crop production, extension and research · crop production, extension and research yangon, ......

CROP PRODUCTION, EXTENSION AND

RESEARCH

Yangon, June 2016

6.

Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Formulation and Operationalization of National Action

Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through

Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper - 1

MYANMAR: National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA)

Working Paper 1: Crop production, extension and applied research

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS ........................................................................................................... iii ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... iv MAP OF MYANMAR ........................................................................................................................ vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ vii 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2

2.1. Importance of the crop sector in economic development ................................................................ 2 2.2. Contribution to the rural economy ................................................................................................... 4 2.3. Government policies and strategies ................................................................................................. 4 2.4. Overall sector scope ......................................................................................................................... 5

3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE CROP SECTOR ............................................................................. 6 3.1. Farming and livelihood systems ...................................................................................................... 7 3.2. Cropping systems ............................................................................................................................ 8 3.3. Agro-ecological zones (AEZ) ........................................................................................................ 10 3.4. Productivity of irrigated and nonirrigated crops ............................................................................ 11 3.5. Farm size and land tenure .............................................................................................................. 11 3.6. Water resources and irrigation ....................................................................................................... 12 3.7. Farm power and agricultural mechanization.................................................................................. 14 3.8. Utilization of fertilizers ................................................................................................................. 14 3.9. Improved seed supply .................................................................................................................... 15 3.10. Value chains and marketing ......................................................................................................... 17 3.11. Rural finance ............................................................................................................................... 17 3.12. Advisory services ........................................................................................................................ 18 3.13. Climate change and conservation agriculture .............................................................................. 18

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 19 4.1. Government agricultural research and development organizations ............................................... 20 4.2. Constraints related to agricultural extension, research and education ........................................... 23 4.3. Donor and technical organizations in agricultural development .................................................... 27 4.4. Nongovernment organizations ....................................................................................................... 27 4.5. Civil society organizations ............................................................................................................ 28 4.6. Private sector entities ..................................................................................................................... 28

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ..................... 29 5.1. Crop sector constraints and opportunities ...................................................................................... 29 5.2. Opportunities for strengthening research and extension ................................................................ 30 5.3. Coordination mechanism for agricultural research, extension and education ............................... 33

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS ............................................................................. 33 6.1. Situation analysis of rural poverty in Myanmar ............................................................................ 35 6.2. Mitigation of rural poverty through NAPA ................................................................................... 36

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT ................................... 37 7.1. Development of the agriculture seed sector ................................................................................... 37 7.2. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming ..................................................................... 38 7.3. Improved agricultural extension and research system ................................................................... 38 7.4. Integrated area development planning and rural development ...................................................... 39 7.5. Improved information technology and communications ............................................................... 40 7.6. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition ............................................. 41

8. RELATIONSHIP OF CROPS TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS ................................................... 42 Annex 1: bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 44 Annex 2: MAPS .................................................................................................................................. 50 Annex 3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MYANMAR ............................................................ 54 Annex 4: MYANMA CROP SECTOR ............................................................................................. 60 Annex 6: KEY DATA, STATISTICS AND INDICATORS .............................................................. 75 Annex 7: MYANMAR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, EDUCATION AND RESEARCH ....... 77



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Annex 8: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS IN the CROP SECTOR ............................. 102 Intervention 1: Improved agricultural extension and research system ................................................ 102 Intervention 2: Development of the agriculture seed sector ............................................................... 107 Intervention 3: Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming ................................................. 111 Intervention 4: Integrated area development planning and rural development ................................... 115 Intervention 5: Improved information technology and communications ............................................ 118 Intervention 6: Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition .......................... 123

Annex 9: RURAL POVERTY AND AGRICULTURAL/RURAL SECTOR ISSUES .................. 129 Annex 10: ORGANIZATIONS MATRIX (SWOT ANALYSIS) ................................................... 133 Annex 11: COMPLEMENTARY DONOR INITIATIVE/PARTNERSHIP POTENTIAL ............ 142 Annex 12: TARGET GROUPS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL NAPA RESPONSE................ 157



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CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

(As of October 2014)

Currency Equivalent

US$1.00 = Kyat (MMK) 979

€1.00 = Kyat (MMK) 1 225

FISCAL YEAR

April 1 – March 31

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1 acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares

1 hectare = 2.471 acres

1 kilogram (kg) = 2.200 pounds

1 000 kg = 1 tonne

1 kilometre (km) = 0.62 mile

1 metre (m) = 1.09 yards or 3.28 feet

1 square metre (m2) = 10.76 square feet

1 acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares

1 hectare (ha) = 2.47 acres

1 millimetre (mm) = 0.03937 inches



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ACRONYMS

ADB Asian Development Bank

ADP Agriculture Development Programme

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency

AED

AEZ

Agriculture Education Division

Agro-Ecological Zone

AHD Animal Health and Development

AMD Agriculture Mechanization Department

ASR Agricultural Sector Review

CARI Central Agricultural Research Institute

CARTC Central Agricultural Research and Development and Training Centre

CBM Central Bank of Myanmar

CBO Community-based Organization

CDZ Central Dry Zone

CIRDAP

CSA

Centre for Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific

Climate-smart Agriculture

CSO Central Statistical Office

Danida Danish International Development Agency

DAP Department of Agricultural Planning

DAR Department of Agricultural Research

DFID Department for International Development (UK)

DICD Department of Industrial Crops Development

DOA Department of Agriculture

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FDI Foreign Direct Investment

FFS Farmers’ Field School

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

FSATG Food Security and Agriculture Thematic Group

FSWG Food Security Working Group

GAD General Administration Department

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GOM Government of Myanmar

GRET Group de Recherche et d’Echanges Technologiques

HDI Human Development Initiative

HIES Household Integrated Economic Survey

ICDP Integrated Community Development Project

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics

ID Irrigation Department

IFPRI

IGAs

International Food Policy Research Institute

Income-generating Activities

INGO International Nongovernment Organization

IPM Integrated Pest Management

IPR Intellectual Property Rights

IRRI International Rice Research Institute



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IUPOV International Union for Protection of Seed Varieties of Plants

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

LBVD Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department

LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund

LUD Land Use Division

MADB Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank

MAS Myanmar Agriculture Service

Masl metres above sea level

M&E Monitoring & Evaluation

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MFI Microfinance Institution

MICDE Myanmar Industrial Crop Development Enterprise

MIS Management Information System

MLFDB Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Development Bank

MLFRD Ministry of Livestock Fisheries and Rural Development

MOAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

MOECF

MRF

Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Myanmar Rice Federation

NGO Nongovernmental Organization

NSC National Seed Committee

NSP National Seed Policy

O&M Operation and Maintenance

OISCA International Organization for Industrial Spiritual and Cultural

Advancement

PACT Private Agencies Collaborating Together

PPP Public-private Partnership

PVP Plant Variety Protection

SALT

SCPI

SCSA

Sloping Agricultural Land Technology

Sustainable Crop Production Intensification

Selective Concentrative Strategy Approach

SLRD Settlement and Land Records Department

TCP Technical Cooperation Programme

TGFSA Thematic Group for Food Security and Agriculture

TSC Technical Seed Committee

UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP-GEF United Nations Environment Programme – Global Environmental Facility

UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VDC Village Development Committee

VFRDC Vegetable and Fruit Research and Development Centre

WB World Bank

WRUD Water Resources Utilization Department

WDC Water Distribution Committee

WFP World Food Programme

WRUD Water Resources Utilization Department

YAU Yezin Agricultural University



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MAP OF MYANMAR



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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been requested by

the Government of Myanmar (GOM) to formulate a National Action Plan for Agriculture

(NAPA) for which the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) provides funding.

The NAPA objective, through the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural

Development (NSPARD), is poverty alleviation and rural development. The aim of the

NAPA project is to give strategic guidance for effective implementation of the NSPARD’s

agricultural component through a comprehensive agricultural and rural development plan

consisting of reform proposals for policy and institutions, which are backstopped by

investment plans.

As follow-up support, a technical study on the crop sector, involving the participation of

international and national experts in Crop Production, Extension and Applied Research, was

commissioned. Under the assignment’s Terms of Reference (ToR) the consultants were

expected to review all relevant aspects of activities related to crop production in Myanmar,

with an emphasis on crops of importance to smallholders and poorer rural households, while

other crops (e.g. plantation crops) should also be considered where appropriate. This report

describes and analyses related research and extension activities (whether government, NGO

or private sector), and presents a range of priority interventions/investments for inclusion

under NAPA.

This review is contains seven topic areas: (i) sector background, (ii) specific aspects of the

crop sector, (iii) institutional environment, (iv) key opportunities and constraints to sector

development, (v) poverty and social inclusiveness, (vi) recommended areas of intervention

and investment and (iv) relation of crop sector to other rural areas.

Crop sector development in Myanmar

Agriculture contributes about 34 percent of Myanmar’s GDP, hence among the GOM’s

economic objectives, the development of the agriculture sector is considered of paramount

importance. The major tasks of the agriculture sector, in which crops are a significant

contributor, are to realizing food security, increasing foreign exchange via export of

agricultural products and providing assistance to rural development. The main objective of

the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) is the promotion of productivity in

agriculture by providing farmer support services and according high priority to rice and other

exportable crops, including pulses and oilseeds.

Myanmar has a huge potential to become a credible global food supplier and in order to

achieve this, it will need to intensify agricultural production and enhance farm productivity

and competitiveness. The scope for developing the agriculture sector, more particularly crops,

includes: (i) increasing cultivated land areas (Kachin, Shan and Chin states are promising

options for future agricultural expansion); (ii) increasing productivity, particularly for rice

and maize, as well as other crops (especially pulses and oilseeds, but also horticultural and

plantation crops), as yields have stagnated in recent years; (iii) increasing production and

sustainable farming in drought-prone zones and areas affected by climate change, particularly

in the Central Dry Zone (CDZ); (iv) diversification, especially in summer cropping, away

from rice and from rainfed rice in the CDZ and other areas not prone to flooding; (v) moving

from a command system of production towards a decentralized market-based economy

(presently in the transition phase) with emphasis on both large-scale commercial farming and

smallholder farming through value chain development; (vi) moving towards food security

and livelihood development for the rural poor while following a market development



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approach for cash crops; (vii) placing more emphasis on national food security while also

addressing individual poor household food security; and (viii) supporting these interventions

with higher production and use of quality seeds, and other appropriate technologies.

Value chain development with improvements in postharvest systems, marketing and

processing within the crop sector will be necessary to take agriculture forward. Value

addition processing linked to cash crop production (e.g. fruits, vegetables, oilseeds and

pulses) will also contribute to growth in the nonfarm sector. Similarly, rising agricultural and

rural incomes will help to promote growth in areas such as construction, retailing and

services, further strengthening the nonfarm sector. Opportunities in the nonfarm sector will

also become increasingly important in farmer and farm household decision-making. The

nonfarm sector tends to be particularly attractive to the younger generation, who may also

migrate to major urban centres rather than remaining on the land.

Research and extension

Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural research and extension systems

are crucial. Myanmar’s research and extension system has to date been commodity and

productivity focused, with little coordination among the many different institutions involved.

It has also suffered from a lack of funding. With a focus on maximizing yields, to the neglect

of cost and other issues of critical importance to farmers, as well as neglect of differences in

agro-ecological zones, the uptake of improved technologies has been limited.

A major re-orientation of both research and extension to a farming systems approach will be

required. Considering agricultural research, Myanmar can draw on the existing knowledge

base within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system

and other international research and development (R&D) entities, and focus on adaptive

research. For extension, appropriate retraining of the prolific government extension agents

will be needed. As with research, greater decentralization of the system is also necessary if

extension advice is to be relevant to farmers in different localities. Some newer approaches

have already been undertaken with external support under the multidonor-funded LIFT

programme and could now be scaled up. Finally, there is significant potential for private

sector involvement in both research and extension, including in the production and

distribution of improved seed. These are also areas where public-private partnerships are

possible. As in other areas, proper regulation of the private sector will also be required.

Poverty and social inclusiveness under NAPA

The aim of the interventions shortlisted in this report is considered to have potential for a

high impact on rural poverty in Myanmar. Benefits will either directly benefit the poor

through improved supply of inputs such as seeds and other improved technologies, the

introduction of climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming, integrated area

development planning and rural development of village lands, access to improved agricultural

advisory information through changes to the extension delivery system through information

technology and communications (ICT) and the introduction of a more diversified cropping

system for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and human nutrition. Farmers will

also indirectly benefit from the implementation of an intervention to improve the

coordination and effectiveness of the research and extension system.

While the geographical focus of the prescribed interventions is nationwide, specific focus

will be given to areas and communities most at risk such as in the CDZ and the more isolated

areas in the eastern hilly/mountainous regions.



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Proposed interventions and investments in the crop sector for NAPA

For the most part the interventions address technical support, organizational and institutional

change, capacity building, policy and strategy development, and area development

projects/programmes) or a combination of these actions.

A range of criteria was used in the selection of priority interventions: (i) impact on poverty

and livelihoods – contribution to poverty reduction and food security; (ii) alleviating gender

inequity/imbalance and assisting the landless (income-generating activities etc.); (iii) optimal

impact on immediate primary beneficiaries – smallholder farmers and the landless; (iv)

geographical focus – risk-prone areas; (v) the need for significant and sustainable long-term

benefits, with, to the extent possible, immediate short-term benefits; (vi) alignment to GOM

policy for agricultural development, poverty reduction and rural development; (vii)

encouragement of private sector/community participation; (viii) existing agri-business and

supporting infrastructure; (ix) where possible, community support with the involvement of

village development committees and farmers’ groups; and (x) no negative impact/effect on

the environment, ecology, productive resources (e.g. agricultural land) or existing

infrastructure.

It is important to note that interventions can have either direct benefit to the primary target

groups, or, through support to improving the enabling environment, have a longer term

benefit via support to the government, civil society organizations and/or the private sector.

After careful review of a wide range of issues and constraints that impact on the crop sector, a

total of six short-listed interventions/investments have been identified:

a. Development of the agriculture seed sector;

b. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming;

c. An improved agricultural extension and research system;

d. Integrated area development planning and rural development;

e. Improved ICT for the farming community; and

f. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and

human nutrition.

Relationship of the crop sector to other rural areas

The farming and livelihood systems across the four major agro-ecological zones (delta,

coastal, dry zone and hilly/mountainous areas) in Myanmar are a complex mix of systems

where the major sectors – crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry – are all closely linked into a

range of integrated systems. The relationships between these sectors vary considerably across

the country; while the crop sector tends to be the major sector in the context of food security

and income, the others have an important role in sustaining the livelihoods of the rural poor,

both in terms of on- and off-farm support.

Key areas where the linkages are important are: (a) integrated planning and development of

village lands and land use involving all sectors; (b) agroforestry for crops (annuals and

perennials) and forestry; (c) cropping systems and livestock, where crop production is heavily

reliant on animal draught power and farmyard manure, and livestock depends on the crop

residues which are their major source of nutrition; (d) integrated crop, livestock and fishery



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systems, common in the delta areas; (e) crop production (mainly paddy) and riparian

fisheries, where conflicts between the two sectors often occur in relation to water use; (f)

improved utilization of flood-prone land through better flood protection and integrated

farming; (g) climate change, which impacts on the need to diversify agriculture and

incorporate improved sustainable conservation farming and climate-smart agricultural

technologies; (h) value chains and marketing involving a range of stakeholders in both

agriculture and commerce, where private sector development is a central issue; and (i) rural

finance, where the current rural banking and loan system is one of the major areas

constraining the crop sector.



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1. INTRODUCTION

At the request of the GOM, FAO has been tasked with formulating a National Action Plan for

Agriculture (NAPA) over a period of approximately 18 months. The Livelihoods and Food

Security Trust Fund (LIFT) is providing funding support to NAPA. The ultimate objective of

NAPA, through the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development

(NSPARD), is poverty alleviation and rural development in Myanmar. The NAPA project

aims to provide strategic guidance for the effective implementation of the agricultural

component of the NSPARD through a strategic and comprehensive agricultural and rural

development plan consisting of reform proposals for policies and institutions, which are to be

backstopped by investment plans.

The NAPA formulation process is to enable inclusiveness of the stakeholders at all levels to

have an overview and ownership of the project. Given the fundamental shifts in priorities and

policy orientation taking place in Myanmar, the scope of the NAPA is broad covering all

important segments and interlinkages within the agriculture and rural development sectors.

Agriculture in NAPA is defined broadly to include crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry but

also several subsectors of the rural economy closely linked to agriculture such as agro-

industries, product value chains, markets, finance, etc. The second important consideration is,

given its relevance to the NSPARD, poverty alleviation will be an overriding focus of the

NAPA.

For planning and budgeting purposes NAPA formulation has two phases. Phase I includes

detailed analysis of priorities and constraints, various themes and subsectors of the

agriculture and rural sectors, and stakeholder consultations and participation at the national

and regional levels, leading to the formulation of an interim NAPA, followed by the final

NAPA at the end of Phase 2. As further support, a technical study on the crop sector,

involving the participation of an international expert and national counterpart in crop

production, extension and applied research was commissioned; the findings of this consulting

team are the subject of this review report. Under the assignment’s ToR, the consultants

reviewed all relevant aspects of activities related to crop production in Myanmar, with an

emphasis on crops of importance to smallholders and poorer rural households, although other

crops (e.g. plantation crops) were also noted. The report also describes and analyses related

research and extension activities (whether those of the government, NGOs or the private

sector), and presents a range of priority interventions/investments with, where possible,

indicative budgets for inclusion under NAPA.

During the formulation mission from September to October 2014, a review was made of

pertinent documentation (Annex 1), followed by meetings and focus group discussions held

with a range of key stakeholders, including government entities, the donor community,

NGOs, the private sector and farming communities in the four agro-ecological zones (AEZ)

across Myanmar. The findings of these interactions together with a detailed review of the

available literature on policies, programmes/projects in Myanmar and more especially as they

relate to NAPA have been used in the preparation of this document. The kind support of the

many stakeholders met during the course of this assignment is acknowledged.



