Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 28, No. 4, 2001

Cultural Pedagogy and Bridges to Literacy:Home and Kindergarten

Ofra Korat1,2

This paper presents five key aspects of “cultural pedagogy theory”: social interactions, self-iden-tity, externalization of inner thought, educational institutions, and narratives. These are viewed ascritical vehicles to fostering the child’s literacy development in early childhood, among otherthings. Within this sociocognitive theoretical frame work great importance has been assigned tothe cooperative link between the young child’s two primary worlds: the home and the kindergarten.

KEY WORDS: cultural pedagogy; emergent literacy; home–kindergarten connection.

INTRODUCTION the relevant facts, or whether to compose a homemadeinvitation and decorate it. Maybe the invitation should

Daniel, a 6-year-old kindergartner, is about to cele-be done on the computer?

brate his birthday. The party is the focus of conversationDaniel is taken by the idea of writing his birthday

at home and the question is raised: Where should theinvitation on the computer. He plays, and even some-

birthday party be held (at home? at the kindergarten?)?times writes, on the PCs at home and in the kindergar-

When should it be held? Should personal invitations beten, but he has never written a birthday invitation with

sent to each child or should a general invitation be is-the aid of a computer. The idea is intriguing and excit-

sued to all the children in the kindergarten? Daniel anding. He asks his big brother in sixth grade (a computer

his parents—together with the kindergarten teacher—expert) to help him. Daniel says he almost knows what

decide to mark the occasion with a brief celebration into write all by himself, because in kindergarten he al-

the kindergarten and a bigger party at home. Moreover,ready “did” an invitation. Daniel’s mother suggests that

they decide that for the party at school, a group invita-he type his name all by himself—the name of the birth-

tion would be adequate, while for the party at home,day boy, and the name of the child being invited and the

individual invitations should be sent to each guest.word “birthday.” The rest his brother will do, while Dan-

Several days before the appointed date of theiel takes an active role with suggestions and ideas as to

school party, the teacher invites Daniel to write an invi-the contents of the invitation. His big brother reads the

tation together with her. She writes the text in Daniel’stext aloud and Daniel begins decorating the printouts with

own words and initiates a discussion with him designedrelish, all by himself. While he begins his embellishments

to fill in missing information. Daniel decorates the invi-with vigor, by the fourth invitation, Daniel is tired.

tation and invites one of his favorite schoolmates to helpThirty individual invitations is a bit much. What

him “because she knows how to color well.” The sameshould he do? Daniel asks to go back to the computer.

day—at home, Daniel and his mother debate whether toWith his brother’s help he chooses two decorations from

buy ready-made invitations, filling in the blanks withthe computer’s stock of clipart—a birthday cake and aclown. The two brothers print out 33 copies, which Dan-iel brings to school the next day. The kindergartenteacher is impressed with the invitations. She gives them1Bar-Ilan University, Israel.out to the children and Daniel feels safe enough to read2Correspondence should be directed to Dr. Ofra Korat, 58a Hanasie

Street, Herzelia, 46399 Israel; e-mail: ofra@korat.co.il out loud what is written on his birthday invitation.

2251082-3301/01/0600-0225$19.50/0 2001 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

Korat226

From the above description, we can learn many framework in the development of a person’s thinking.Vygotsky’s ideas laid the foundation for the culturalthings about the child and the culture and the society in

which he lives. It is clear that the event takes place in a pedagogical approach. Unlike Piaget (1967), who vieweddevelopment as enabling learning, Vygotsky viewedliterate, technologically-oriented society. Moreover, it is

clear that the child is being raised in an environment learning and teaching as advancing development. Ac-cording to his theory the social context, particularly in-that allows children to take a significant, active part in

what takes place around them. The youngster described teractions among human beings, is the central axis uponwhich development of thought revolves. For them, thehas the motivation to operate and function within the

sphere of written language and shows clear signs of de- direction of development originates on the exterior—that is, it arises from society as a force working inwardveloping abilities in writing and reading—what we are

accustomed to terming “emergent literacy.” His motiva- on the individual, toward independent thought pro-cesses. Thus, culture is what molds or fashions thinkingtion and interest in the act of writing birthday invitations

are an integral component in meeting his social and and influences the way in which a person constructs re-ality.emotional needs. Moreover, the child described above is

developing in a culture where discourse (between parent This process operates through a system of symbolsthat exist in each society—symbols without which theand child, among children within a family, between the

teacher and the child, between the child and his peers in development of thinking and human knowledge wouldbe impossible. Each culture maintains its own particularthe kindergarten), as well as contemplation of quandar-

ies and available choices are central characteristics of system of instruments that operate in a functional butsignificant manner within the reality in which a personhis cultural milieu. Another obvious and important ele-

ment is revealed: The youngster in question is growing lives and functions. Some of these tools are substantive,for instance, the tools of various trades; others are sym-up in a social environment where great importance is

assigned to a cooperative link between the child’s two bolic, such as written or mathematical language.The cultural pedagogical theorists seek to examineprimary worlds: the home and the kindergarten.

