatedPlatform

    Isotropic

    Jade

    DefinitionRock formedby solidificationof moltenvolcanicmaterialsuchas hyolite,basalt,obsidian.A silicicvolcanic ock formed n thick, massive ompact, avalike sheets.Usually deposited over a wide area. The rock is chiefly a fine-grainedrhyolite tuff formed mainly of glass particles welded by incandescentvolcaniccloud. Often confusedwith obsidian.Scars resulting from using a hard percussor o deliver the force to thematerial, causing adiating fissureson the bulb of force.Usuallyapplied o pressurelakingof handheld pecimensn whichpressureis applied n from a platform on the edgeor margin n line with a previouslyestablishedidge on the face of the specimen. ressures applieddown oraway only after it hasbeenapplied n from the edge.SeeDownward and Outward Pressure, n and Away.An impurity or foreign body in stonewhich deters he homogeneityof thelithic materialand causes roblems or the flintworker.SeeHomogeneous.A percussionechniquewhich nvolvesstrikinga punchJikeobject with apercussor. hepunch s held n the fingersof the eft handwith its tip restedon the platform of the artifact which is held n the unsupportedpalm of thesamehand. Normally requires he services f a second erson.Naturalundisturbed ositionof an object or material.Where irst formedor deposited.A punchJikeobjectof antler,bone,wood,stoneor metalon which he per-cussion low s deliveredo impart force o apredeterminedreaon eitheracore or stone ool. Worker strikes he baseof the punchwith a percussor.SeePunch Technique.Factor of contact time between he percussorand the objectivepiece.Thehard percussorhas a short interval of contact for it delivers nstantaneousconcentrated orce. The softer percussorhas a longer interval of contactbecauset is moreyieldingand, therefore,allois the force to be mpartedmoreslowly.The spacingdistancebetween he marginal flake scars.A platform which hasbeen reed from the massby the removalof flakes oisolateor cause heplatform part to protrudeor become rominent.Exam-ple: the platform (nib) on the base of a Folsom point on which thefabricating tool is seatedprior to fluting. Sameas Promontory.Material having he sameproperties n all directions.Typical of amorphoussubstances nd crystalsof the isometricsystem. n an isotropic elasticmedium, he velocities f propagationof elasticwavesare ndependent fdirection.A metamorphicock of variedcolors.Gemvariety s apple-greenndwaxy-white.A materialof extraordinaryoughness ut only six and one-halfonthe Mohs scaleof hardness.Must be formedby grinding,not flaking.An impurevariety of chalcedonyormed n variousopaquecolors.Adap-table for flaking and forming stoneartifacts.Jasper

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    TerrnKeel

    KnapperKnappingtam6 a CibteLanceolateLateral MarginsLeadingEdgeLevalloisTechnique

    Lip

    LithicLongitudinal LateralSectionLongitudinal TransverseSectionMarginal FissuresMarginal GrindingMassMechanicsof FractureMedian LineMeniscusMental Template

    Method

    DefinitionRidge ormed by a feathering ermination of flakesat the median ine. Canalsobe a single idge on the dorsal sideof a bladegenerallyon the medianline resulting from a previouslydetachedblade.One who works stoneby flaking: flintknapper or artificer. Old World termpossiblyderivedfrom the knapping hammer used by stonemasons.Processof fracturing stone.Formerly indicated a percussionechniquebutnow includes he pressureechniqueas well.First bladeremoved rom a core.Bearsbidirectional flake scarson the dor-sal surface, he result of the worker preparinga ridge to guide the blade.Lanceor spearlike.Marginsof flakes,bladesandother stone ools on eitheror both sidesof thelongitudinal axis.Working part of either the stone mplement or core which is nearest heknapper. Edge of the objectivepiece acing the knapper.A specialcore preparation echniquewhich allowsthe percussion emovalof flake implements equiring ittle or no modification. The Levallois ool isplano-convexand is characterized y intersecting lake scarson the dorsalside.Generally,only one or two usable lakes are detachedbefore the coreis discarded.This techniqueencompasseseveralmethodsof flake removal.1. Projection found on core or artifact which results rom the bulbar scar.A concavitycausingan overhangusually found on the leading edge.2. Projection ound on the proximalventralsurface f some lakes,believ-ed to be associated ith soft hammerpercussion r pressure.Pertaining o stone.The areaof the artifact boundedby the proximal and distal endsand bothlateral margins.The thickness of the artifact between the dorsal and ventral side andboundedby the proximal and distal ends.SeeFissures.Process f smoothingmarginsprior to flaking to make hem strongerandmore regular and to facilitate hafting.A quantity of matter forming a body.The principles of motion and force applied to isotropic material to ac-complisha plannedand preconceivedracture.An imaginary ine pertaining o the middlepart of the artifact from thepro-ximal to the distal end. Can be on either face.Concaveon one sideand convex on the other. SeeEraillure Flake.The visualization, n the mind of the maker, of the ideal type of implementto be made. t is this whichmakes types" suchas he Folsomand Clovisidentifiable.The part of the fabrication processwholly in the mind of the flintworker,mental template, knowledgeof possible echniques o employ, familiarityof styleand response f the stonebeing worked. A characteristicmode ormanner of procedure.

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    Levalloiscore technique42

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    TermMicrobladesMicroburin

    Microburin Technique

    Microliths

    MingleMorphologicalTypology

    MultidirectionalCoreNaturefacts(Pseudotools)

    NegativeBulb of ForceNon-undulatedNotchNotching

    Nucleus

    ObjectivePiece

    Oblique Flaking

    Obsidian

    DefinitionDiminutive bladegenerallymade by pressureechnique.Common to someArctic cultures.SeeBlade.Wasteproduct not intended or function. Usually he proximal or distalendof a blade.Residue f geometricalmicrolith ndustries.Not to be confusedwith eithera diminutiveburin spallor burin core.can be madeby a specialtechniqueor severingprismaticblades.Method of severing lades o makegeometricalmicroliths.Technique e-quires irst weakening he bladeby marginal notching and then breaking tat the notch.Very smallgeometric-formools commonlyused n compositeools.Form-ed from prismaticblades,using the sharp unmodified lateral edgesas thecutting edge.To mix or mingle matefial from one source.An unreliablemethod of typing stone ools according o form alone. Thiscanbe misleading, or tools having the same orm may well have beenpro-ducedby different techniques,have different technologicalattributes, aridcould have been ntended or different functional purposes.Core bearingscarswhich showthat flakes or bladeswereremoved n morethan onedirection.Pseudo-artifacts aused y natural soil movement,glaciation,wave action,high velocity water movement' gravity (suchas alluvial fans or steep n-clines),rapid temperaturechanges,nternal pressure suchas starch frac-turesandpot lids), exfoliation, ectonicmovements, iastrophism, olifluc-tion, foot trampling and other unintentional activity causedby naturerather than by man. Theseconditions can detachflakes from the mass nsucha manner that the piecemay resemblean embryonic ool.A mirror surfaceof the conepart alwayson the objectivepieceand not onthe flake or blade.SeeBulbar Scar.Flakes and flake scarsshowing the absenceof compression ings