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2. BACKGROUND

Myanmar is an agrarian country and the agriculture sector is the backbone of its economy,

contributing 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings and employs 63

percent of the labour force. About 75 percent of the total population resides in rural areas and

is principally employed in the agriculture, livestock and fishery sectors for subsistence.

Rice is the predominating crop and is grown in a range of cropping systems, Out of the total

sown area of 10 million hectares; about 13 percent is under irrigation. The rest of the land

depends on rainfall for crop production.

The population will grow to about 60 million by 2014 and the demand for local rice

consumption alone will be in the region of 20 million tonnes. To be able to supply enough

food for the increasing population and export the surplus, rice production will have to be

increased by up to 25 million tonnes, by expanding the rice-growing area to up to 6 million

hectares. This will be further be enhanced by the adoption of new technologies and provision

of the required inputs.

Rice is the main crop covering some 60 percent of the total cultivated area. Other crops

include pulses, beans, sesame, groundnut and sugar cane. Livestock, fisheries and lumber are

also important. Shifting cultivation is still common, particularly in the hilly/mountainous

areas common in eastern Myanmar. Myanmar was formerly a major producer of opium, but

the government ban on its cultivation since 2002 has left farmers in some cases without any

viable source of sustained income.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) is striving to develop agriculture by

taking measures such as creating more efficient utilization of land and water resources; farm

mechanization; introduction of new technologies; and supply of farm inputs. As agriculture

makes the most significant contribution to the national economy, the ministry is trying to

stimulate public awareness and interest for better participation and investment in the sector.

The GOM remains committed to contributing to national as well as world food security. The

agriculture sector in Myanmar has a dominant position in development of the national

economy and also has a definite bearing on other socio-economic activities. Because of the

high potential of land, water, human and mineral resources, Myanmar has been a prominent

agrarian country for many years and this will continue in the future. The country is presently

in a transition phase with a move from a command system of production to a market

economy, encompassing a change towards food and nutritional security for the rural poor

while following a market development approach for cash crops.

2.1. Importance of the crop sector in economic development

Myanmar was ranked 149 out of 186 countries in the 2012 Human Development Index and is

lagging behind its neighbours in most socio-economic indicators. It is the second poorest

country in Southeast Asia in terms of GDP per capita and it is estimated that around one-third

of the population lives below the poverty line. Despite ongoing democratic reforms and

recent liberalization, the living conditions of vulnerable populations in Myanmar, and their

access to basic services remain extremely challenging.

The importance attached to agriculture in the national development policy priority is reflected

in the first of the four national economic objectives, which states "Development of

agriculture as the base and all-round development of other sectors of the economy as well".

Agriculture, including crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry, is critically important for the



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Myanmar economy in many ways. Agriculture is also the main source of raw materials and

other inputs for local agro processing industries; the sector is an important market for

domestic manufacture of goods.

The agriculture sector contributes 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings

and employs 63 percent of the labour force. The food crop subsector alone constitutes 80

percent of the total value of sector production. The share of the agriculture sector as a

component of the country’s GDP has declined over the past, falling from 57.1 percent of the

GDP in 2001 to 39.9 percent in 2012. The sector has grown on a year-by-year basis over the

past decade. Between 2001 and 2005, growth reached as much as 21.1 percent, but slowed in

2008, in part due to the destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis.

The composition of exports by the agriculture sector (crops, livestock and fisheries) has

changed significantly in the past years as the nonagriculture sector, particularly the

manufacturing, mineral, gem, readymade garment, oil and natural gas subsectors, has

contributed to a greater proportion of the country’s export earnings. From over 76.6 percent

of the total in 1995/1996, agriculture’s share of exports dropped to 31.8 percent in

2013/2014, while that of other products increased from 23.4 to 68.2 percent, in which natural

gas export has predominated. However, the export value of all agriculture subsectors

increased during the past decade as a result of liberalization in production and marketing of

agricultural products, especially in the crop and fishery subsectors (Table 1).

Table 1: Composition of exports by product (%)

Products 1995/96 2000/01 2005/06 2007/08 2009/10 2012/13 2013/14

Agricultural products

(total)

76.6 33.0 30.5 26.5 27.9 37.6 31.8

1 Crop products 44.1 18.3 12.2 13.1 17.5 24.6 19.8

2. Livestock & fishery

products

11.3 7.5 5.6 4.7 3.6 6.4 3.9

3.Timber 21.2 7.2 12.7 8.7 6.8 6.6 8.1

Other products 23.4 67.0 69.5 73.5 72.1 62.4 68.2

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: CSO, Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development.

Note: Percent compositions are calculated based on export value.



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Major agricultural exports are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Major exports of agricultural products (000' tonnes [T])

Crops 1995/9

6

2001/0

1

2005/06 2008/09 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/2014

Rice 354.0 251.4 180.0 666.4 536.4 707.2 1396.8 1192.3

Maize 62.0 147.9 90.0 120.3 44.8 166.5 566.2 933.6

Black gram 185.0 274.6 379.6 529.7 456.5 598.1 657.8 644.2

Green gram 185.9 186.0 174.1 264.8 166.3 229.0 360.1 339.9

Other pulses 238.7 370.7 323.8 656.8 206.6 469.3 465.8 316.8

Sesame 50.3 34.4 21.5 19.5 29.5 35.5 182.8 172.3

Niger - 14.1 0.3 4.7 - - - -

Onion - 57.5 24.3 18.4 - 1.1 7.6 57.3

Tamarind - 3.2 7.1 25.5 5.6 17.2 13.9 12.5

Oil cakes 31.1 0.4 - - - - - -

Raw rubber 24.8 20.4 29.3 13.6 46.5 33.6 71.2 86.5

Sugar - 3.2 1.0 8.7 - - - - Source: CSO, Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development.

2.2. Contribution to the rural economy

The net crop coverage of all crops in 2013 was 11.84 million hectares (ha); accounting for 18

percent of the total land mass; approximately, a further 5.7 million ha (8.4 percent of the total

area) is still available for expansion; about 13 percent is under irrigation and the rest of the

land is rainfed.

Rice is the major cereal crop and also the national crop. Efforts are being concentrated on

production of rice not only to fulfil domestic consumption but also for export purposes. For

many years, rice had been grown as a seasonal mono crop. Since 1992, summer rice

cultivation has been initiated to increase rice production. Currently, the utilization of

improved varieties, appropriate technologies and effective irrigation systems has boosted rice

production.

Among the food crops, a major share of the land area is sown with paddy, although this is

declining currently. Official estimations (CSO 2012/13) revealed that the rice (paddy)

harvested area was 7.24 million ha accounting for around 34.4 percent of the total area sown,

with production standing at 27.7 million tonnes. Approximately 18-20 percent of rice

production comes from the summer crop season, while the bulk comes from the monsoon

paddy season. Other major food crops (2012/13 data) were pulses, which accounted for 21.1

percent of the sown area, oilseeds (16.2 percent), maize and minor cereals (3.3 percent),

industrial crops (4.8 percent), and vegetables/fruit (5.4 percent).

2.3. Government policies and strategies

An agriculture sector review was undertaken by FAO in 2004 which set out the broad

objectives for sector development. Subsequently a range of policies and strategies have been

formulated, namely (a) the national policy/development plan in Myanmar which comprises

the National Comprehensive Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2030-2031) and the Fifth

Five-Year Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016); (b) the Rural Development and Poverty

Alleviation Action Plan; (c) the Agriculture Sector Development Policy; (d) the 20-Year

Development Plan in the Agriculture Sector (2011-2012 to 2030-2031); and (e) the Fifth

Five-Year Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016).



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The Strategic Framework for Rural Development (2013) under the Ministry of Livestock

Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD) aims to reduce rural poverty in the high poverty

incidence areas. The policy has five strategies: (a) targeting, (b) synergistic interventions, (c)

sustainable financing, (d) collaboration and (e) good governance. Under this framework a

Township Development Fund for rural development is currently being implemented.

Correspondingly, there is the National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural

Development (NSPARD), of which the National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA) is an

important component – focusing on poverty alleviation and rural development through

agriculture.

The agriculture sector has set the three objectives of achieving surplus in rice production,

self-sufficiency in edible oils and stepping up the production of exportable pulses and

industrial crops to realize the three national agricultural policy objectives of food security,

export promotion, and raising income and welfare of the farmers. The present approaches for

implementation of the policy and plan objectives are the so-called 'State-led Approach' and

'Rice-production-orientation Approach'. Under these approaches, the high priority accorded

to rice production rather than agricultural production is obvious, and state intervention has

not been significantly reduced. Although tangible progress has been achieved in the sown

acreage, production and exports of certain crops, especially paddy and pulses, the

performance of agriculture as a whole is far short of its true potential.

2.4. Overall sector scope

Among the state's economic objectives, "development of the agriculture sector as a base and

all round development of other sectors of the economy as well", expresses the importance of

agriculture in the state's economic sector. Major tasks of the agriculture sector are to fulfil

food security, to increase foreign exchange through export of agricultural products and

providing assistance to rural development. The main objective of the MOAI is "promotion of

productivity in agriculture through providing farmer support service" and to give high

priority to rice and other exportable crops including pulses and oilseeds.

Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural education, research and

extension are important priorities. In the process of developing the agriculture sector,

conducting training and offering educational programmes of international standard are crucial

to the development of human resources.

The thrust to develop the agriculture sector, more particularly crops, includes: (a) increasing

cultivated land areas (Kachin, Shan and Chin states are promising options for future

agricultural expansion); (b) increasing productivity, particularly for rice and maize, and other

crops, as yields have stagnated in recent years; (c) increasing production and sustainable

farming in drought-prone zones and areas affected by climate change, particularly in the

Central Dry Zone (CDZ); and (d) diversification, especially for summer cropping, from rice,

and from rainfed rice in the CDZ and other areas not prone to flooding.

In summary: (a) agriculture contributes about 34 percent of Myanmar’s GDP; (b) Myanmar

has a huge potential to become a credible global food supplier; (c) to attain this potential,

Myanmar will need to intensify its agriculture and enhance farm productivity and

competitiveness; (d) Myanmar will diversify its production base; (e) there will be a move

from the command system of production towards a market-based economy (presently in the

transition phase) with emphasis on both large-scale commercial farming and smallholder

farming; (f) there will be a move towards achieving food security and livelihood development



6

for the rural poor while following a market development approach for cash crops; (g) more

emphasis will be placed on national food security rather than individual poor household food

security; and (h) these interventions will need to be supported with higher production and use

of quality seeds and other appropriate technologies.

3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE CROP SECTOR

This section provides further analysis and discussion of key aspects of the sector. It provides

an overview of cropping across the country, highlighting significant differences in alternate

areas of the country and describing the different crops cultivated, the systems in which they

are grown and the stakeholders involved. As a starting point Table 3 provides a strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis of Myanmar’s agriculture and natural

resource sector.

Table 3: SWOT analysis of Myanmar’s agriculture and natural resource sector

Strengths Weaknesses

Highly diverse agroclimatic conditions

Abundant fertile land

Long seaboard (about 3 000 km)

Extensive forest resources

Strategic location for exports to China,

India and ASEAN.

Ample land resources in the most

populated parts of the country

A population experienced in agriculture

and agricultural practices

Ample water resources in much of the

country

Ample labour resources

Available markets both domestically and

internationally

Existing irrigation facilities and the

technology to expand and improve

irrigation infrastructure

A recent commitment to open market

policies

Overall food self-sufficiency except for

isolated regions

Lack of clear strategy and policy

Landlessness

Land policy still evolving – the new Land

Law regulations have yet to be defined

and implemented; existing land tenure

policy does not act as an incentive to

increased farm production

Land titles not available for most of the

population

Banking system underdeveloped

Rural indebtedness

Appreciation of the exchange rate since

2006

Poor and unreliable statistical systems

Weak capacity in policy formulation and

analysis

Little participatory planning systems in

place

Legal framework not conducive to

agribusiness investment (e.g. taxes, land

laws, banking regulations)

Poor connectivity (major roads,

agricultural roads, Internet, telephone

network)

Inadequate physical infrastructure (rural

access, storage, processing, marketing

and power)

Limited irrigated areas and low

efficiency of water use

Power (electricity) scarcity

Low competitiveness

Serious price disincentives, at least

partially, as a result of macroeconomic

policies



7

Limited access to needed inputs (seeds)

Limited access to working capital

Susceptibility to drought in some areas

Incomplete irrigation infrastructure

Weak support services (extension,

agricultural research, credit)

Difficult terrain and poor soils in large

parts of the country, especially in areas

inhabited mainly by ethnic minorities

Opportunities Threats

Huge productivity gaps can be filled with

technologies readily available regionally

Large areas for increasing irrigated

agriculture

Major exporter of rice, including high

quality produce through integrated rice

operations (seedlings, milling, logistics)

Huge potential for export of fruit,

vegetables, pulses, etc. to China, India,

ASEAN

High potential in rubber, sugar cane,

pulses, timber

Potential for fertilizer production linked

to domestic natural gas supplies

Potential to focus on green growth

Prospect of substantial aid flows

Investment in rural infrastructure and

rural electrification would offset price

disincentives

Policy reforms in terms of taxation and

land would provide additional production

incentives

The completion of partly constructed

irrigation schemes can be undertaken at

low capital cost

Private sector initiatives in improved

production and marketing can be scaled

up

Off-farm wage and employment

generation potential

Land grabbing might result in extreme

social fragmentation

Neglect of smallholder farming might

result in persistence of poverty, social

tension, and might even be economically

inefficient

High input agriculture might lead to

environmental damage and unsustainable

use of natural resources

Natural disasters/climate change

Catastrophic climatic events would cause

further damage to the subsector; flood

protection and salinity intrusion

structures damaged during Cyclone

Nargis remain unrepaired

Pace of human resource development too

slow to sustain rapid economic reforms

(i.e. absorptive capacity remaining too

low)

Slowdown in political reforms leads to

reduced aid flows

Failure to address current disincentives

could lead to reduced production,

increased rural unemployment and

increased landlessness

Absence of regulatory mechanisms for

land use and zoning may divert cultivable

areas to inappropriate commercial

exploitation

Shifting cultivation in upland areas ties

farmers to a subsistence existence; it

degrades forest, soil and wildlife

resources and causes siltation in lakes,

reservoirs, and rivers

Source: Adapted from: Vokes and Goletti (2013).

3.1. Farming and livelihood systems

Generally the systems are based on integrated farming where crop cultivation is linked

closely with other sectors – livestock, fisheries and forestry. Farming systems differ across



8

the country with predominantly monocropped rice cultivation in the delta; inland fisheries

and small-scale livestock production (pigs and poultry) are quite common. In the CDZ rice is

produced where water is available but other crops, most importantly pulses and oilseeds, are

also produced; livestock is important and an integral component of the farming system,

particularly oxen for draught purposes, sheep and goats for income generation. The

farming/livelihood systems in the CDZ areas which are not dependent on paddy production

and are located in nonirrigated rainfed areas, are characterized by a mixed farming system in

which crops and livestock are closely integrated and interdependent. In the hilly areas maize

is the predominant crop grown together with legumes and vegetables and a range of fruit

trees, and some plantation crops (tea and coffee); however shifting agriculture is still

practised in the more isolated mountainous areas. In the coastal regions small-scale farmers

cultivate rice and other annual crops and in more accessible areas have orchards; large-scale

cultivation of industrial crops (rubber and oil-palm) on a commercial basis is common.

3.2. Cropping systems

Myanmar is divided into two main climatic regions, namely the tropical south comprising

over two-thirds of the country, and the subtropical, temperate north which comprises the

remaining one-third of the land area. There are distinct seasons; the dry season occurs from

mid-October to mid-May and is followed by the wet season. There is a cold spell from

December to February during the dry season. The southwest monsoon varies with both

locality and elevation. Due to such variations in agro-ecological conditions, more than 60

different crops are grown in Myanmar. They can be grouped into six main categories: (a)

cereals: rice, wheat, maize and millets; (b) oilseeds: groundnut, sesame, sunflower and

mustard; (c) food legumes: black gram, green gram, butter bean, red bean, pigeon pea,

cowpea, chickpea and soybean; (d) industrial crops: cotton, jute, sugar cane, rubber and

tobacco; (e) food crops: potato, onion, chillies, vegetables and spices; and (f) plantation

crops: tea, coffee, coconut, cocoa, oil-palm, toddy palm, banana and other fruits. More details

on the crops and cropping systems are presented in Annex 4.

Rice is the predominant crop and is grown in a range of cropping systems, including in

saline-affected areas mostly found in lower Myanmar, especially in Ayeyarwaddy, Yangon,

Taninthayi regions and also in Rakhine and Mon states. Deep-water rice is usually grown in

areas of some restricted belts in Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Taninthayi regions and Rakhine, Mon

and Kayin states. Elsewhere rice is mainly grown in usually well-managed systems in other

parts of the country and it is reliant on the monsoons. Approximately 18-20 percent of the

rice production comes from the summer crop season, while the majority comes from the

monsoon paddy season. The average rice yield is 4.1 tonnes/ha.

According to statistics, in comparison with other countries in the region, rice yields in

Myanmar are respectable. Myanmar seems to have higher average rice yields than Thailand,

India and Cambodia, but less than Viet Nam, Indonesia and China. The most important

comparison would be with Indonesia and Viet Nam where most of the rice grown (unlike

China) is high-yielding varieties (HYV). Myanmar could catch up with these countries and

increase its own yield by 30-40 percent.

Maize is one of the main staple foods after rice in some regions such as Chin State. Overall,

maize cultivation covered 422 000 ha in 2012/2013 including Sagaing Region, north and

south Shan State, Chin State, and Magway Region. The average yield is 3.7 tonnes/ha. The

highest yields were recorded in Kayin State, Ayeyarwaddy Region and Shan State (north).

The highest producers of maize were Shan State (north), Sagaing Region and Shan State



9

(south). Pulses are consumed almost daily in most areas of Myanmar, especially in dry-zone

regions. Pulses and oilseeds are also becoming important export crops particularly to China

and India.

Horticultural crops, including fruits and vegetables, have some importance in Myanmar,

accounting for 1.13 million ha (2012/2013). Among the most important individual crops are

chillies, onions and plantains. Horticultural crops are of particular importance in the highland

areas of Sagaing Region and Shan State, where higher precipitation levels allow for intensive,

year-round production; however their cultivation is common in other regions of the country

especially near large urban centres. Cotton, jute, rubber and sugar cane are the main

industrial crops.