If one had to define the pedagogic approach under- and advance the ways in which humans create meaningin their lives, and the paths by which they communicatelying the scenario described above, the term “cultural

pedagogy” would be applicable, that is, a pedagogical in society in a meaningful manner. Key symbolic instru-ments, such as language (spoken, written, visual, mathe-approach in which the avenues by which individuals can

create meaning in their lives and the channels of com- matical, and musical), serve the needs of the community.They are perpetuated by society, carried forth to comingmunication are advanced in that society in a significant

manner (Bruner, 1996). These principles emanate from a generations—both preserving the cultural identity of thesociety and at the same time fostering further advance-psychological approach that has been the focus of much

discussion in the professional research literature—the ment and development.As noted earlier in this paper, cultural pedagogistscultural psychology approach. The author of this article

deals with these and other related concepts in their broad view the reciprocal relationship between people as thefocal point, stressing in particular the importance ofcontext, particularly within the context of education to-

wards literacy in early childhood education. Special em- communication processes between human beings (dis-course between pairs and within groups) and reflectivephasis has been placed on bridges between emerging lit-

eracy in the home and in the kindergarten. processes—“thinking about thinking.” This outlook wasa clear departure from that of behaviorists who focus onproficiency through repetition until mastery is gained.

CULTURAL PEDAGOGYThese are fundamentally different philosophies regard-ing the place of the individual person in society and theCultural psychology researchers examine a variety

of subjects tied to culture and thinking, including pro- image of the ideal citizen.cesses at work in the home and in educational institu-tions (Cole, 1997; Rogoff, 1990; Valsiner, 1987). Their

CULTURAL PEDAGOGY AND LITERARYwork constitutes a foundation for the formulation of a

EDUCATION IN EARLY CHILDHOODcultural pedagogy theory. Bruner (1966), their leadingspokesperson, has attempted to apply the precepts of Bruner (1996), in his book The Culture of Educa-

tion, presented a number of principles that constitute thecultural psychology to the educational sphere. He basedhis work on Vygotsky (1978), who emphasized deci- point of origin for the cultural pedagogical approach.

Here, we examine several of his principles and their pos-sively the importance of the educational and social

227Cultural Pedagogy and Bridges to Literacy

sible ramifications for literary education in early child- pivots around signs, greeting cards, letters, invitations toevents, ads, and other written genre that are part of thehood—in the home and in the kindergarten. Note that

these principles are not an entirely new entity and some daily routine in Western literate society. In many in-stances, the initiator of discourse is the child, at othermay be better known than others. Yet, many of Bruner’s

principles are applied in a host of households and even times, the parent. The questions and answers advance,first and foremost, the child’s comprehension of thein kindergartens as an implicit pedagogic program, in

the sense that they are not espoused as a professed, con- world and the way people operate and function in it. Inthe process, the child learns particular aspects of liter-scious act, although they are at work, operating in the

background. My purpose, in this paper, is to highlight acy, including agreed upon rules for usage of language,structure, text, grammar and syntax, and at the sameand label what is taking place and present a theoretical

framework for these phenomena—activities and inci- time is exposed to various genres of literacy—menus,lists, advertisements, stories, and so forth–within theirdents within these educational settings that, in essence,

reflect cultural pedagogical philosophy in action. natural context and function.Social interaction that nurtures the child’s literacy

takes place in the kindergarten during various activities.THE INTERACTION PRINCIPLE