Most paddy areas use HYV seeds. In 2012/2013, 61 percent of monsoon paddy was sown

using HYV paddy seeds and about 1 percent employed hybrid paddy seeds. Shan grew the

largest area of hybrid paddy among all states and regions because these seeds are easily

procured from the border with China. Almost 100 percent of the summer paddy was sown

with HYV and the remainder with hybrid seeds. Moreover, 54 percent of the total maize

areas sown used hybrid maize seeds and 28 percent used HYV maize seeds. Farmers are

currently sowing local maize varieties in up to 18 percent of all the maize-cultivated areas.

Shan State (both north and south) and Sagaing Division have the highest hybrid maize

cultivation among all states/regions.

The 2004 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Agriculture Sector Review

suggested three main potential avenues for growth in crop production: intensification of

production, expansion of the cropped area and diversification to financially more rewarding

combinations of crops. It was suggested that intensification and diversification would give a

significant boost to crop production and farm incomes in the short to medium term.

As of 2004, with few exceptions, increases in output have been driven largely by increased

sown area; generally the result of a switch from other crops rather than opening up of new

territory, although the latter may have occurred in more remote areas, especially for oilseeds.

Yield improvements have been limited; even an overall growth of 50 percent over a ten-year

period implies only 4 percent improvement per annum, and most crops have failed to achieve

even this. In fact, eight of the 12 highest performing crops in Myanmar over the last decade

achieved yield increases averaging less than 2 percent per annum (UNDP 2004).

According to domestic consumption needs and the potential for export earnings, certain crops

have been prioritized (Table 4). This table presents anticipated target yields set against

existing yields for the national level to achieve in the short term.



10

Table 4: Existing and target crop yields (tonne/ha)

Crop Yield

(2009)

Target yield

Yield gap

1 2 3 4=(3-2)

Paddy 4.06 5.15 -1.09

Long staple cotton 1.46 1.61 -0.15

Sugar cane 61.61 74.13 -12.52

Black gram 1.48 1.61 -0.13

Green gram 1.24 1.61 -0.37

Pigeon pea 1.25 2.02 -0.77

Groundnut 1.57 1.40 + 0.17

Sesame 0.53 1.21 -0.68

Sunflower 0.89 1.79 -0.90

Maize 3.43 4.93 -1.50 Source: MAS (DOA) (2009).

The most important production factors for achieving the target yields are the efficient

utilization of the fertilizers and use of improved varieties. With limited credit and low

investment for farmers, utilization of fertilizer in even major crops is far below the

recommended dose. However the yields of these core crops have been reported to be

increasing over time despite minimal fertilizer use, but there seems to be official

overestimation of these statistics owing to administrative pressure. Research and

development activities on crop variety improvement are underway. The improved seeds are

disseminated to the farmers through extension agents and also among the farmers themselves.

If farmers can afford to use the correct dose of fertilizers and quality seed efficiently, there is

scope to achieve the targets. Thus investment in fertilizers, sufficient irrigation water and

development of seed programmes are the key factors for increased productivity.

The most common constraint to crop production is the lack of inputs or lack of money to

purchase them. Limited capital equipment (tools, daft animals, mechanical power) and land

are also common constraints. Overall, constraints to crop production are generally with low-

intensity production techniques that could be addressed with increased availability of credit,

technical advice and improved access to land, and problems associated with lack of

infrastructures for irrigation and water control.

3.3. Agro-ecological zones (AEZ)

In terms of agroclimatic conditions and characteristics, the country is divided into four AEZ:

the Delta Region, the Coastal Region, the Central Dry Zone Region and the Mountainous

Region. The Delta Region has the highest population density, highest land productivity

(mostly alluvial soil), moderately high rainfall, generally flat topography and an excellent

environment for growing rice. In contrast, the Central Dry Zone has the lowest annual

rainfall, sandy soils and the second highest population density. The Coastal Region has the

smallest land area but has the highest annual rainfall, exceeding 4 000 mm per annum, and,

accordingly, this region is highly suitable for growing perennial crops, such as coconut, palm

oil and rubber. The mountainous region has the largest land area covered by dense forest. The

region accounts for about 34.4 million ha or about half of the total land area, has poor road

infrastructure and low population density.

Cropping systems and patterns vary according to agroclimatic conditions. In the irrigated

areas, paddy-paddy or paddy-pulses-paddy patterns dominate. In the dry zones and other



11

upland rainfed areas, mixed cropping or intercropping of pigeon pea with sesame or peanut or

other pulses are practised. In mountain or hilly regions, upland paddy, maize, millet, oil crops

and pulses are also grown. Many farmers still practise shifting cultivation in these areas. Fruit

crops and vegetables are grown throughout Myanmar year round. More details on the AEZ

and the common cropping systems found in these zones are presented in Annex 3 .

3.4. Productivity of irrigated and nonirrigated crops

According to a farm household survey conducted by JICA (2013) annual income from

irrigated areas is lower than that from nonirrigated areas. This is observed in the CDZ,

Southern Shan State and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region; the gap between irrigated and

nonirrigated area is nearly 1 million kyat (US$825) per annum in the CDZ. The survey asked

farmers whether they irrigate by crops, and most farmers who irrigate in the CDZ grow rice

under irrigation conditions. However, farmers who practise irrigation for rice also plant

groundnuts and other cash crops under rainfed condition. Such cash crops, including pigeon

pea and sesame, are planted under rainfed condition in the CDZ, and profitability of pulses

and oil crops are usually higher than rice, with the most profitable crops being green gram,

black gram and pigeon pea, followed by groundnuts and sesame. For rice, production costs

are the highest and profitability the lowest. However, in many cases farmers prefer to grow

rice if irrigation water is available, because rice is their staple food. In addition, farmers have

been forced to grow rice under irrigation conditions, especially in the summer season.

3.5. Farm size and land tenure

All land in Myanmar is owned by the state and the cultivators only have the tilling rights. The

tilling rights cannot be transferred or mortgaged, taken in lieu of loan repayment, or used as

collateral for obtaining loans. They are, however, inheritable by adult children or other family

members who continue to remain as farmers and work the land by themselves. This pattern of

intergenerational land transfer has increased the fragmentation of the holdings and number of

small farm holdings.

Myanmar is richly endowed with natural resources. There are over 17 million ha of cultivable

land of which about 60 percent is currently under cultivation and the remainder has potential

for future development. Myanmar has extended the net sown area of crops to 11.84 million

ha and about 5.80 million ha are still available for cultivation. Land classification in

Myanmar is detailed in Table 5.

Table 5: Land classification in Myanmar (000’ ha)

Categories 1995/96 2000/01 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

Net area sown 8 910 9 909 11 975 12 021 11 920 11 841

Fallow land 1 231 686 241 230 322 439

Cultivable waste land 7 971 7 205 5 610 5 396 5 374 5 361

Reserved forests 10 321 12 914 16 897 17 916 18 235 18 305

Other forest area 22 079 19 786 16 255 15 630 15 348 15 207

Other land 17 147 17 159 16 681 16 467 16 461 16 506

Total 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659 67 659 Source: MOAI (2013).

The net area sown has increased over the years, reaching 11.8 million ha in 2013, which is an

increase of 32.9 percent from 1995 to 2013. This is attributable to land reclamation by the

government in Ayeyarwaddy and Taninthayi regions after 1991 and allocation of fallow lands



12

to private sectors for commercial farming. The government via notification No. 44/91 of 13

November 1991 prescribed the Duties and Rights of the Central Committee for the

Management of Cultivable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Land which has the authority to

grant the right to cultivate, the right to utilize land by state-owned, joint ventures, other

organizations and private individuals for commercial use of cultivable land, fallow land and

waste land to carry out agriculture, livestock breeding and rearing, aquaculture or other

affiliated economic development enterprises. Under this arrangement, the private sector has

also been given the opportunity to participate and develop large-scale farming by granting

large tracts of fallow lands and cultivable waste lands to private investors, both local and

foreign. The government has allocated about 0.7 million ha (1.73 million acres) of land to

some 216 private business groups, in holdings mostly of about 1 214 to 2 023 ha (3 000 to 5

000 acres), although some are even larger. Most large-scale oil-palm plantations and rubber

estates are in Taninthayi Region and other large-scale farms are located in Kachin State,

Sagaing, Magway, and Ayeyarwaddy regions.1

Land is the most important livelihood asset for households in rural Myanmar. Ownership of

sufficient land can ensure income and food security. However ownership of land is not

universal and highly inequitable in its distribution among the rural population. Within the

sample of 4 000 households, 50 percent of households did not own land (LIFT Survey 2012).

Only a quarter of households (26 percent) in the Hilly and Mountainous Zone does not own

land while 72 percent does not own land in the Delta/Coastal Zone.

There are also significant differences in the size of landholdings. The average landholding

size in Myanmar is 2.35 ha (5.8 acres). The very skewed distribution of landownership in the

Delta/Coastal Zone raises concerns of equity when providing agricultural assistance in these

areas unless programmes target the quite small percentage of small landowning households

(owning say less than 5 acres). Landless participants reported that the opportunity for them to

gain access to land for cultivation is very limited.

It should be noted that 2.35 ha is an average figure, which does not represent the distribution

of land sizes throughout the country. Holdings under 1 acre of land showed a big increase in

total area from 91 381 acres in 1993 to 155 100 acres in 2013 or 69.7 percent. Furthermore

the number of holdings of less than 0.4 hectare (1 acre) increased from 187 493 in 1993 to

513 221 in 2013, an increase of 173.7 percent. 2 This indicates that the increasing number of

families in rural areas has resulted in more fragmentation of farmland and consequently the

farm income of small farmers has been negatively affected.

3.6. Water resources and irrigation

There are potentially 1 576.6 km3 of water resources available in Myanmar. Less than 10

percent of the total water resources is utilized annually. Since 1988, following the

introduction of market-oriented economic liberalization measures, the government has

promulgated continuous efforts for the construction of dams, reservoirs and pump irrigation

facilities throughout the country via significant capital investment and by making use of

available domestic resources and expertise.

1Myanmar agriculture in brief, 2013, Department of Agricultural Planning, MOAI.

2 Myanmar census of agriculture (2013).



13

The net irrigated area reached 2.28 million ha in 2009. Water management is critical and

contributes significantly to food security. The percent of net irrigated area was 15.5 percent

of the net area sown in 2009, from 12.6 percent in 1988. Consequently, cropping intensity

increased from 140 percent in 1995 to 158 percent in 2013. Most irrigated areas have been

used for paddy production. Paddy production increased from 18.58 million tonnes in 1995 to

27.70 million tonnes in 2013.3

Although the main irrigation infrastructure has been completed, distribution canals and water

courses to farmers’ field are still under construction. Renovation of the distribution canals of

completed dams and reservoirs has also been delayed due to limited maintenance budget.

Extension and education activities on efficient utilization of irrigation water by water users

are also inefficient due to suboptimal on-farm research and demonstration. There is great

potential for the expansion of irrigated areas by improving irrigation efficiency.

Water is a major limiting factor for crop production especially in dry-zone upland areas with

bimodal rainfall patterns of 750 mm of precipitation (even as low as 600 mm in dry years). In

such agro-ecologies, risk-prone farmers tend to adopt mixed cropping systems to spread the

risk and mitigate crop failure. In these areas in situ moisture conservation practices such as

minimum tillage, stubble mulching and so forth that retain as much of the rainfall as possible

and facilitate access to crop root systems should be extension priority. Unfortunately,

Department of Agriculture (DOA) extension services do not do this at the moment. Efficient

water use under irrigation in dry zones should also be a major concern; currently some pump

irrigation schemes are required to irrigate heavy water demand crops like paddy on unsuitable

light upland soils. In such situations water use is highly inefficient and relatively few farmers

benefit. The same volume of water could alternatively provide supplementary irrigation to

five times the crop area for low water demand crops such as groundnut, sesame, mustard,

etc., with greater overall returns per unit of water and greater financial returns, hence

benefiting many rural households in the CDZ.

Farmers receiving irrigation from government-constructed irrigation schemes are highly

subsidized, as the current water charges are only kyat 25/ha. Clearly this is insufficient to

cover system operation and maintenance (O&M) and does not provide an incentive for

efficient water use, rather it encourages overuse.

In dry zones, water-use efficiency should be a top extension priority and for dryland area

development the following actions are suggested: (a) applied research and demonstration

programmes for in situ soil moisture conservation on upland areas through conservation

farming practices; (b) irrigation of high water demand crops such as paddy and sugar cane

should be discouraged in upland areas and irrigation provided to more households for the

supplementary irrigation of crops with lower water requirements; and (c) irrigation water

charges should be radically increased to cover full scheme O&M to provide incentives for

careful water use.

In the flood-prone areas in the Delta region, irrigated farming systems need to be improved

through improved irrigation, drainage and flood protection (embankments), and better on-

farm management systems.

3 Source: Myanmar agriculture at a glance (2013).



14

3.7. Farm power and agricultural mechanization

In many areas of Myanmar farm power is provided by draught animals, mainly oxen and

buffalo. Comprehensive agricultural mechanization is still in its infancy. More needs to be

done to both improve the efficiency of animal draught power through better equipment and

animal husbandry, and to introduce appropriate farm machinery that is both economically

viable and is suited to the farming systems. There are repercussions to be considered when

animal draught power is replaced by mechanized systems, particularly with regard to the

current reliance in many areas on the use of farmyard manure as a source of crop nutrients.

Agricultural mechanization has been carried out by utilizing farm machinery and equipment

for various activities of agricultural production through private sector participation in

addition to state sector activities. Increased cropping intensity has expanded the use of

machinery in agriculture from land preparation to harvesting and postharvest activities. The

required machinery is being produced and assembled locally or imported for distribution to

farmers.

Efforts are being made to totally eliminate the traditional way of threshing paddy on the

threshing floor, through the introduction of threshers and combine harvesters. A number of

model mechanized villages (23 locations) were established with MOAI support throughout

the country to demonstrate the benefits of farm mechanization to farmers.

Land development activities for transformation from conventional agriculture to mechanized

agriculture are being undertaken as follows: (a) construction of feeder and farmland roads, (b)

construction of canals and drainage for irrigation, (c) transforming small plots to larger 1-acre

plots and (d) facilitating the purchasing process by introducing an instalment payment system

for agricultural machinery thus improving access to equipment and affordability for farmers.

The need for agricultural mechanization has been growing steadily due to the shortage of

labour during the busiest season for farming in many areas. After harvesting, paddy is left on

the farmland for one month in this context which results in degradation of rice quality. Farm

mechanization has benefited farmers in terms of savings in time and human labour costs. In

addition, it has contributed to increased cropping intensity, from 133 percent in 1996/1997 to

158 percent in 2012/2013.

Transformation from conventional to mechanized agriculture will enable farmers to grow

double and multiple crops, and increase per capita income and job opportunities. Expansion

of the use of farm machinery must be approached with caution. Introduction of machinery in

production systems which are not profitable/suitable may be counterproductive. However,

machinery can have a significant economic impact if it is included in production systems that

are suited to its use, such as intensive land use (double or triple cropping) or farming of large

areas.

3.8. Utilization of fertilizers

Currently there is a reliance on both organic and inorganic fertilizers, but crop production is

constrained by the shortage of organic manures sufficient to sustain cropping systems on

even the smallest of farms, and the present high price of inorganic fertilizers. The cause of the

decline in paddy production over the last few years is considered to be a direct result of the

high price of inorganic fertilizer.

The domestic fertilizer industry in Myanmar is concentrated around the production of urea

fertilizer from the abundant sources of natural gas in the country. As a requirement for plant



15

nutrients, phosphate and potash fertilizers are imported. The Ministry of Energy prefers to

export natural gas in order to obtain foreign exchange, and thus supplies of gas to the urea

plant have been decreasing. Although imports of fertilizers are liberalized to the private

sector, most farmers are unable to acquire sufficient amounts of fertilizer due mainly to

financial constraints.

Requirements for fertilizers vary from 2.1 to 3.7 million tonnes annually depending upon the

annual sown areas. Supply of fertilizers rose from 110 000 to 237 000 tonnes in the 1997-

1998 and 2000-2001 periods, but has declined drastically since 2001-2002 to low levels in

2012-2013. This is mainly attributable to the decreasing of urea fertilizer production. JICA

(2013) estimated fertilizer requirements for rice at 3 bags/acre (370 kg/ha) to achieve a target

yield for paddy of 100 baskets/acre equivalent to 4.94 tonnes/ha.

Before 1993 fertilizer prices were heavily subsidized by the government, which has since

then removed the subsidies on all crops. Subsequently, market prices have risen to

international levels and the government has also allowed the private sector to import and

distribute fertilizer, providing exemption of import tax. Despite a lack of competition in the

fertilizer market, most enterprises find it difficult to make profit due to less demand for such

expensive inputs. Fertilizer is one of the most important inputs to improve crop productivity,

followed by improved seed varieties.

3.9. Improved seed supply

The overall performance of the seed sector is weak although there some positive aspects are

emerging. The weakness of the sector can easily be captured by the low coverage of certified

seed. Rice-certified seed reaches a minority of the farmers who continue to have a low

replacement ratio of their seed stock. An informal seed exchange system is predominant and

the formal seed system for rice barely reaches 10 percent of the sown area. The situation is

even worse for the supply of improved seeds of pulses and oilseeds so it is particularly

important to introduce high-yielding drought-tolerant varieties for the CDZ.

Production of certified seed of all major crops covers only a fraction of the total planted area.

Estimates indicate that production of certified seed for rice may cover about 2 percent of the

demand, and for pulses and oilseeds the coverage ranges from 0.1 to 0.25 percent. While rice

receives a major share of allocations for seed production, pulses and oilseeds lack a seed

production programme. There is some involvement of the private sector in seed production,

but this is still relatively limited. In addition, the monitoring of the health status and quality of

certified seed, even for rice, does not comply with required technical standards.

Most commercial varieties of major crops were released a long time ago (most in the 1980s

or even before), which coupled with an inefficient seed production process, renders them

outdated, mixed, riddled with detrimental mutations, susceptible to pests and diseases, and

unresponsive to inputs. Although several improved varieties and hybrids have been released

by research institutions in recent years, many are not adopted by a significant number of

farmers. The yield gap (the difference between actual yield and potential) remains high. More

worryingly yield growth seems to be slowing down and there is the danger it might even

reverse. Conversely, hybrid vegetable seed is thriving particularly with the emergence of

private foreign and domestic seed companies investing in Myanmar. The agriculture sector is

currently attracting the interest of various investors and with the formation of the Myanmar

Rice Federation (MRF) private companies have access to registered seeds from the DOA for

multiplication purposes



16

In the current formal seed system, the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) is

responsible for research and generation of breeder and foundation seeds. The DOA is

responsible for the registered seeds which are distributed either to private seed growers

(about 5 000 distributed around the country) and, more recently, to private seed companies

under the support of the MRF. Multiplication of foundation seeds is certified and good seeds

are then distributed to farmers and the market. Most notable for the Myanmar seed sector is

the absence of seed associations; it also lacks coordination mechanisms such as a Seed

Working Group or Seed Tasking Force (different from the Seed Committee which is only in

charge of release of new varieties).

The private sector in the seed industry: The Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) was

formed in 2007 and transformed into the MRF in 2011. Under the organization and

management of the MRF, 57 Myanmar Rice Specialized Companies (MRSCs) have been

formed. MRSCs are implementing contract farming programmes. A number of private

companies are currently working on seed for rice and hybrids (maize, rice and vegetables),

namely, CP Company, Known You Seed Company, Malar Myaing, Myat Min and Bayer

Crop Science. In the case of maize and vegetables there seems to be high interest in private

companies to engage in seed production, but less so for rice. The implementation of the Seed

Law might change this situation.

Facilitating private sector investment and fostering partnerships with the private sector and

communities to increase productivity and gain competitiveness: The main opportunities

related to investment, partnerships and coordination point to the possibility of leveraging

public investment through incentives for investment by the private sector, the cooperative

sector and communities. This will result in an expansion of use of good quality seeds (OPV,

hybrids and traditional varieties appropriate to certain agro-ecological environments),

increased productivity and increased resilience to pests, diseases and climate change impacts.

The Seed Law was enacted in 2011 and came into force in 2013; it paved the way for a

number of initiatives that could lead to a dramatic development of the seed industry. Core

policy issues need to be addressed, notably the combination of limited implementation of the

Seed Law with underinvestment in the critical areas of research, extension, quality assurance,

coordination and information dissemination. Key issues in this respect are (a) how to move

from formulation to implementation (from the Seed Law to Seed Industry Development); (b)

how to provide incentives to farmers for use of certified seed and for the private sector to

invest; (c) underfunded research and extension (1-2 percent of the MOAI budget); (d) low

capacity in quality assurance; (e) lack of coordination (private-public, centre-local, domestic-

international); and (e) lack of information about seed demand and distribution.

Incentives are the key. Farmers might not use certified seed because there is no incentive to

do so. It is always assumed that the issue is supply: just produce more seeds and farmers will

buy them. But seed availability per se without fertilizer, water, plant protection or a market is

not enough to attract a farmer. The Seed Law is expected to lead to an improved system in

which private sector incentives can work to the benefit of the overall system. Of course, in

addition to regulations, hard core investment in critical areas is needed. Otherwise the law

and regulations will simply remain unfulfilled promises.

Another key issue is to distinguish between needs and demand. Needs often are based on the

technical recommendations for seed replacement (e.g. renewal after three to four crops) or

seeding ratios and total sown area. Demand is based on the farmers’ actual conditions and

willingness to buy. There is a need to not only change the supply of good seed, but also to



17

understand what the farmers want and their incentives for buying or using certain seeds. For

example, technically, hybrid rice seed appears to be impressive. But is it what the farmers

want? Studies on the topic suggest caution. Demand is a function of several variables (price,

access, knowledge, assets, physical properties, etc.).

In summary although the seed industry’s overall performance is still weak, some positive

aspects are emerging, such as a regulatory framework and private sector investment. The

greatest opportunity for the development of a competitive seed industry is to leverage the

experience and resources of the private sector and communities to assure that farmers have

quality seed at the right time and at affordable terms. To overcome the numerous supply and

demand constraints, it will be necessary to formulate policies that facilitate the

implementation of the Seed Law (seed policy, rice policy and trade policy), provide

incentives to the private sector and farmers, and adjust underinvestment in the critical areas

of research, extension, quality assurance, coordination and information.

3.10. Value chains and marketing

While in the NAPA context it is critical to stress the importance of smallholders being at the

core of Myanmar’s agricultural (and rural development) strategy, this does not imply a hostile

or negative attitude towards larger-scale commercial agriculture and agribusiness. Clearly in

some subsectors, including rubber, sugar and oil-palm, large-scale plantation-based

agriculture may well have an important role to play and as noted above, can also effectively

complement and support smallholders operating in the same subsectors. However,

agribusiness has its most critical role in the development and improvement of the supply

chain. On the output side this not only includes traditional areas such as storage, processing

and marketing but also value addition in terms of packaging, branding, and logistics services.

On the input side it includes the supply of production inputs, particularly fertilizers and agro-

chemicals, seeds, feed, irrigation equipment, power tillers, tractors, threshers, combine

harvesters and increasingly extension and also finance.

Based on the survey by LIFT (2012), farm households organize themselves for

group/collective marketing of their crops. Overall 90 percent of households sell their crops

individually and consequently have no bargaining power with buyers and traders. Household

knowledge of crop sale processes and access to price information is lacking. Nearly a quarter

of households marketing crops have no price information before they sell their crops. Large

landholders are more likely to know the price of their main crops before selling them. Crop

price information comes predominantly from family and friends and crop buyers. Most

households sell their main crop immediately upon harvest (62 percent). Only 17 percent of

households sell their crops two or more months after harvest. Larger and wealthier

agricultural producers are more likely to store and sell their crops some months after the main

harvest season. Currently there is no market information system for farmers or rural

communities.

Postharvest crop losses are high where crops are stored but as most crops are sold

immediately after harvest this do not pose so much of a problem. However, if farmers do

change to storing their crop produce longer then storage technologies will need to be

introduced.

3.11. Rural finance

According to a baseline survey by LIFT (2012), family and friends are the most common

sources of loans among households in the survey. Forty-five percent of all households borrow



18

from family and friends, and 31 percent borrow from money lenders. Shopkeepers are the

next most common source of loans (19 percent). Households with no land are most reliant on

family and friends as a source of loan (48 percent), while only 21 percent of households

owning more than 20 acres borrow from this source. Most loans are for purchases of food (44

percent) clearly illustrating the importance of credit as a coping strategy for household food

security. This is particularly the case for households that do not own land or have low

monthly incomes.

Farmers have several alternatives for borrowing money such institutional finances such as the

Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank and Global Treasure Bank Public Co. Ltd.,

microcredit providers including PACT, OISCA, and other NGOs, and private money lenders

including local brokers and relatives. The interest rate of institutional finance (8.5 percent

/year) is lower than that of the private money lenders. However, since the banks request

mortgages, need more time to borrow money and provide quite limited loan amounts, most

farmers have to depend on private money lenders for conducting farming activities.

3.12. Advisory services

Regarding extension and technology support for crop production this aspect is covered

comprehensively in the next section – Institutional Environment. The DOA has a large staff

complement of around 17 800 most of whom are based at the village tract level. It is

responsible for imparting good agricultural practices (GAP) to the farmers through a range of

modalities and interventions. Currently the government-run extension system is understaffed

and under-resourced and is deemed to have little impact on smallholder farmer crop

productivity.

While there is a reasonably trained extension force available for technology transfer in some

areas of Myanmar, other areas are short of properly trained human resources. Extension is

currently provided to facilitate the achievement of central production targets for core crops

and especially for rice. To have a more significant impact on farm incomes, crop production

and the alleviation of rural poverty the service requires re-orientation within a new enabling

environment for farm production. Its main role should be to improve farm incomes through

the development of sustainable integrated farming systems. Extension should focus on key

themes including: (i) adoption of quality seeds and planting materials of new HYVs; (ii)

integrated balanced plant nutrition, capitalizing on the already good work in the use of

organics combined with increased use of chemical fertilizer; (iii) integrated pest management

techniques for pest and disease control; (iv) integrated cropping and farming systems; (v)

rainwater harvesting and water-use efficiency in irrigated systems and rain fed conditions;

and (vi) support to farm enterprises and value chains such as kitchen gardening, horticulture,

aquaculture and livestock production especially relevant for small and marginal farmers and

the landless.

3.13. Climate change and conservation agriculture

Over the past 50 years, Myanmar has experienced an upward trend in average and high

temperatures and decreases in monsoon duration. There appear to be no significant trends in

total rainfall, although a government study suggested a slight downward trend. Some recent

research suggests that pre monsoon climate patterns have led to increases in May

precipitation (thus possibly earlier monsoon onset) and increased and more intense cyclone

activity since 1979. While the upward trend for temperature is clear, more research and

analysis is necessary to understand rainfall and monsoon trends over the past decades (MOAI

2010).



19

Climate change is expected to have a considerable impact on Myanmar, particularly as a

result of increasing temperatures, more variable rainfall, the possibility of more intense

extreme climate events and sea level rise along the coasts. Myanmar is one of the most

vulnerable countries globally in terms of projected changes in extreme weather, agricultural

productivity loss, sea level rise and overall risk. Multiple studies downscaled to the regional

and national level indicate that Myanmar is projected to experience a mean annual

temperature increase of between 1-4oC by the end of the century, with variability throughout

the year and spatially across the country (World Bank 2012).

Very little in the way of conservation agriculture is followed, even in the dry zone of the

country. The impact of climate change is having a serious effect on the farming systems in

the CDZ, which is being exacerbated by a rising human and livestock population. It is

therefore important that this issue is addressed through the introduction of conservation

farming and more specifically climate-smart agriculture (CSA) techniques. This will involve

introduction to communities in the project area of a wide range of integrated techniques to

stabilize both the cropped lands and where feasible the community grazing and forest lands.

There is an important need to try to stabilize the environment and farming systems in the

CDZ townships, where as a result of climate change and increasing population pressure

(human and livestock) the natural resource base is at risk with high levels of soil degradation

and erosion. Dryland farming systems are adopted in areas where rainfall and water to

support crop cultivation are limited. The CDZ has limited rainfall, soil infertility, inadequate

agricultural inputs as well as poor farming practices which have led to low agricultural

productivity and income. The zone is also an area with high levels of soil erosion, mostly due

to the lack of soil conservation measures in the past, causing a loss of organic matter and a

low water infiltration rate. In addition, the vegetation cover in the area is highly vulnerable to

erosion due to the limited amount of rainfall and widespread grazing. It is important therefore

to maximize available resources to support crop cultivation and stabilize village lands.

Measures likely to improve fertility and increase productivity include the basic principles of

crop management such as good and timely land preparation, correct planting techniques and

maintaining a fine surface tilth or mulch to protect the natural moisture from evaporation.

The development community, including FAO with its initiative on CSA, can bring expertise

in this area, and support other important measures to promote cultivation techniques that

improve fertility such as mixed cropping, management practices to minimize soil erosion (for

example leaving land fallow during the summer in alternate years), the use of both artificial

and organic-based products – fertilizer and compost – to increase yields, and enhancing

varietal development and germplasm screening for high fertilizer efficiency. There is a need

to develop capacity in Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT), rapid compost

production, the Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS) and vermiculture.

4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

This section describes and analyses activities, strengths and weaknesses of relevant

institutions, be they the public sector, donor organizations, NGOs or private entities that

provide services of various kinds to the farming community. For further information refer to

Annexes 7 and 10.



20

4.1. Government agricultural research and development organizations

The MOAI is responsible for all aspects of agriculture and irrigation as well as water

resources with its mission to develop agriculture and irrigation nationally. At the

state/regional level, agriculture is organized under a state/regional minister for agriculture

who reports directly to the MOAI at the Union level in Nay Pyi Taw where most budget

decisions are currently made. The main objective of the MOAI is stated as being to increase

crop production. Among several strategies identified by the MOAI for meeting agriculture

sector objectives are: (a) the provision of irrigation, (b) the application of modern

agrotechnologies including improved seed, (c) fertilizer and crop protection, (d) the

development and utilization of new crop varieties, (e) the adoption of cropping patterns that

fit the local agro-ecology and (f) the development of new agricultural land. The major crops

that are being promoted include paddy, long staple cotton, groundnut, sunflower, the grams

(yellow, green and black), sugar cane, pigeon pea and maize. The MOAI comprises the

following key departments: the Department of Agriculture (DOA) which was formerly the

Myanmar Agriculture Services (MAS), the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR), the

Department of Agriculture Planning (DAP), the Irrigation Department, the Agriculture

Mechanisation Department, the Water Resources Utilisation Department, the Myanmar

Agriculture Development Bank (MADB), Yezin Agriculture University (YAU) and the

Department of Industrial Crops Development.

It is important to note that government service delivery systems are experiencing a period of

transition from a traditional command system (top down) to a more market-driven approach.

A SWOT analysis of the relevant MOAI extension, research and education organizations is

presented in Table 6.

Table 6: SWOT analysis of MOAI extension, research and education organizations

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities/threats Remarks

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI)

Potential to take

considerable action

once convinced

Composed of a

number of

departments

covering a range of

agriculture-related

issues

Synergies between

different

departments under

one umbrella

ministry

Strong national

network covering all

agro-ecosystems

Good network of

facilities located in

all agro-ecological

regions

More priority on

production than on

policies and service

delivery

Top down and ad

hoc approaches to

planning and

decision-making

Lack of

transparency in

budgets

Decision-making

centralized

Poor coordination

with other line

agencies including

forestry, livestock

and fisheries

Lack of investment

in service delivery

and facilities

Need to provide for

coordinated

approach to farming

systems under one

ministry

Potential for a more

strategic approach

to planning

Climate change:

unusual rainfall

patterns,

salinization,

flooding, drought

National economic

problems are likely

to impact on further

investment in

agriculture

Lack of investment

in educational

institutions will

Has potential to be a

strong partner for

NAPA investment

in Myanmar

New government

may positively

influence role of

MOAI in rural

development

Need for a more

strategic and

systematic approach

to agricultural

development

Important to focus

on vision for

inclusive rural

development in

Myanmar



21

Strong senior cadre

of committed

managers

Emphasis on

production rather

than on food

security

Paucity of new,

qualified and skilled

personnel to replace

retiring staff

Centralized

decision-making not

responsive to local

priorities

reduce availability

of qualified staff

Potential for conflict

with other natural

resourced-based

ministries e.g.

forestry, fisheries.

Department of Agriculture (DOA)

Committed staff

keen to help poor

farmers

Presence of staff at

all levels of

governance in the

country

Ability to take a

farming systems

approach to

extension

Linkages with DAR

(for research and

YAU (for training)

are good at regional

levels

Townships and

District Agricultural

Supervisory

Committee provides

opportunity for

coordination with

other government

agencies and local

councils

Technical expertise

in land-use planning

in Land Use

Division

Lack of investment

has resulted in a

decline in number

and quality of

extension staff

Lack of well-trained

personnel with

participatory skills

Insufficient

resources for

effective field visits

Poor links with

DAR staff at the

township and

village levels, and

with farmers

Continued lack of

availability of

qualified extension

personnel

Under-resourced

department unlikely

to be able to meet

demand for

extension services

Potential partner in

helping to provide

extension services

for NAPA project(s)


giving farmers

choice in selection

of economically

viable crops best

suited to local

conditions

Potential for

partnerships with

civil society

organizations in

delivery of

extension services

Potential to build on

coordination at

village tract and

township levels

Potential to promote

local level land-use

planning, working

with SLRD and

local councils

Department of Agricultural Research (DAR)

Highly committed

staff but the more

experienced are now

retiring

Strong foundation

of applied research

in the past

Network of

agricultural research

Lack of young well-

trained staff to take

over from retirees

Lack of investment

has resulted in a

decline in number

and quality of

research staff

Lack of investment

Research driven by

political priorities

rather than by needs

of farmers

Climate change

offers both an

opportunity (for

adaptation) and

threat (need for a

Potential partner for

NAPA in selection

and development of

cultivars best suited

to local conditions

Neglect of national

research institutions

aggravated until

recently by



22

stations throughout

the country

Strong links with

the DOA at senior

levels

has resulted in a

decline of research

facilities

Lack of access to

external knowledge

and resources

Poor links with

extension staff at

the township and

village levels, and

with farmers

new mindset). international

sanctions

Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)

Highly committed

staff but the more

experienced are now

retiring

Close links with

other MOAI depts.

can foster a

cooperative

approach

Knowledge of

teaching staff

outdated

Poor teaching and

research facilities

Lack of young


over from retirees

Lack access to

external knowledge

and resources

Poor infrastructure

Lack of investment

by the government

in infrastructure

Neglect of national

education

institutions

aggravated until

recently by

international

sanctions

The DOA is responsible for coordination of farm advisory services and research across the

country, for agricultural education and for the delivery of farm inputs including seeds and

farm advisory services. It employs a total staff complement nationwide of around 17 782 but

relatively low salaries and uncertainty about the future have resulted in a loss of more

experienced staff to alternative employment with agricultural brokers and NGOs. The scope

of services has been directed mainly at government model farms which has meant that many

other farmers received limited to no services, such as provision of information and certified

seeds. However, with restructuring into the DOA, extension of agricultural advice is virtually

nonexistent for farmers who depend heavily on each other, private suppliers of inputs and

wholesale purchasers.

The DAR has seven crop research centres and 17 satellite farms. The mission of the DAR is

“to systematically conduct research activities that would suit to the needs of all stakeholders

which include producers, distributors and consumers in developing and dissemination of

regionally adapted crop varieties and crop production technologies”. Although the DAR is

carrying out suitable research, particularly with new varieties, there still remains the problem

of applying this to the farmers’ fields on a large scale and adequate dissemination of this

knowledge via extension services to farmers.