For instance, in one kindergarten I visited, the kindergar-ten teacher sought to work with the children on the sub-Cultural pedagogists assign interaction a key role

as the core underlying principle in the educational pro- ject of occupations. She sent the children home with aquestionnaire for their parents about their occupations,cess. Bruner argued that interaction between human be-

ings is what distinguishes and sets them apart from other requesting that parents fill out the questionnaire togetherwith their child. The kindergarten teacher consciouslycreatures, that is, the ability of individuals to understand

the thoughts of another person. This kind of human ac- targeted this as a literacy activity within the familyframework. In practice, in many households, parents in-tivity transpires primarily through language that allows

a person to “negotiate” meaning. The activity of teach- deed read the questionnaire aloud, engaging their childin thinking about the questions and writing the answers.ing and learning is not a one-way street where one per-

son who knows everything transmits knowledge to an- The kindergarten teacher then read the answers to all thechildren at kindergarten, developing a discussion con-other who knows nothing. Rather, the educational

process in itself is negotiation over meaning: in reality, cerning the various occupations. In a number of in-stances, the children enhanced the written answersthere are learning communities within which learning

is the fruit of countless interactions between adults and orally, adding additional information beyond what wasformally requested.children and among groups of children in various life

contexts, including those that take place within educa- All these were, in essence, literary activities thatinvolve thinking, as well as written and oral language—tional institutions.

The challenge to the classic model of the centralist activities characteristic of study groups. Children in thisparticular kindergarten knew a great deal about theirknow-it-all teacher who transmits knowledge in one di-

rection is also evidenced in the cultural pedagogist’s parents’ occupations and, in certain cases, enriched theknowledge base of the kindergarten teacher as well. Par-championship of the educator’s duty to develop the

learners’ independent critical faculties, build their self- ents invited to the kindergarten spoke in depth abouttheir occupations with the children, thus expanding theconfidence, and nurture their ability to work with others.

The ideal is a group activity in which the learners sup- kindergarten’s learning community to encompass adultsand young learners together around a particular subject.port one another. This is not an attempt to strip educa-

tors of their authority, but rather a model where the edu-cators encourage the students to take responsibility for

THE EXTERNALIZATION PRINCIPLEtheir own learning, encouraging the children to take theinitiative to ask questions and raise subjects of signifi- Bruner labeled the collaborative thinking process

that two people or more may be engaged in about thecance to their life, serving as a catalyst for emotional,social, and cognitive growth. inner thoughts of each of the partners in the discourse

the “externalization process.” According to Bruner,Almost every parent and educator is cognizant ofthe importance of social interaction in the process of through interaction with another, individuals clarify their

own inner thoughts and, in doing so, improve and elabo-nurturing literacy in early childhood. Parent–child dis-course takes place over texts in the home, in the car, in rate upon them. The externalization process generally

takes place when two people work cooperatively on athe supermarket, at the movies—almost everywhere. It

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joint project. Indeed, this has occurred since the dawn ers through their educational institutions. For instance,the development of mathematical–logical thinking occu-of civilization, where people have collaborated to create

works in many different spheres—science, the arts, eco- pies a more central position in educational institutionsin Western societies, compared to the development ofnomics, and so forth. Beyond the fact that these works,

built through collaborative efforts, create a sense of various arts.The second aspect—the opportunities presented toidentification and belonging among members of the

group, they also develop the individual’s thought pro- individuals during their lifetime—relate to the sociocul-tural context within which they grow up. This encom-cesses by the necessity of externalization.

Meaningful learning in the kindergarten and school passes not just the family, with all the variances at work(cultural, economic, emotional, and so forth), but alsotranspires during a host of activities—activities that in

many cases arise out of joint work among the children the cultural capital of the educational institution withinwhich the individuals learn. The latter finds expressionthemselves, collaboration between children and educa-

tors, and among children, educators, and parents. One in the professional level of educators and their personalstature as teachers. A sociocultural context that supportscan cite numerous examples of such activities in kinder-

gartens. For instance, I was party to just such a situation the development of literacy is a natural environment ormilieu that is infused with reading books, newspapers,while observing a group of 5-year-old children who,

after listening to the biblical saga of King Solomon, magazines; writing and reading in daily behavior; theuse of computers to fulfill these needs; and discoursebuilt the king’s palace from pieces of cardboard in their

kindergarten. The palace had a roof, a pool, and canals. with children. Educational frameworks permeated withactivities such as these as a part of the daily routineThe building process went on over a period of days,

and each time another wing was added. The children constitute the “opportunities given the child,” as definedby Bruner.decorated the palace with various materials, and a num-

ber of them wrote signs on various parts of the palace.This was a joint project of the children, in which they

THE PERSONAL IDENTITY AND THEwere assisted by the kindergarten teacher who provided