There are seven state agricultural institutes involved in agriculture extension training and

research with YAU at the apex, plus several agricultural research institutes that provide

specialized training for farm advisers. YAU is composed of nine major departments

comprising agronomy, agricultural botany, agricultural chemistry (responsible for irrigation

and water management), entomology, plant pathology, horticulture, agricultural economics,

animal science and agricultural engineering. Connections with other services supporting

professionals, technicians and farmers at the field level are very weak; this results in



23

knowledge and information developed at higher levels failing to trickle down to grassroot

levels. The situation is complicated as all actions are subject to final approval by the MOAI,

the Central Academic Council and the Central Administrative Council of the Universities and

Colleges of the whole country. The situation is exacerbated as the agricultural education

institutions that are meant to underpin the extension services with specialized crop advisers

and research staff, have had inadequate budgets over a number of years and struggle to

produce suitably qualified staff in the required numbers.

The Myanmar Academy of Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences was

established by the government in 1999. The main objective of the academy is to promote

science and technology for development of the national economy, and collaborate with

international scientific institutions. The mandate of the academy is to assist in the

implementation of human resource development programmes through various types of

training for existing staff. Another approach is to organize young scientists from different

fields to conduct research and to write papers on new findings, which could be published

later.

Although the MOAI has offered different areas of training and specialized training

programmes based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-ecological and socio-economic

conditions, farmers’ adoption of outputs by research and extension organizations is virtually

nonexistent. In Myanmar, extension officials and extension agents lack the needed

knowledge about market-driven and pluralistic agricultural extension and advisory systems.

4.2. Constraints related to agricultural extension, research and education

Problems with transfer of technology: Most of the extension messages are centrally designed

by managers and implemented by field staff over a wide range of agro-ecological and socio-

economic conditions, without proper consideration of farmers’ needs and limitations, and

available markets. The consequence of this approach is the low adoption rate of most

technical recommendations. Due to the top-down nature of the extension messages and

nonparticipatory approach of technology generation, the interactions and linkages between

institutions and farmers have become weak and nonfunctional. A list of constraints in the

extension system is presented in Box 1.

Box 1: Constraints in the Myanmar agriculture extension system

Transfer of technical information: Technical and scientific information does not flow

regularly from and to research, extension and farmers. There is no systematic and well-

established mechanism to disseminate research findings, farmers’ needs and constraints, and

extension messages. The linkages among public and private institutions are very weak.

Impact of extension: Apart from special extension programmes, which benefit only a small

percentage of farmers, the dissemination of improved technologies follows the traditional

one-to-one interaction between extension agents and farmers on the advantages and benefits

of certain production practices. Most messages are general blanket recommendations

designed by central managers, without due attention to the characteristics of production

systems, agro-ecological, socio-economic and market conditions.

Conflicting roles of extension agents: Field staff of the Agriculture Extension Division

(AED) and extension branches of the various enterprises are generally required to perform a

number of other activities such as promotion of area expansion, distribution of inputs and



24

machinery, procurement of products, surveys, loan collection, among others, which conflict

with their responsibility to effectively disseminate improved crop production technologies. In

addition, lack of transport facilities inhibits extension workers from visiting production areas

for demonstrations, training and other technology transfer activities.

Outdated technical skills: Extension services of the AED, departments and enterprises have

a very large number of staff assigned to all hierarchical levels and stationed in all

geographical units throughout the country. But the technical skills and academic

qualifications of this large work force are outdated and limited.

Constrained by lack of mobility: Effective dissemination of improved technologies requires

that field extension staff (village track level) have the ability to visit extension camps and

demonstration areas regularly, but presently most extension staff at the field level lack means

of transport and have extremely low and insufficient subsistence allowances, which

discourages most of them from participating in these activities.

Government policy: The policy of surplus production of paddy leads to cultivation in areas

not suited for the crop, creating unnecessary problems for research and major difficulties for

extension. This results in low yields, low profitability and low income.

Price controls and quotas system: Quota systems, such as those for sugar cane, and targets

of area expansion and production for most crops, which result directly from the

implementation of policies such as surplus production and export orientation, frequently lead

extension agents and farmers to divert their attention, interest and efforts towards complying

with these policies, rather than concentrating on the dissemination/adoption of improved

production technologies. Price controls and quotas exercised in certain commodities (sugar

cane) tend to restrict crop development (yield, area expansion), compared to the same

commodities that are cultivated free of these controls. Attempts to increase production by

increasing prices (e.g. cotton), but without due attention to production efficiency (cost of

production and profitability) tend to be short-lived and have little impact.

Source: Adapted from UNDP and FAO (2004).

Information and communication technology for agricultural extension: Myanmar started

installing ICT tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over 250 ICT

companies in the country. The ICT coverage for some of Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated

by the Post and Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally under the

Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT). A multipurpose community telecentre was set up

at Phaunggyi village which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted by

the Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its purpose is to improve the living

standards of people in rural areas. The government plans to install about 6 000 small satellite

terminals at remote areas within three years. There is considerable potential to expand on the

use of ICT for the transfer of technology to farmers given the current constraints within the

DOA.

Agricultural research

Operational linkages between the various research institutions and among research, extension

and training organizations within the MOAI are very weak. There are many research

institutions that conduct research on a variety of crops, topics and problems, without any

systematic mechanism of coordination, exposing the process of technology generation to



25

duplications and overlaps with consequent low efficiency of utilization of limited financial

and human resources. Although research allocations of departments, institutes and

enterprises, seem to cover most current expenditures, they are, however, a very small

percentage of the total budgets of the institutions. If research volume and quality were to

increase significantly from present low levels, these allocations would represent a major

constraint.

The number of skilled research staff with advanced degrees is still limited, but has changed

quite significantly in the years since the Agriculture Sector Review (ASR) was undertaken in

2004. Those who have such degrees are, for the most part, assigned to managerial posts and

do not implement research projects. The vast majority of research staff that implement

projects have B.Sc. degrees or lower academic qualification. In addition, a significant number

of experienced senior staff is being retired and/or leaving research and extension institutions,

without an equivalent rate of replacement. The very low salary and incentives in research

contribute to exacerbating this problem.

Key areas that constrain R&D in Myanmar are the lack of understanding, diagnosis and

analysis of farming systems across the country, and the need for greater knowledge on

research and extension methodology and linkage. In addition to these major constraints other

constraints to the research capacity of the DAR are presented in Box 2.

Box 2: Constraints in the research capacity of the DAR

Commodity- and production-based research: Existing research programmes are, for the

most part, commodity-based and production-oriented. Most projects are ‘stand-alone’ and

isolated in the sense that they do not form building blocks of a carefully designed programme

targeted to solving identified constraints. Projects normally do not take into account farmers’

needs and constraints, production cost, profitability, marketing and insertion of the researched

technology into the prevailing cropping system. Many similar activities are repeated year

after year without a clear objective.

Centrally planned research: Most research projects are centrally planned at headquarters

for implementation in research farms. Those who plan do not have the in-depth experience

and knowledge of the local agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, and those who

implement in many instances do not understand the technical design of the projects. In

addition, priorities are usually set at headquarters without effective involvement of research

field staff, extension agents and farmers.

Lack of focus on environmental and social limitations: Most research staff are conscious

of environmental and social limitations, and state that their objective is to develop relevant

low cost technologies, but often their evaluation and selection of genotypes and other

experiments are conducted under stress-free environments, which favours technologies

(treatments) that perform better under a high level of inputs.

Lack of specialist skills: Overall numbers of research and extension staff may seem

adequate, but most institutions lack sufficient numbers of skilled experts. Specialized training

programmes in research and extension based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-

ecological and socio-economic conditions, and realities of research and extension

organizations, are virtually nonexistent. Even training at the postgraduate level at YAU is not

specifically tailored to addressing priority constraints of research and extension.

Strategy for staff recruitment: Staff recruitment does not follow a logical strategy because



26

it is centrally controlled without proper consideration of the needs of institutions, projects,

objectives or priorities. Promotions and incentives do not take into consideration staff

performance and seem to be a major factor of discontent among research personnel.

Morale and motivation: Although not openly expressed, research staff seem to have low

motivation and enthusiasm because of low salaries, scientific isolation, lack of training, lack

of promotions, limited equipment and facilities, among others. This has a negative effect on

the creativity and initiative of the research staff. Some research staff seem to have additional

responsibilities for commercial production of certain commodities, hence deviating their

attention from research work.

Information exchange: The exchange of scientific information and research results between

research organizations, and among research, extension and training institutions is very

limited. Libraries of research, extension and training institutions are outdated and lack the

most important agricultural scientific literature. Scientific seminars and workshops are

limited and attended mostly by managerial staff.

Agribusiness and socio-economic aspects of farming: Issues of profitability, production

cost, marketing, environmental constraints and socio-economic conditions of farmers are

seldom considered in the planning and design stage of research projects. The planning

process is mostly top-down, due to previous experiences, lack of skilled personnel at the local

level and rigid organizational structure that does not facilitate creative thinking.

Mechanization and production efficiency: Production efficiency of major commodities is

an important requisite for improving the comparative advantage of Myanmar agriculture.

Proper farm mechanization will contribute to increasing the efficiency and reducing the cost

of production in suitable production systems, but research on farm machinery focused on

needs of small farmers is virtually nonexistent.

Research in agricultural biotechnology: Agricultural biotechnology research is restricted

mostly to tissue culture techniques for plant multiplication purposes, and to a lesser extent for

production of virus-free plantlets. Even this simple form of research encounters serious

limitations in facilities, equipment, materials and skilled experts. Any form of more

sophisticated biotechnology research would be even more constrained by lack of equipment

and relevant skills.

Source: Adapted from UNDP and FAO (2004).

Education and training

Skills and knowledge of YAU teaching staff are outdated. The institution lacks modern

facilities and equipment, has an outdated curriculum biased towards theory with less attention

to practical skills, has a weak communication system for exchange of scientific information,

has outdated farm equipment for research and teaching, has very limited laboratory

equipment and facilities, limited budget, very low salaries and incentives for teaching and

administrative staff, and weak external linkages.

The graduate and postgraduate education provided by the YAU is not modern and based on

the old curriculum framed 15 to 20 years ago. Most of the laboratory facilities are outdated

and much of the equipment does not work, hence education provided by the YAU is skewed

towards theory classes. The farm facilities are also substandard. Many important scientific

books and periodicals are not available in the library because of their high cost and limited

budget.



27

Formal training is often outdated with little relevance for the realities of the extension

service, resulting in young professionals who are not fully prepared. The capacity of these

training institutions to adapt is constrained by the weak interaction and restricted flow of

information between them and the extension institutions. The Central Agricultural Research

and Development and Training Centre (CARTC) has very good physical facilities for

informal training, but it lacks the most simple field and laboratory equipment, materials and

supplies. Training programmes for extension staff are very limited and seldom benefit

grassroots extension workers.

The university does conduct research programmes, but does not have outlying research

stations. Much of the research is for academic purposes (theses of MSc and PhD students),

but there is also focus on development of technologies for commercial production. A

substantial part of the research is done in collaboration with the DAR.

4.3. Donor and technical organizations in agricultural development

As presented in Annex 11 there are many donors currently involved in agricultural

development in Myanmar. A detailed description of development partner activities is also

presented in the JICA (2013) report on the agriculture sector survey of Myanmar.

The current problem with the provision of aid to Myanmar is the lack of proper coordination

notwithstanding the Thematic Group on Food Security and Agriculture in Myanmar

(TGFSA) and the Food Security Working Group (FSWG), which have the main failing that

they only involved the donor community and NGOs, but not government entities.

There are about 16 UN agencies and several multilateral and bilateral donors present in

Myanmar in spite of certain international sanctions. Various types of sanctions are being

imposed by individual countries and/or development agencies, for whatever reasons, that are

of little help in developing poor farmer communities. Only recently the international isolation

of Myanmar has started to fade due to long-awaited political reforms in the country. It should

be noted that Myanmar is a country full of natural resources, most of which have not been

tapped yet. There is no doubt that with enhanced involvement of the donor community, the

country can progress much faster in all aspects, including rural and agriculture development.

Examples of donors and technical organizations are: The Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations (FAO) , the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Japan International

Cooperation Agency (JICA), the European Union (mainly in poverty alleviation via

Millenium Development Goals), the Department for International Development (DFID), the

Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) and the Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN).

4.4. Nongovernment organizations

Although most NGOs provide activities related to food security and livelihood improvement,

some other organizations offer activities for improving agricultural productivity,

consolidating irrigation infrastructure, provision of microcredit etc., while many others focus

support on health and education.

Almost all the NGOs working in Myanmar are international and have signed Memoranda of

Understanding or Letters of Agreement with the government. In spite of certain difficulties in

working in the field mainly caused by international sanctions, there were about 65 NGOs



28

active in various sectors, including agriculture, health and postdisaster rehabilitation. Most of

their funding comes from Japan, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France, Norway and

Italy. Examples of such NGOs are: Action Aid Myanmar (AAM), Water Research and

Training Center – Myanmar (WRTC-Myanmar), World Vision Myanmar (WVM), Capacity

Building Initiative (CBI), Population Services International (PSI), PACT and GRET.

Some of the operational constraints faced by the NGOs working in Myanmar include lack of

mobility of expatriate staff, changing visa approval rules, short-term donor funding, weak

local capacity, and lack of reliable data and government bureaucratic procedures. A list of

NGOs is presented on the Web site http://www.aseanpostnargiskm.org/knowledge-

base/links/ngos-in-myanmar

4.5. Civil society organizations

Civil society organizations include farmers’ organizations, farmer-based associations,

cooperatives and related societies. In general, there has been little encouragement in

Myanmar to form farmers’ associations at the village level and above. Apart from farmers’

groups formed by the Myanmar Agriculture Service, no significant extension-related

associations exist. The following two associations have been identified but they are

commercial and export-oriented in character: Myanmar Fish Farmers Association (MFFA)

and Myanmar Rubber Planters and Producers’ Association (MRPPA).

The Central Co-operatives Association, which is under the supervision of the Ministry of

Cooperatives, received a microfinance license recently and it is operating 46 microfinance

institutions that function as village banks in states and regions. Cooperatives focus primarily

on deposit mobilization and microloans, especially in urban areas. As of May 2012, its total

membership was 32 851. Cooperatives in agriculture have suffered for many years from poor

management and inappropriate use of funds, and at present are considered by most farmers as

an entity to be avoided.

4.6. Private sector entities

Presently, few private companies are involved in extension work, and those that are providing

advisory services are mainly the seed companies with contract growers. However, there are

commercial trade companies, some based in other countries, which handle export or import

of various agricultural commodities such as timber and a variety of other items. As

mentioned earlier in this report there are a number of companies involved in seed production

and also the supply of agricultural inputs – fertilizer, pesticides, machinery etc. For a list of

such companies supposedly in Myanmar refer to the Web site: www.list-of-

companies.org/Myanmar/Agriculture

Recently, the government created the Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) to

promote the export of rice. This was done by merging three existing associations, namely the

Myanmar Rice and Traders’ Association, the Myanmar Millers’ Association and the

Myanmar Paddy Producers’ Association.

Value chains, especially trading and marketing aspects, are undertaken with extensive

involvement of the private sector, with trading and marketing centres in the major cities

across Myanmar.

http://www.aseanpostnargiskm.org/knowledge-base/links/ngos-in-myanmar

http://www.aseanpostnargiskm.org/knowledge-base/links/ngos-in-myanmar

http://www.mrppa.org/

http://www.list-of-companies.org/Myanmar/Agriculture

http://www.list-of-companies.org/Myanmar/Agriculture



29

5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

This section outlines the aspects which currently impede the development of the crop sector,

and provides some details of lessons learned from previous interventions, and opportunities

for overcoming/ameliorating such constraints. In order to try to rationalize the shortlisting of

key contracts an effort has been made to define appropriate selection criteria.

5.1. Crop sector constraints and opportunities

Major issues related to the low productivity of agriculture and more particularly the crop

sector is presented in Table 7.

Table 7: Major issues and actions required to alleviate the low productivity of the

crop sector

Major issues Actions needed

High incidence of small landholdings,

landlessness in the agriculture production

areas

Insecurity of land tenure and user rights

Climate change resulting in increased

incidence of severe droughts in the CDZ

(Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway divisions),

as well as seasonal droughts in other parts of

the country such as the border areas and the

Ayeyarwaddy Delta

Food insecurity, particularly on a seasonal

basis

Lack of productive farming resources and

agricultural inputs including land, irrigation,

draught power, equipment, fertilizer and

improved HYV seed

Lack of effective water harvesting and

management practices

Relatively weak agricultural extension service

especially in minority and remoter border

areas

Inadequate investment in agricultural research

services

Lack of market-oriented production – top-

down directives on quotas for rice production

for export

High dependency on a single annual rice crop

as the main source of income for farmers in

many areas

Lack of access to credit, markets, marketing

information, trading skills and input supplies;

Agriculture value chains are inefficient

Increased public and private sector investment

in agriculture and rural infrastructure and

services

Development of differential policies for

promoting market-driven agriculture and other

interventions related to using agriculture as a

tool for poverty alleviation

Promote evidence-based policy development

for the agriculture sector

Support dissemination of improved crop,

livestock and aquaculture production

technology for sustainable agricultural

intensification and diversification

Support community seed production for

multiplication of the foundation seed at the

farm level

Strengthen linkages between agricultural

research and extension services

Build links with the private sector for

marketing, input supply and other services.

Introduce a cash-for-work programme to

provide rural employment and reduce rural

poverty

Focus on integrated farming systems to

promote livestock and aquaculture

development

Strengthen the capacity of the agricultural

extension service and integrate it with

livestock and fisheries extension

Promote income generation for resource-poor

households through on-farm and off-farm

activities

Promote climate change adaptation practices

at the community level

Promote evidence-based policies and action

plans for adaptation to climate change



30

Cultivation of annual crops in Myanmar is characterized by low production and low

profitability. But, given the abundance of natural resources and labour availability, there is a

high potential for improving overall agricultural economic performance by intensification and

modernization of crop production and diversification of farm activities. This should be

implemented for all major commodities giving due consideration to the differences in

production systems and market conditions, but always focusing on maximizing financial

returns sustainably. There is a high potential for further development of irrigation with

participation of the private sector and involvement of users in the management and O&M of

irrigation schemes.

The opportunities that have been identified for the crop sector include: (a) an integrated

farming systems approach, (b) improved seed supply system, (c) integrated pest and nutrient

management, (d) climate smart agriculture and conservation farming, (e) rainwater

harvesting, effective irrigation, drainage and flood protection, (f) crop diversification, (g)

improved agricultural mechanization and (h) community-based farming systems and area

development.

Shortage of labour due to outmigration of rural youth is also becoming a major constraint for

agricultural development. Many of these rural migrants also go to foreign countries for better

remuneration. It is estimated that remittances received from this migrant labour force come to

US$3 billion annually. Moreover, most overseas migrants come from rural areas and

especially from the poverty-ridden dry zone or other areas. This is also considered one of the

biggest opportunities for private sector investment in agriculture. Making optimal use of

remittances from overseas migrant workers by their families back home for increasing

production and profit of their family farms would be a good opportunity for intervention by

extension services.

5.2. Opportunities for strengthening research and extension

Agriculture extension

The process of reforming extension strategies: In Myanmar under the current government,

political changes, the reform agenda and trade liberalization have brought the agriculture

sector into a better position to transform into agribusiness structure. The MOAI is now

preparing regional integration and revising land and virgin land law. Foreign companies are

now seeking opportunities in feasible areas of Myanmar agribusiness. Across the regional

economic corridors, Myanmar is now at a turning point for agricultural transformation. It is

expected to cover the supply of agri-inputs, production and transformation of farm produce

and distribution to final consumers. Their role will be increasingly important in strengthening

linkages between agribusiness farms, farmers, retailers and others throughout the supply

chain. The reform strategy and development plan of the AED is to also include the following:

(a) strengthening the agricultural extension mechanism and information dissemination

systems for rural development, (b) provision of training to produce quality seeds and other

GAP and (c) strengthening agro-based industries in the private sector.

For the extension system to sustain this process, it would need to decentralize its planning

approach in order to give local managers (state/division, district, township and village tract)

responsibilities and resources to plan and implement extension programmes relevant to their

specific agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions. Success in disseminating improved

technologies by extension organizations requires functional linkages with stakeholders

including farmers, research institutions, training centres and the private sector.



31

Decentralization of extension planning and upgrading of skills of extension staff would

facilitate the establishment of efficient linkage mechanisms.

There are many seed farms and skilled staff in the various extension institutions strategically

located throughout the country covering all agro-ecological conditions and production areas.

Some of these farms could be carefully selected and reorganized within a national seed

production programme, with participation of the public and private sectors, which could

assure production of sufficient and high quality certified seed to cover significant areas of all

major crops. Presently, public institutions do not produce enough seed of high quality to

satisfy the demand for all major commodities. There is a potential opportunity for active

participation of the private sector in seed production. The new Seed Law under consideration

by the MOAI includes regulations to guide approval for variety release from research

institutions. It is expected that these regulations will help to assure that proper varieties are

released for the relevant agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions intended.


The need for change in the research system of Myanmar is evident because there are many

institutional and procedural constraints leading to inefficiencies and low output, such as

duplication of research activities, weak linkages between research and extension, low rate of

technology adoption, top-down research planning, low research budget, low salaries and

benefits, low staff morale, inefficient use of research facilities, inadequate skills of research

staff, little attention to markets, outdated laboratory and field equipment, little attention to

poverty issues and social limitations, among others.

In order to determine what needs to be changed, a more detailed diagnostic study of the

research system and its institutions, with effective participation of stakeholders, including

farmers, should be implemented. This would be a mandatory component of an investment

programme designed to strengthen the research system. It would help to identify existing

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. If, for example, the bias towards high

production observed in current research programmes is in fact a reflection of the surplus, self-

sufficiency and export production policies, then maybe a change in policy is required to

realign research focus towards farm profitability rather than commodity production.

Even if the need for change in the research system seems to be obvious, the process needs to

be approached with caution. Small farming agriculture is, by nature, a conservative and

traditional business, very much risk averse and resistant to changes. Procedural and

institutional changes in research take time and affect many interests. Effective change will

only take place if all involved are sincerely committed to it, especially managers at the

various levels.

Myanmar has a large research network of institutions and physical facilities strategically

located in all agro-ecological regions of the country, and well suited for the development of

an efficient multidisciplinary research system capable of covering all agro-ecological and

socio-economic limitations and constraints of major commodities. But most institutions lack

systematic mechanisms of coordination, exposing the process of technology generation to

duplications, overlaps and low efficiency. Clear linkages and coordination mechanisms

among these institutions need to be established in order to rationalize facilities, resources and

operations to ensure efficiency and synergies. Rationalization of research facilities and

programmes should be considered in order to keep only strategic units that represent major

agro-ecological regions and host high priority programmes that have potential for significant



32

socio-economic impact. These facilities should have modern and updated equipment, and

provide proper working conditions for a professional research workforce.

A comprehensive review of human resources and expert skills in research is necessary in

order to develop a highly efficient, motivated, and professional research workforce.

Postgraduate training at YAU and abroad must be considered because the present job market

does not have the skills necessary in sufficient numbers for immediate hiring. A relevant

human resource development programme must be established within the research system

with salaries, allowances and incentives comparable to the private sector in order to attract

and retain high calibre experts.

The DAR has active links with IRRI, CIMMYT, ICRISAT, IAEA, IPGRI, AVRDC, CIP and

IITA. The maintenance and strengthening of this collaboration would be very important

within a revitalized research system in Myanmar. The DAR's germplasm bank has almost 15

000 accessions of major and minor crops. This carefully maintained germplasm bank is an

extremely important source of genetic variability for future plant breeding research projects.

The diversity of agro-ecological conditions, production systems, crops, and socio-economic

conditions poses difficulties for proper coordination and linkages among research, extension

and training institutions. Agricultural technology is usually location-specific, which calls for

decentralization of research, whereas cost issues and assembly of critical scientific mass

tends to centralize research operations in specific locations. Balancing these conflicting

requirements will be a major challenge for an efficient organizational structure of research in

Myanmar.

Agricultural education

The YAU is well located and has good infrastructure facility, experienced teaching staff,

functional interaction with national and international organizations, and a research farm with

access to irrigation. YAU is the only institution for higher learning in agriculture and has

strategic importance in preparing skilled scientists for strengthening the research and

extension systems. But the skills and knowledge of teaching staff are outdated. The

institution lacks modern facilities and equipment, has an outdated curriculum biased towards

theory with less attention to practical skills, has a weak communication system for exchange

of scientific information, has outdated farm equipment for research and teaching, has very

limited laboratory equipment and facilities, limited budget, very low salaries and incentives

for teaching and administrative staff, and weak external linkages. The MOAI should consider

as a matter of urgency a major review of the YAU (and also of the state agricultural institutes

and CARTC), followed by an investment programme to upgrade these institutions to a level

capable of producing high quality graduates for research and extension.

Strengthening the YAU would include affiliation with other foreign universities and

institutes, establishment of student and staff exchange programmes, modernization of its

teaching and research facilities, development of a modern information technology system,

improvement of the postgraduate programmes, closer collaboration with other organizations

of the MOAI and the private sector, participation in national and international seminars and

workshops, development of a systematic mechanism for revision and updating the teaching

curriculum and syllabus, strong emphasis on agro-industrialization, market-oriented

agriculture development, among others.

Areas needing improvement: (a) general review of the BS, MS and PhD curricula, develop an

agro-ecosystem-based curriculum and research programme; (b) improvement and completion



33

of the university strategic plan including the departmental strategic plans; (c) continuing an

expanded staff development programme for new programme offerings; (d) reviewing the

seven subcampuses as facilities for instruction, research, practise and extension; (e) creating a

Department of Agricultural Extension Education, conducting collaborative research with the

DAR and DOA and providing the university with a direct extension service to rural farmers

like the e-Agriculture Information Center; (f) modernization of the new campus layout,

building a paved on-campus road system, conducting student extra-curricular activities and

pro-student welfare facilities, providing IT-ready and connection facilities as well as staff

housing; (g) academic administration including university governance and organization for

higher effectiveness and efficiency need streamlining; (h) adjustment in pedagogy in the

teaching of courses, considering large class size, limited number of faculties, limited space

and equipment for use in instruction; (i) the process, structure and content of the university

research agenda and programming need to be clarified and defined; and (j) the collection,

system and facilities of the university library need to be upgraded and updated.

5.3. Coordination mechanism for agricultural research, extension and education

There are many organizations that conduct research in the country without proper

coordination and with high potential for overlaps and duplications. Practically, there is no

mechanism for coordination between research, extension and education. Education and

training institutions are doing some research on a ‘stand-alone’ basis which does not seem to

have much relevance for transfer of technology. In view of this, the MOAI needs to consider

the possibility of creating a National Agricultural Research and Development Council, which

would provide oversight and coordinate all agricultural research and extension activities.

The most common processes by which research and extension organizations interact in

Myanmar is through annual research meetings sponsored by the DAR with the participation

of extension managers at division, district and township levels; annual research seminars

convened by the Myanmar Academy of Agricultural Sciences; individual interactions

between field extension staff via SMS, which is mostly ad-hoc and not organized; and

organization of farmers by field extension staff for seed production, implementation of

demonstration plots and training, which is also neither systematic nor organized. There is

therefore a need to improve the management interface between research and extension

(including the Plant Protection, Land Use and Seed Division under the DOA). Furthermore,

there is a requirement to rationalize the use of DOA and DAR facilities, for example the

present research stations under the DOA should realistically be transferred to the DAR.

The Myanmar Academy of Agricultural Sciences aims to strengthen interaction and

coordination between research and extension. It promotes an annual research meeting where

scientists have a chance to present and publish their research results. Annual proceedings are

regularly printed and distributed mostly among research staff. Further support for the

academy is recommended.

6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS

This section outlines the relationship of the sector to rural poverty, gender equity and other

vulnerable populations. It endeavours to highlight the approaches and priority needs which

could reduce negative impacts identified and/or reinforce positive aspects. Reference should

be made in this regard to Annex 9, the main points of which are summarized in Table 8.



34

Table 8: Poverty analysis of rural poor, gender and disadvantaged groups

Poverty level and causes Coping actions Priority needs

Rural poor (especially small marginal and vulnerable farmers as well as ethnic groups)

Living on less than US$1.25

per day

Chronic food insecurity

Lack adequate access to

productive assets (land, draught

power, water

control/irrigation facilities)

High ratio of dependents to

workers

Little or no wage

employment or off-farm

income-generating

opportunities available

locally

Small landholdings

insufficient for household

food security and decent

living

High level of indebtedness

Lack of access to credit

services at an affordable cost

Poor education and literacy

levels

High levels of illness and

expenditure on health

Vulnerability to drought and

floods

Lower wages for women

compared to men

Local agricultural wage

Work for larger farmers

Seasonal migration for work

(urban areas and overseas)

Reduction in food intake

Dependence on exploitation

of natural resources such as

forests

Home gardening and

subsistence fisheries for food

security

Selling off assets

Borrowing from money

lenders

Livestock/fisheries

Household food security

Opportunities to

intensify/diversify

agricultural production

(including traditional

varieties, local breeds and

traditional practices)

Additional productive assets

(land, draught power,

water/irrigation facilities)

Secure land tenure

Access to public and private

sector agricultural services

(extension, input supply,

marketing, microfinance

etc.)

Availability of off-farm

opportunities in rural areas


activities) and provision of

services

Improved health and

education services

Improved rural infrastructure

Capacity building of

community organizations to

assist with extension and

development

Rural women (particularly female-headed households; including women from ethnic groups)


per day

Chronic food insecurity

Lack of adequate access to

productive assets (land,

draught power, water

control/irrigation facilities)

Little or no wage

employment or off-farm

income-generating

opportunities available

locally

Small landholdings

insufficient for household

food security




Work for larger farmers


(urban/abroad)




forests

Home gardening and


security

Selling off assets


lenders

Taking children out of

school


Opportunities to intensify

and diversify agricultural

production (including

traditional varieties, local

breeds and traditional

practices)

Productive assets

Secure land tenure

Access to public and private

sector agricultural services


income-generating activities


activities) in

rural areas & provision of

services



35


Poor level of education and

literacy

High levels of domestic

violence



Vulnerability to recurrent

drought and floods

Opportunities for home

gardens, livestock and

subsistence

fisheries/aquaculture for

food security

Promotion of rainwater

harvesting through

encouraging

farm/homestead/village

ponds for enhanced

availability of water,

recharging the groundwater

table and diversification of

family farming

Improved health and

education services

Support for children

Improved personal and

livestock security

Tackling domestic violence

Capacity building of

community-based

organizations for women’s

empowerment

Landless and poor rural households (including ethnic group households)


per day

Little or no wage

employment or nonfarm

income generating

opportunities available locally

High ratio of dependents to

workers




Poor level of education and

literacy




labour


(urban areas and overseas)




forests

Home gardening and


security

Selling off assets


lenders



income-generating

opportunities (including

traditional activities) in

rural areas and provision of

associated support services

Opportunities for home

gardens and subsistence

fisheries for food security

Better use of remittances

through agri-based

productive activities

Improved health and

culturally sensitive

education services

Improved access to livestock

Capacity building and

strengthening of community-

based organizations to assist

with empowerment activities

6.1. Situation analysis of rural poverty in Myanmar

Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in Asia, ranking 149 among 186 nations rated in the

2013 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme.

Myanmar is also the largest country in Southeast Asia, with rich endowments of land and



36

water, and a favourable climate for agriculture. In 2011, its ethnically diverse population was

estimated at 60.6 million, with an annual growth rate of 1.3 percent. The agriculture sector

(including livestock and fisheries) is considered the backbone of the economy and some 70

percent of the labour force is engaged in agriculture or depends to a large extent on

agriculture for income.

Despite its potential for growth, the agriculture sector has suffered chronically from

insufficient investment in research, extension, technology transfer, infrastructural

development, value chain upgrading and marketing. Furthermore, farmers have not received

remunerative prices for their products, leading to declining rural incomes.

Ironically for such a resource-rich country, there is a strong association between agriculture

and poverty in Myanmar. While it produces a surplus of food in aggregate terms, many rural

areas suffer from chronic and acute food insecurity. In addition, the incidence of poverty in

rural areas is significantly higher than in urban areas, and rural areas lag behind in terms of

health, social and educational indicators as well. The rural poor typically consist of the

landless, farmers with access to small and marginal landholdings (usually less than 2 ha each)

and ethnic groups. Most of the poor live either in the CDZ – where soils are sandy, rainfall is

low and population density is high – or in hill tracts populated by ethnic groups, which are

remote, has limited arable land and have been affected by conflict.

Rural women are among Myanmar's most marginalized groups, with high vulnerability to

food insecurity and poverty. While Buddhist customary law and the 2008 Constitution

provide equal rights to women, they are not well represented in the political and higher-level

administrative sphere outside of the traditional areas of social services, health and education.

At the local level, there are few women representatives in decision-making bodies.

Myanmar is ethnically diverse, with eight major ethnic groups, 135 subgroups and 108

different ethnolinguistic groups. As the ancestral lands of ethnic groups typically contain

valuable mineral resources, they have been exploited by outsiders, leading to conflicts. Ethnic

groups suffer from physical, social and economic isolation because of difficult topography

and political neglect.

6.2. Mitigation of rural poverty through NAPA

The interventions shortlisted in Section 7 of this report are considered to have a high impact

on rural poverty in Myanmar. They will directly benefit the poor through:(a) improved supply

of inputs such as seeds, (b) the introduction of climate-smart agriculture and conservation

farming, (c) integrated area development planning and rural development of village lands, (d)

access to improved agricultural advisory information through changes to the extension

delivery system via ICT and (e) the introduction of more diversified and integrated cropping

systems for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and human nutrition. Farmers

will also indirectly benefit from the implementation of an intervention to improve the

coordination and effectiveness of the research and extension system.

While the geographical focus of the prescribed interventions is country-wide, specific focus

will be given to areas and communities most at risk in the CDZ and the more isolated areas in

the eastern upland regions.



37

7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT

This section documents six priority recommended areas of intervention and investment under

NAPA and these are presented according to the required format in Annex 8. For the most part

the interventions included a range of actions according to the following categories: (a)

technical aspects, (b) organizational and institutional change, (c) capacity building, (d) policy

and strategy development, and (e) area development (regional projects and programmes).

A range of criteria was used in the selection of priority interventions: (i) impact on poverty

and livelihoods – contribution to poverty reduction and food security; (ii) assistance to

alleviate gender equity/imbalance and assist the landless (income-generating activities etc.);

(iii) greatest impact on immediate primary beneficiaries – smallholder farmers and the

landless; (iv) geographical focus – risk-prone areas (e.g. CDZ); (v) significant and sustainable

long-term benefits with as far as possible immediate short-term benefits; (vi) alignment with

GOM/MOAI/regional government policies for agricultural development, poverty reduction

and rural development; (vii) encouragement of private sector/community participation; (viii)

the presence of agribusiness and supporting infrastructure; (ix) community support with the

involvement of village development committees and farm groups, where possible; and (x) no

negative impact/effect on the environment, ecology, productive resources (e.g. agricultural

land) or existing infrastructure.

It is important to note that interventions can have direct benefits to the primary target groups

or through support to improving the enabling environment, and have a longer term benefit

through support to the government, civil society organizations and/or the private sector.

The six shortlisted interventions/investments are:

a. Development of the agriculture seed sector;

b. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming;

c. Improved agricultural extension and research systems;

d. Integrated area development planning and rural development;

e. Improved ICT for farming communities; and

f. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods, environmental protection and

human nutrition.

7.1. Development of the agriculture seed sector

There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through improved seed quality and

distribution, and the scope for this much needed change is to be brought about by:

a. Reducing the large gap between supply and demand as certified rice seed only

covers less than 10 percent of current needs.

b. As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research and

extension, increasing investment in the seed industry in particular.

c. Promoting seed associations, seed community-based production and seed

banks.

d. Increasing private investment in the seed industry.