PRINCIPLE OF SELF-WORTHmaterials, ideas, and support from time to time, espe-cially in children who exhibited interest in a particular The kindergarten and the school are the first institu-

tions, after the family, that play a major role in the mold-matter, or raised specific questions, such as, “How towrite?” ing of an individual’s personality. They play an impor-

tant part in building the self-identity of the child andParents also participated in this endeavor to a cer-tain extent. They asked questions, gave suggestions, and nurturing the child’s sense of responsibility and auton-

omy. The kindergarten and the school can be an inter-listened to their children’s proud descriptions of thegrand architectural edifice they had created. In fact, the mediary agent that either nurtures obedient creatures that

fit the tiny niche they are designed to fill, or developschildren encountered an open ear to their questions, andclarified their thoughts for themselves while engaging in learning communities with an orientation toward initia-

tive and autonomy, rights and responsibilities—individ-a dialogue with adults (the kindergarten teacher/parents)who were partners in their work. uals who take responsibility for their own learning and

are able to cooperate with others. In the latter case, theschool is not “preparation for life” but, rather, life itself.

THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION PRINCIPLEChildren in kindergarten and school should receive

encouragement from their teachers to study subjects ofBruner, like Vygotsky, assigned great importanceto the educational institution and its influence on the personal interest to them—subjects that can nurture their

identity, that have meaning for them and their lives ondevelopment of a person’s thinking. According toBruner, two central elements are at work in the educa- a personal, family, community, or national level. Choice

of subjects and development over time can be short-termtional process: the qualifications of the individuals andthe opportunities presenting to them during their life- or long-term projects that encourage the child’s initiative

in areas that are close to him/her. The knowledgetime. Regarding qualifications, according to Gardner’s(1996) theory of multiple intelligence, different people gained—processing and analysis—can be expressed

through various symbolic systems: written language,are endowed with different proficiencies that they em-ploy in symbolic systems for structuring meaning and graphic language, mathematical language, musical lan-

guage, or others avenues of communication.for carrying out meaningful interactions. Moreover, cer-tain societies tend to nurture certain areas more than oth- For instance, in one particular kindergarten, a pair

229Cultural Pedagogy and Bridges to Literacy

of youngsters began bringing playing cards with pictures define the place we occupy today and the possibleworlds we may meet tomorrow. Once it was thoughtof soccer players to school on a regular basis, playing

with them not only during recess in the yard but also at that storytelling was an inborn talent. Today, there is atendency to characterize it as an ability that can be nur-times when they were supposed to be engaged in other

activities. The kindergarten teacher, noting this, at first tured and enhanced.“To feel at home” in the world in which I live,thought to take the cards away—viewing them as an

impediment; but, on second thought, she decided to try means to know how to tell my own personal story, andalso the story of the group to which I belong. This is notto understand the children’s interest in the cards. From

observing them on the playground and talking to them an easy task, particularly in a modern world character-ized by geographical mobility and migration of peopleabout their hobby, she became aware that one of the

children succeeded in reading the names of the players from culture to culture. For instance, it is not easy toassist a 4- or 5-year-old tell his story beyond his familywritten at the bottom of the cards and the other was able

to rate them according to relative importance, while both or his neighborhood after immigrating to Israel from ei-ther the former Soviet Union or Ethiopia or emigratingchildren were adept at sorting the cards by teams in or-

der to trade cards between themselves. The kindergarten from Vietnam or Mexico to the United States. The im-portance of being able to do so is all the more conse-teacher asked the children to show their collection to

their classmates, devoting a number of sessions to this quential in a postmodern era in which cultural relativityis emphasized and cultural diversity is extolled.activity. Moreover, she encouraged other children to

bring their collections or their parents’ collections to the If the kindergarten teacher is unable to assist chil-dren to tell their story, a sense of social isolation is liablekindergarten. Thus, in reality, she inaugurated a new

subject of study in her kindergarten—dubbed “My Col- to develop that could undermine the children’s sense ofidentity with the society-at-large within which they live.lection”—that was not part of the planned curriculum.

The project focused on both the general and the Thus, educators must show sensitivity for young chil-dren’s narrative, on a personal, family, or communityspecific. The cooperation of parents who came to the

kindergarten with their collections was engendered, fur- level, providing both encouragement and support for thefurther development of the children’s ability to tell theirther enriching input by exposing the children to a host

of subjects, for instance, geography through stamp col- story. At the same time, educators must provide youngchildren with exposure to narratives that are beyond thelections of various countries and history through a col-

lection of commemorative medals. The collections were parameters of their immediate world of “here and now”.This in order to enrich their ability to structure meaningdisplayed on a bulletin board or on specially designated

tables—with thought invested by parents and children and understanding of significant things beyond the reali-ties of their own lives, beyond their own egos, and be-on how best to display the collections. In this manner,

the children were encouraged to become interested in yond the narrower parameters of the groups to whichthey belong.subjects close to them. By studying them and telling oth-

ers about them, subjects of personal relevance became a One does not have to belabor the importance of thenarrative in early childhood in the kindergarten, whethermeans of nourishing personal identity. The kindergarten

teacher had mobilized a genuine opportunity to learn, it is the child’s daily response to his parent’s query,“How was kindergarten today?” or a recital in the kin-while building bridges between the home and the educa-

tional institution through meaningful literary channels. dergarten setting of significant events that took place athome or in the family circle. Children tell narratives ona daily basis—to family, to friends, and to their kinder-