38

e. Promoting mechanisms for coordination among government agencies and

among government, private sector and farmer organizations, and also

encouraging public and private partnerships.

f. Providing assistance in infrastructure for seed production, equipment for seed

quality control and capacity building of farmers, technicians and private sector

operators.

g. Promulgating a seed policy to effectively implement the existing Seed Law

7.2. Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming

There is good potential to mitigate the risks of climate change to crop and farming system

sustainability through improved R&D and extension delivery of climate-smart-related

technologies; the scope for this urgently needed change is given below:

a. While the intervention will target the country as a whole, particular focus will

be on the CDZ where the adverse effects of climate change are most apparent.

b. The initial primary concern will be the need to establish within the MOAI an

entity responsible for the coordination of the climate-smart initiative; this will

require cross sector collaboration and linkages (MLFRD and MOECF), and

strong bonds between the DOA and DAR.

c. The programme will need to source the whole suite of existing climate-smart

technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while in addition

other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced from international

sources ‒ ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CIMMYT, FAO, etc.

d. Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community, and where

wide-scale extension of climate-smart agriculture is undertaken, through the

involvement of village development committees and participatory dialogue

using integrated village watershed planning approaches.

e. A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the key

constraints to farmers in regards to the impact of climate change and the

appropriateness of the technologies.

f. There is a need to train both research and extension government staff in

climate-smart agriculture and sustainable agriculture methods and

technologies; assistance in this respect from development partners could be

appropriate to facilitate such capacity building of staff. Later, farmers would be

trained in the technologies.

g. Policy will be required to effectively implement the changes to the

development of village lands on a communal basis, especially with regard to

the impact that they will have on land tenure arrangements. In this respect a

legal framework on land tenure might need to be prepared for approval by the

GOM.

7.3. Improved agricultural extension and research system

There is potential for further crop yield enhancement through improved efficiencies in the

R&D and extension delivery systems, and the scope for this much needed change will be

brought about by:



39

a. As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research and

extension (currently only 1-2 percent of the MOAI’s budget) there is a need to

significantly increase investment in government entities responsible for service

provision.

b. The poor collaboration and coordination between the MOAI research and

extension services require the formation of a National Agricultural

Development Council which has the mandate to coordinate and manage the

R&D and extension activities in the agriculture sector. To be effective, this

should include the involvement of the crop, livestock and aquaculture

components of the farming system and hence the development of strong

linkages between the MOAI and MLFRD.

c. Serious consideration is required for much greater involvement of the private

sector in both research and extension activities.

d. Through a better understanding of the key constraints to farmers, there is need

to prioritize and develop interventions through a better planning process.

e. There is a need for assistance in infrastructure rehabilitation for research

centres, which also need to be properly equipped.

f. There is a need for much improved research planning and management systems

within the DAR.

g. The rationalization of the institutional arrangement between and within the

MOAI, more particularly the DOA and DAR, with the possible

incorporation/transfer of DOA research centres into the DAR.

h. Capacity building of research and extension staff to better understand new

technologies and production techniques, and matters that relate to climate

change, conservation agriculture, value chains and marketing, and the socio-

economic aspects of farming.

i. Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the

organizational and institutional setup in the research and extension systems

within the MOAI.

j. Strengthen the coordination between all government, donor, NGO and private

sector entities involved in agriculture to avoid duplication and ensure that all

interventions follow government policy objectives.

7.4. Integrated area development planning and rural development

There is good potential to ensure that the sustainable management of the natural resource

base and the economic well-being of communities at the local level can be achieved through

community-based integrated area development; the scope for this change is anticipated to be

brought about by:

a. As regards the geographical focus, the intervention will target the country as a

whole in the longer term, but initially will focus on areas which are at greatest

risk ‒ the CDZ, the delta region and vulnerable communities in the hilly areas.

b. Initially the programme is to expand on the activities of the DOA Land Use

Division for detailed mapping of AEZs while incorporating the support of the

DAR and other entities in widening categorization of the various zones and



40

subzones to include information on the agro-socio-economic aspects of the

farming systems. Links with other ministries, namely MLFRD and MOECF,

will also be essential.

c. The programme will need to source the whole range of information, which will

entail close collaboration with concerned donors and CGIAR institutes. It

should be noted that FAO has done a considerable amount of work on the

development of AEZs.

d. Training materials will be prepared covering aspects of AEZs, farming

systems, integrated planning etc., and DOA extension staff will be trained in

the use of these materials. This exercise could involve the use of NGOs where

appropriate.

e. Subsequent to the definition of the zones, a pilot programme will be initiated

targeting the townships and villages as identified by the government for the

rural development programme.

f. An awareness and training exercise will be undertaken among the communities

in integrated village land development planning, using background material on

the characteristics of the farming and land-use systems.

g. Subsequent to the training exercise the selected village communities led by

their village development committee will prepare an integrated village

development plan, incorporating changes to land use and land development,

linked to sustainable development of the natural resource base and

improvements to livelihoods from both on- and off-farm sources.

h. The final stage will be the financing of the village development plans through

the GOM rural development fund administered by MLFRD.

i. Policy changes to the Land Law will be needed to address the issue of the

change to land use, land tenure and land management system, which will be

identified during the village planning process.

7.5. Improved information technology and communications

To increase access of smallholders, marginal farmers and poor households in rural areas to

GAP, technologies and information in order to diversify and improve their income through an

improved ICT system. The scope for this is:

a. The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer term, through

better access to information technology, and will involve not only the MOAI

but other government entities including the Post and Telecommunications

Department (PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT) and

Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB).

b. The current capabilities of the DOA as regards ICT and the transfer of

information will be enhanced, and the latest proven technologies and GAP will

be made available from the DAR and other agriculture information providers,

through the Internet.

c. The latest communication technologies in terms of soft and hardware and

computer IT skills will be provided to government staff.



41

d. The intervention will incorporate the development of a completely revised and

comprehensive Internet interface that is both topical and user friendly. This

Internet site should be in both the Myanmar and English language.

e. Training at all levels – government staff, civil societies, NGOs, farmers and

farmer association, and the private sector will need to be conducted.

f. The possibilities of the involvement of the private sector and public-private

partnerships will be explored to enhance the efficiency of the networks and

information transfer, especially with regard to agriculture, soil and water

management, livestock, fishery and forestry sectors.

g. A range of interventions will be introduced including: (a) an agriculture market

information system (AMIS); (b) ICT for rural development planning and

implementation; (c) establishment of e-kiosks; (d) establishment of community

e-Centers; and (e) establishment of village information centers with

connectivity and content.

h. A number of GOM policies are anticipated that will need to be

reviewed/amended to ensure that the systems are able to function and private

sector access in support of the intervention is enabled.

7.6. Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human nutrition

There is good potential to mitigate the risks of the ongoing poverty trap related to the

continuous reliance on the cultivation of rice through crop diversification through improved

R&D and extension delivery of improved cropping systems, and the scope for this urgently

needed change is anticipated to be generated as follows:

a. The intervention will target the country as a whole, with particular focus on

regions where large-scale cultivation of alternative crops like legumes and

oilseeds is predominant (e.g. the CDZ). For this to succeed, a cropping systems

approach to diversification will be applied.

b. Initially the programme is to expand on the activities of the Australian Centre

for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and other donor projects

within the MOAI working closely with the DAR and DOA. For this to transpire

and improve impact at the farmer level, linkages between the DOA and ACIAR

will need to be strengthened.

c. The programme will need to source the whole range of existing crop

diversification technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while

in addition other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced from

international sources ‒ ACIAR, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CIMMYT and FAO.

d. Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community, and where

wide-scale extension of crop diversification is undertaken, through the

involvement of farmers and farmer groups/associations, village development

committees and participatory dialogue.

e. Farmers and rural communities are to be made aware of the benefits of

diversifying their existing cropping patterns, especially as regards nutritional

value and economic benefits.



42

f. A feedback mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the key

constraints to farmers in regard to the impacts of changes to cropping systems

and the appropriateness of the technologies.

g. There is a need to train both research and extension government staff in

cropping systems R&D and diversification, human nutrition and other related

technologies; assistance in this respect from development partners could be

appropriate to facilitate this capacity building of staff; later, farmers would be


h. As regards legume cultivation, the DAR facilities for the production of

rhizobia will need to be radically expanded, if possible the production is to be

expanded through public-private partnerships and/or private sector entities.

i. To expedite the large-scale roll-out of the technologies, it will be important to

ensure that the seed supply of legumes and oilseeds is enhanced to meet

demand.

j. At the production level, suitable contract farming ventures will be needed

involving farmer groups/associations and private sector enterprises involved in

the marketing and export of the commodities.

k. Policy changes will be needed to address the issue of the change from rice

cultivation to alternative crops, as rice cultivation is often considered to be

mandatory by GOM staff, more especially the DOA whose role is to expedite

government policy.

8. RELATIONSHIP OF CROPS TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS

The farming and livelihood systems across the four major AEZs (delta, coastal, dry zone and

hilly/mountainous areas) in Myanmar are a complex mix of systems where the major sectors

– crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry – are all closely linked into a range of integrated

systems. The relationships between these sectors vary considerably across the country, while

the crop sector tends to be the major sector as regards food security and income, the others

have an important role in sustaining the livelihoods of the rural poor, both in terms of on- and

off-farm support.

Key areas where the linkages are important are: (a) the integrated planning and development

of village lands and land use involving all sectors, (b) agroforestry for crops (annuals and

perennials) and forestry, (c) cropping systems and livestock, where crop production is heavily

reliant on animal draught and farmyard manure, and livestock on the crop residues which are

their major source of nutrition, (d) integrated crop, livestock and fishery systems, common in

the delta areas, (e) crop production (mainly paddy) and riparian fisheries, where conflicts

between the two sectors often occur in relation to water use, (f) improved utilization of flood-

prone land through better flood protection and integrated farming, (g) climate change which

impacts on the need to diversify agriculture and incorporate improved sustainable

conservation farming and climate-smart agriculture technologies, (h) value chains and

marketing involving a range of stakeholders in both agriculture and commerce, where private

sector development is a central issue, and (i) rural finance, where the current rural banking

and loan system is one of the major areas constraining the crop sector.



43



44

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46

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47

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49

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February 2011. Prepared by Food Security Analysis Services (ODXF).



50

ANNEX 2: MAPS

Map 1: Myanma agro-ecological zone map



51

Map 2: Myanmar rainfall map



52

Map 3: Myanmar land-use – net sown area map



53

Map 4: Myanmar economic activity and land-use map



54

ANNEX 3: AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF MYANMAR

Agriculture zoning of Myanmar is made to divide the whole of the national land into four

zones, taking into consideration ecological environment of agriculture formed by topography,

land use, climate, sown crops and administrative state/region. Agricultural characteristics of

each zone are summarized as shown in Table 1 and Map 1.

Table 1: Agricultural zoning and characteristics



55

Map 1: Agricultural zoning map of Myanmar



56

Table 2: Agro-ecological zones of Myanmar

Agro

Ecological

zone

Location Constraints for

Cultivation

Suitable crops

Monsoon crop Cool season

crop

Perennial

crop

R3S1

Delta region,

Sittaung River,

Mon State and

coastal line

-Low water holding

capacity

-High PH

-Salinity due to tide

Paddy,

Maize,

Sugar cane,

Jute,

Tuber crop,

Fodder

Sesame,

Sunflower,

Groundnut,

Chilli,

Maize,

Vegetable,

Cow pea,

Green gram,

Black gram,

Fodder

Coconut,

Betel nut,

Rubber,

Banana,

Mangosteen,

Durian,

Pine apple,

Jack fruit,

Dani,

Cashewnut

R3S3

Western hilly

region,

Chin hills,

Northern part of

Kachin state and

part of Kayin and

Kayah state

-Undulating topography

-No resistance to cool

for some crops

- Difficulties in the

tillage operation

Paddy,

Maize,

Sugar cane,

Sunflower

Sugar cane,

Sorghum,

Wheat,

Ground nut,

Potato,

Sweet

Potato,

Pulses,

Mustard,

Niger,

Tobacco

Tea, Pears,

Walnut,

Olive,

Mulberry,

Citrus,

Lime,

Coffee,

Cheroot leaf,

Orange,

Apple,

Pine apple

R3S6

Southern part of

Kachin,

coastal area of

Rakhin,

Northern part of

Bago Yoma,

Tanintharyi,

Division Mon and

Kayin State

-High acidity

-Low content of

phosphorus deep slope

-Soil erosion due to

heavy rainfall

Paddy,

Ground nut,

Sunflower,

Sesame,

Soybean,

Rami,

Vegetable

Wheat,

Pulses,

Rami,

Sugarcane,

Chilli,

Vegetable

Pine apple,

Banana,

Mango,

Jack fruit,

Papaya,

Guava,

Mulberry,

Rubber,

Citrus,

Lime, Durian,

Palm oil,

Cashew nut

R4S1

Upper part of delta

region,

Western part of

Sagaing Division,

Sittaung river basin,

Kachin State

-Flood during the rainy

season

-Soil erosion due to

flood at the river basin

Paddy,

Maize,

Sugar cane,

Vegetable,

Chilli,

Sesame,

Sorghum,

Sunflower

Sugarcane,

Chilli,

Tobacco,

Groundnut,

Pulses,

Vegetable

Banana,

Citrus,

Mango,

Guava,

Mulberry,

Papaya

R4S3

Eastern part of Shan

State,

Chin State


-High acidity

Wheat

Potato

Groundnut

Ginger

Vegetable

Vegetable

Tobacco

Orange,

Peach

Avocado

Pear



57

Niger, Maize

Upland paddy

R4S5

At the base of

BagoYomahill,

At the base of Shan

hill

-Soil erosion at the

deep slop area

-Low water holding

capacity

Sugarcane

Groundnut

Sesame

sunflower,

Corn

Pigeon pea

Sorghum

Cotton

Pulse

Sugarcane

Vegetable

Cashew nut

Rubber

Almond

Toddy palm

Citrus,

Custard

Apple

R4S6

Northern part

of Sagaing Division,

Kachin State,

Central part

of Shan Siate

and Bago Yoma hill

-High acidity and low

content of phosphorus


Sorghum,

Corn,

Groundnut

Sunflower

Pulses,

Cassava

Potato,

Soybean

Ginger, Rami

Sugarcane,

Vegetable,

Niger,

Upland rice

Wheat

Chick pea

Pulses

Barley

Virginia

Pine apple

Banana,

Mango

Apple,

Orange

Pear, Peach

Coffee,

Mulberry

Guava,

Jack fruit

Cheroot leaf,

Tea

R5S1

Dry zone area,

At the point

of the Ayeyawaddy

and Chindwin river,

Along the

Ayeyarwaddy

river basin

-Flood during rainy

season

Groundnut

Sesame

Green gram

Butter bean

Corn

Sunflower

Tobacco

Groundnut

Pulses

Corn

Vegetable

Potato

Sweet potato

Chilli

Onion

R5S4

Dry zone area

of Sagaing

and Mandalay

Division

-Difficulties in tillage

operation

-Draught during growth

state of crop

Wheat

Cotton

Lablab bean

Chilli

Sorghum

Pigeon pea

Pulses

Fennel

(somon saba)

Chick pea

Tamarind

Toddy palm

R5S5

Dry zone area of

Sagaing,

Mandalay and

Magway

Division

-Wind erosion

-Draught

-Crop can't cultivate

without irrigation for

whole year round

Cotton

Corn

Sorghum

Pigeon pea

Chick pea

Green gram

Butter bean

Castor

Toddy palm

Tamarind

Mango

Custard

Apple

Plum

R5S6

Western part

of Sagaing Division,

Border area

of Mandalay

Division

and Shan State

-Mostly there is little

flat land

-Water erosion

Cotton

Corn

Sorghum

Wheat

Chick pea

Green gram

Black gram

Toddy palm

Tamarind

Mango

Custard

Apple

Plum



58

AEZ - Agro-Ecological Zoning System

What is AEZ: The main system for land resource assessment is FAO’s agro-ecological

zoning (AEZ) methodology and supporting software packages for application at global,

regional, national and sub-national levels. AEZ uses various databases, models and decision

support tools.

When to use AEZ: Useful as a tool of assessment of land resources for better planning and

management and monitoring of these resources. AEZ can be used in various assessment

applications, including:

land resource inventory;

inventory of land utilization types and production systems, including indigenous systems,

and their requirements;

potential yield calculation;

land suitability and land productivity evaluation , including forestry and livestock

productivity;

estimation of arable areas mapping agro-climatic zones, problem soil areas, agro-

ecological zones, land suitability, quantitative estimates on potential crop areas, yields and

production;

land degradation assessment, population supporting capacity assessment and - land use

optimization modeling;

assessing and mapping flood and drought damages to crops;

assessment of impact of climate change; monitoring land resources development

The agro-ecological zones methodology has been in use since 1978 for determining

agricultural production potentials and carrying capacity of the world’s land area. An agro-

ecological zone, as originally defined, is comprised of all parts of gridcells on a geo-

referenced map that have uniform soil and climate characteristics.

The AEZ framework incorporates the following basic elements:

A geo-referenced land resources database that contains some 2.2 million gridcells, and

includes (i) an environmental conditions component comprised of geo-referenced global

databases for climate, soils, terrain and elevation, and (ii) a spatial land use and land cover

component covering forests, protected areas, irrigated areas, population distribution and

density, land required for habitation and infrastructure, estimates of cropland, grazing land

and sparsely vegetated or barren land, and farming systems;

a standardized framework for the characterization of soil, terrain and climatic conditions

relevant to agricultural production, and identification of areas with specific climate, soil

and terrain constraints to rainfed crop production;

selected agricultural production systems with defined input and management relationships,

and crop specific environmental requirements and adaptability characteristics; these are

termed land utilization types (LUTs);



59

procedures for calculating the potential agronomically attainable yield and for matching

environmental requirements of individual crops and LUTs with the respective

environmental characteristics contained in the land resources database, by land unit and

gridcell, thus permitting estimation of crop-specific suitability indices for each gridcell in

the database, under different levels of inputs and management conditions;

quantification of crop and land productivity potential under different cropping pattern and

LUT assumptions;

applications for estimating the land’s population-supporting capacity and for multiple-

criteria optimization of land resource use for sustainable agricultural development,

incorporating socioeconomic and demographic as well as environmental factors.

The AEZ starts with climate and uses terrain and soil types as modifiers; only if climate is

suitable will the suitability of the terrain and the soil type be considered. A complete

description of the methodology and results obtained for regions across the globe can be found

in FAO & IIASA, 2002 and 2003.