THE NARRATIVE PRINCIPLE: THEgarten or school teacher, while listening to the stories

PERSONAL AND COLLECTIVE STORYtold to them: the tale of a family outing over the week-end, an account of a fracas in the school yard, the Bibli-One of the important principles in a cultural peda-

gogy approach is the central role occupied by the narra- cal narrative of Moses in Egypt, or the story of the Bos-ton Tea Party. The significance of listening to thesetive of human experience and its role in a person’s edu-

cational process. In essence, human life pivots around stories—oral or written, the discussions they prompt,and the working through of thoughts and feelings theystories. In almost every area of our lives we tell and

listen to stories. Sometimes these are personal stories; engender are recognized today more than in the past.Beyond narrative conversations in Western literatesometimes they are stories about the family, the commu-

nity, or the nation to which we belong. The ability to societies, many children listen to written stories. It isnoteworthy and interesting to observe that researcherstell the story structures the world we live in, helping us

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(e.g., in Israel, Korat, 1998; in the United States, DeBar- one may assume. The child’s educational institution—the kindergarten teacher and the children in the kinder-yshe, 1993) have found that this behavior is characteris-

tic of all socioeconomic groups in society, not just the garten, constitute a supportive environment for Daniel’sdevelopment. All this transpires while maintaining ahigh SES. Reading to a child very frequently and the

kind of interaction that takes place during this process bridge with the child’s home as another significant unit.And last, while the kind of text addressed in the openingare considered significant to the development of a liter-

ary personality. Reading often and conducting a running scenario was a birthday invitation, the text of a storywould be just as illustrative. Thus, a narrative—told vo-dialogue with the child about the story nurtures a height-

ened awareness of common threads in narratives (princi- cally or written, a story arising from or tied to the lifeof the child, could equally serve to demonstrate literacy-ples of genre); logical sequences (reason and results, ties

between various activities, etc.); the linguistic context or enhancing activities. This could involve an endeavorthat can be as accessible and significant as writing thesetting (spoken language vs. written language); special

vocabulary/phraseology of story-telling and story-writ- text of one’s own birthday invitation.According to cultural educational pedagogists, edu-ing (“Once upon a time” “and “And they lived happily

ever after”); syntax (Jack thought vs. thought Jack); ex- cation in general, and especially for young children, is amatter of adapting the culture to their needs as humanpression of particular emotions (fear, chagrin, sorrow);

and confrontation with social and moral dilemmas. beings and, at the same time, adapting the young chil-dren to the culture in which they live. Awareness, dia-logue, and reflection constitute the cornerstones of this

SUMMARY process called cultural pedagogy.In closing, if one returns to the case in point of 6-

year-old Daniel’s birthday preparations that opened our REFERENCESdiscussion, one can safely assume that the parents and

Bruner, J. S. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Har-kindergarten teacher described herein adhere to a num-vard University Press.

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DeBaryshe, D. B. (1993, March). Maternal reading-related beliefs andof all, they view interaction among people as a corereading socialization practices in low SES homes. Paper pre-

contributor to child development. This is manifested in sented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research inChild Development, New Orleans, LA.the rich and varied negotiations that take place with

Gardner, H. (1996). Multiple intelligence: The theory in practice. Newyoung Daniel surrounding a significant event in his life,York: Basic Books.

that takes place in a genuine context within his social Korat, O. (1998). Mother-child interactions, maternal beliefs andchild’s development: text writing in two social groups. Unpub-life: a birthday party. One may assume that an event oflished doctoral dissertation, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Is-this kind will contribute not just to Daniel’s cognitiverael.

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duction of invitations—forward, while encouraging ini- Valsiner, J. (1987). Culture and the development of children in action:A cultural historical theory of developmental psychology. Newtiative and freedom of choice in the process. ThroughYork: Wiley.interaction with his parents, the kindergarten teacher,

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higherand his brother, Daniel could externalize his inner psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

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