60

ANNEX 4: MYANMAR CROP SECTOR

With a wide range of climatic conditions, over 60 different crops are grown successfully such

as rice, wheat, sorghum, maize in cereal crop group; groundnut, sesame, sunflower, mustard,

niger, oil palm in oil seed crop group; chick pea, black gram, green gram, cowpea, pigeon

pea, lablab bean, lentil in pulses crop group; cotton, sugarcane, jute, kenaf, rubber, tobacco in

industrial crop group; potato, onion, chilli, garlic in culinary crop group; tea, coffee,

coconut, toddy in plantation crop group; tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, lettuce,

coriander, mustard, carrot, etc. as vegetables group and mango, banana, pummelo, durian,

mangos teen, orange, apple, pear, cashew nut, tamarind, citrus, plum, jack fruit etc. as fruits

group.

Table 1: Total area planted, production and percent area by crop (2012/13)

Source: CSO (2013)



61

Table 2. Land potential by states and regions in Myanmar (2012-2013)

Source: CSO (2013)

Note: Myanmar land classification: Le = rice land; Ya = dry land; Kaing = alluvial/island

land; Dani = nin/nip palm land; Taungya = shifting cultivation land

Cereal crops

Among cereal crops, rice is the major crop and designated as a national crop. Efforts are

being centred on production of rice not only to fulfil domestic consumption but also for

export purposes. For many years, rice had been grown as a seasonal mono crop. Since 1992

summer rice cultivation was initiated to increase rice production. At present, the utilization of

improved varieties, appropriate technologies, and effective irrigation systems has resulted

into increase in rice production. As official estimation, rice harvested area increased up to 8.1

million hectares and its production increased up to 32.5 million tons, which produced 19.46

million metric tons of milled rice in 2008. The highest percentage of export (7.27 percent of

the total rice production) was found in 2001 and it was sharply declined to 0.08 percent of the

total production in 2006 providing the surplus gap of more than 30 percent. This surplus gap

could be explained in terms of informal export stock in private hands, inefficient data base on

rice sown areas, yield and production.

Maize is the second important crop among cereals which grows well in most parts of the

country. It is also important for export and feed stuff for domestic livestock industry. It can

be also used as a carbohydrate source for our daily food substitution to rice. As estimated

figure for year 2008, maize harvested area is 0.355 million hectares with the production of

1.20 million metric tons with 0.156 million metric tons for export.

Wheat cultivation in Myanmar has a number of limitations due to geographical, practices and

climatic conditions. This crop is not included in the priority crops, which main production

purpose is for use in various snacks. In 2008 crop year, it was grown on 0.1 million hectares



62

and produced 0.17 million tons with self sufficiency ratio of 39 percent, which indicates

import will have to meet increasing domestic demand with growing population in future.

Oil crops

The important crops next to cereals, in terms of production and consumption are oil seed

crops which include groundnut, sesame, sunflower, and to a smaller extent, rapeseed, niger,

and oil palm. These oilseed crops are grown mainly in the Central Dry Zone, and, to a smaller

extent, also in the Delta and mountainous region Total sown area under oil seed crops in 2008

was 3.76 million hectares and total production was 3.33 million metric tons. The sown area of

groundnut is around 800,000 ha with an average yield of about 1.5 MT/ha. Sown area of

sesame has remained at around 1500,000 ha and is generally grown on low rainfall and low

fertility areas so that its yields are generally low at about 0.4 to 0.5 MT/ha. Sunflower is a

new crop introduced from Russia in the 1960s, but was grown on commercial basis beginning

from 1970. Since then the area under sunflower has increased steadily reaching 880,000 ha

by 2008 with an average yield of about 0.8 MT/ha. Although oil palm is the plantation crop

in nature, it is accounted for oil crop which is the main source for edible oil. Extension of the

oil palm plantation initiated commercially in 1995 and extended to 102,000 ha with 211,000

MT of fruit bunch in 2008. Despite the Government concerted effort to achieve self-

sufficiency in edible oil, the target has not yet been achieved as indicated by the fact that the

country was importing about 200,000 MT of edible oil annually. The oilseed production, in

fact, increased by double, from 1600,000 MT in 2000 to 3330,000 MT in 2008, mainly

through area expansion, but the domestic demand for edible oil was noted to grow at a faster

rate. Explanation for that is noted that it is due to export of oil seeds such as groundnut and

sesame and also those are widely used for Myanmar traditional snack and junk food. Apart

from those reasons, there are other reasons such as inefficient oil extraction technology, old

expeller machines, area and yield data under administrative pressure and among others.

Normally Myanmar has a high consumption rate of oil used in cooking of domestic food

style. Since edible oil is inadequate for domestic consumption, about 200,000 metric tons of

palm oil is imported from Malaysia annually to fulfil the domestic requirement.

Legume crops

Production of pulses and beans has been dramatically increasing due to high market demand

for export and domestic consumption. About 17 species of pulses and beans are broadly

cultivated in the country. External trade of pulses had been liberalized since 1988. As a result,

pulses production and export volume have increased dramatically. Sown area of pulses

substantially increased from 0.73 million ha in 1988 to 4.28 million ha in 2008, producing

5.27 million metric tons. Consequently, the country export volume increased from 17

thousand MT in 1988 to 1.46 million MT in 2008 and then declined mere over 1 million MT

in 2009.

Major exportable species are green gram, black gram and pigeon pea. Significant change of

production and marketing was earmarked over last decade. Myanmar stands at leading

country for promotion of pulses product among the ASEAN member countries and also as

one of the largest exporters in the world.

India is the largest producer as well as consumer of pulses in the world. About 74 percent of

pulse exports from Myanmar are absorbed by India which stood as regular customer of

Myanmar for pulses. Although Singapore is standing at the second place, most of the pulses

volume is not for its domestic consumption but for transit trading in raw form or adding value

after processing. It indicates that export of Myanmar’s pulses solely relies on import of India



63

which is importing various types of pulses mostly from Canada and Australia. Consequently,

changes in market price of pulses in India will reflect export prices of Myanmar. Market

information on India pulses trade and its import policy are the key factors to be considered

for policy implication on promotion of pulses industry in Myanmar. Quality improvement

and adding value on raw pulses are the alternative options for market promotion in order to

sustain the pulses production of Myanmar.

Industrial crops

Cotton, jute, rubber and sugarcane are the main industrial crops in Myanmar. Cotton is one

of the most important industrial crops in Myanmar as it has many uses. Clothing comes next

only to food in importance in our daily live. Cotton is economically important for its use of

cotton fibre, involving ginning, spinning, and textile manufacture. Besides, cotton with its

seed containing 15 percent oil and 24 percent protein is utilized as food crop. Cotton seed oil

is used for margarine, shortening, edible oil and other food products. It serves an important

raw material for soap and paint industry. Cotton seed meal is mainly used for animal feed

stock. Cotton linter, a by-product of the industry serves as important raw material in paper

and rayon industry and in manufacturing photographic papers, X- ray films and explosive

materials. Cotton stalks are a source of fuel in rural areas.

Myanmar at present is a net importer of cotton and fabric. There are three types of cotton,

namely War Gyi, short staple cotton and long staple cotton, grown in Myanmar according the

agro climatic and soil condition. War Gyi and short staple cotton are mainly used for local

made weaving products. Long staple cotton is used for factory spinning, weaving garment

cloth products. The short staple cotton was noted to be increasingly substituted by the long

staple cotton as indicated by the fact that, during the 1990-2007 period, while the area under

the short staple cotton was declining from 124,000 ha to 89,000 ha, the area under long staple

cotton increased from 30,000 ha in 1990 to 278,000 ha in 2007. The yield of cotton remains

stagnant at around 0.7 MT/ha for many years before 2008 and sharply increased 1.23 MT/ha

in 2009 as a result of introducing modern variety of Ngwe Gyi 6 cotton which is being

substituted in old varieties on long staple cotton. Production of raw cotton is only used for

domestic textile industries.

Jute is widely grown in the Delta Region initially to substitute imports from India and

Pakistan, but later to promote export since the country achieved self-sufficiency in Jute in

1966. After the introduction of summer paddy in 1992, the area under jute over the past

decades had drastically declined from 50,000 ha in 1995 to 17,000 ha in 2008 with

decreasing rate of 33 percent. Production of jute also decreased in the same period from about

43,000 MT to 13,000 MT with 30 percent decrease which affects idle in operating state

owned processed industries such as gunny mill and carpet factory. Jute cultivation is no more

attractive for farmers due to disincentive price set by the State Enterprise; Jute and Fibre

Division (JFD) under Myanma Industrial Crops Development Enterprise (MICDE). Profit

margin in jute cultivation is less compared to other substitute crops. As calculation by JFD

based on average yield, prevailing market price and cost of unit volume of produce (1 viss =

3.6 lb) in 2009, profit margin of 0.4 ha (1 acre) of hot pepper (Chilli) is accounted for

541,600 kyat while that for jute loss amount to 21,075 kyats in 0.4 ha (1 acre). It indicates

that cost of cultivation of jute in unit area is higher than the gross revenue. Buying price

occasionally readjusted by JFD does not cover the unit cost of production compared with the

other crops.



64

One jute paper mill and one kenaf pulp mill were established by JFD in Maubin township,

Ayeyarwady Division and Oak Twin township, Bago Division respectively. Production of jute

paper accounted for 606 MT and production of kenf pulp for 350 MT in 2009.

Rubber: Despite a long history of rubber plantation in Myanmar4, it has not become a major

perennial crop as in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the commercial

planting of rubber started in Myanmar about a century ago, the economic importance of

rubber had been well known as a strategic commodity, which can provide foreign exchange

through export and also as raw material for local industries. The area under rubber increased

from 46,000 ha in 1956 to 74,000 ha in 1962 under the rubber expansion program initiated in

1956. It had been accorded the status of priority crop in national development plans

beginning in 1979. However, rubber plantation and production faced a severe setback during

the 1962-1987 periods under the socialist regime as the establishment of new plantations

slowed down following the nationalization of the privately owned rubber plantations by the

Government in 1963. Private sector rubber planters lost interest in investing and replanting

the felled old rubber areas and abandoned the low-yielding old pre-war rubber areas some of

which were utilized for other purposes. Even though, on the other hand, state-owned rubber

plantations were set up and the planting areas increased, the fall of private rubber areas could

not be coped with the increased area in the government sector. Well aware of it economic

importance and its role as exportable crop and also as industrial raw material for local

manufacturing industries, when Myanmar Perennial Crops Enterprise (MPCE) (now call

name as Perennial Crops and Farms Division - PCFD under MICDE) was reorganized and

formed in June 1994 as part of the reorganization program of the Ministry of Agriculture and

Irrigation (MOAI), rubber became one of the major crops to be developed and promoted by

MPCE.

Only after turning towards the market-oriented system since 1988, the area under rubber

gradually recovered and increased from 76,000 ha in 1988 to 428,000 ha in 2008. During the

same period, rubber yields increased two folds from 329 kg/ha to 650 kg/ha as the old

unproductive varieties were being replanted with new High Yielding Varieties. Of the total

production of 89,000 MT in 2007, about 19,000 MT were exported and 70,000 MT were used

for local production.

Sugarcane cultivation in Myanmar also has a very long history5, but its production over the

past decade fluctuated due to deficient production technologies, inefficient management

(Placeholder1), low priority being given to sugarcane compared to rice, oilseed crops and

pulses, inefficiencies of the sugar mills, weaknesses in procurement systems including price

policy and low productivity. During the Socialist Centralized Planning era, sugarcane was not

considered as nationally planned crop outside the mill area. Sugarcane growing outside the

mill area was then restricted. The stagnant production of state owned factories throughout

that period, had led to increased cane acreage in the area of private enterprises with

increasing domestic demand for white sugar. The entrepreneurs attempted to process jaggery

into white sugar by employing locally fabricated vacuum pans and centrifugal machines with

the improvement of the locally available technology. To step up the production and export

4 Rubber was introduced during the British colonial time in 1909.

5 Sugarcane was known to be cultivated in Myanmar since ancient time. Initially, people consumed sugarcane as

juice, brown sugar slabs and medicinal sugar. In the 16th

Century white sugar consumption began with the

establishment of the first sugar mill in Myanmar.



65

of sugar, the Government established the Myanmar Sugarcane Enterprise (MSE) in 1994,

which provides technical and extension services and distribute farm inputs to the sugarcane

growers. Consequently, the area under sugarcane tripled during the 1995-2008 period, and

production increased more than three times from 3.2 million MT in 1995 to 9.9 million MT in

2008. However, increases in yields were insignificant; increasing from 51 MT/ha to 61

MT/ha during the same period, indicating that the increased production has been achieved

mainly through expansion of sown area.

The private owned small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were setting the ground. In 1988,

the economy system was changed from socialist economy to market economy and the

sugarcane area rapidly expanded in Sagaing Division and upper part of Mandalay Division.

In Mandalay city, the small and medium scale sugar processing plants with centrifugal

technology grew in large number in the private sector. There were over 1000 members of

Myanmar Sugarcane & Sugar Related Products Merchants and Manufacturers Association.

Centrally fixed price at lower rate than the market price led to a decline in the area of

sugarcane, resulting low production in planning area around the state sugar mills. State own

sugar mills faced the difficulties at low operating ratio with less economic return to

investment due to insufficient crushing capacity. Starting from 2004 MSE (now Sugarcane

Division, MICDE) gradually handed over two sugar mills to the Ministry of Industry (1) and

six Sugar mills were privatized to the Union of Myanmar Economic Holding Co. Ltd. and

Myanmar Economic Cooperation. Under the Myanmar Foreign Investment Law, altogether

nine new sugar mills were established under MSE: eight sugar mills were constructed with

payment in sugar with 4 Chinese companies and one sugar mill was constructed on the joint

venture basis with one Thai company.

Culinary crops: Potato, onions, garlic, chillies, and vegetables are important culinary crops

used in the diet of Myanmar people. These crops are widely grown in the mountainous region

(particularly Shan State) and the Central Dry Zone. In 2008, culinary crops covered a total

area of 843,000 ha, in which vegetables accounted for the largest area (about 541,000 ha),

followed by chillies (130,000 ha), spices (73,000 ha), onions (69,000 ha), potato (37,000 ha)

and garlic (26,000 ha). Being high value crops, they offer high potential for crop

diversification in areas with sufficient rainfall for double cropping. Farmers apply large

amount of both chemical and organic fertilizers to obtain high yields and high incomes from

these crops. It has significant variation of the sown areas for onion annually due to market

uncertainty and fluctuation of the price.

Plantation crops: Fruits, tea, coffee, and coconut are important plantation crops in

Myanmar, whereas rubber and oil palm, although plantation types in nature, are classified as

industrial crop and oilseed crop, respectively, because they are used as raw materials to

produce value added products. A wide range of tropical and temperate fruits are grown in the

country, covering a total of about 746,000 ha in 2008. However, their yields are low and

quality poor, and will need to be improved through introduction of HYVs. Tea is an

important crop grown in the high land of Shan State and Sagaing Division with a total area of

about 90,000 ha mainly for domestic consumption. Coffee had initially been a minor crop

with a total area of only 24,000 ha but its importance is rising as it now becomes an export

item to Singapore and France. The demand for Myanmar coffee is increasing in the two

countries as the consumers there are reported to like its quality and taste. The potentials and

prospects of expanding coffee cultivation in Myanmar are also good. Coconut is widely

grown in the Coastal Region covering a total of about 53,000 ha but their yields are generally



66

low due mainly to primitive technology and lack of attention given by the government to

improve and modernize the coconut cultivation.

Source: Adapted from: JICA. (2013).Data Collection Survey on Agriculture Sector in the

Republic of the Union of Myanmar.



67

ANNEX 5: GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES

The national policy/development plan in Myanmar is composed of the National

Comprehensive Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2030-2031) and the Fifth Five-Year Plan

(2011-2012 to 2015-2016). The Fifth Five-Year Plan was drawn up and submitted to the

congress for discussion as of June 2012. Up to now, related ministries and local governments

have been revising the plan in response to the comments by the Congress. Based on the

President’s address on 19, June 2012, the State will carry out reviewing and drawing the 30-

Year Plan after getting an approval from the Congress. The Agriculture Development Plans

are included in the National Comprehensive Development Plan as one of sector-wise

development. Relationships between the long and short term development plans and Rural

Development/Poverty Alleviation Plan are summarized in Figure 1.

Figure 1: National comprehensive development plan

Rural development and poverty alleviation action plan

Myanmar is an agriculture country, where the 70 % of the total population are living in the

rural areas and agricultural sector is the backbone of its economics. The President of the new

government delivered an address on “the National and People-centred Development Action

Plan for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation.” at the national workshop held on May

20 to 22 2011. In this plan, the development of agricultural, livestock and fishery sectors,

food security against the climate change, income generation for local people and poverty

alleviation are prioritized issues to be tackled as the national level.

In response to the President’ policy, the Ministry of National Development and Economic

Development established the Central Committee for Rural Development and Poverty

Alleviation (CCRDPA). Under the CCRDPA, the Work Committee and Sub-Committee at

each State/Region were constituted in order to formulate and implement the action plans.

Objective of action plan: Based on the Millennium Development Goals in Myanmar, the

action plan for the rural and poverty alleviation will be implemented so effectively and



68

efficiently as to reduce the 50 % of the current poverty rate until 2015, in other words, the 32

% of poverty rate in 2004-2005 will be reduced to 16 % in 2014 to 2015.

Rural development function had been under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Border Affairs, but

is shift on September 2013 to former Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, which in turn

change its name to Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD). After

the shift, new movement for rural development has taken place as follows. To reduce poverty

rate from 26% in 2010 to 16% in 2015, MLFRD developed a strategic framework for rural

development, which includes 5 strategies for poverty alleviation.

Targeting Strategy: According to a poverty profile developed by UNDP in 2010, number

of people under the poverty line of Myanmar, 300,000 Kyat/ year, is estimated at 16

million, which accounts for 26% of national population. To reduce the poverty headcount

ratio to 16%, 6 million peoples have to be pull out of the poverty line. For this purpose,

based on the UNDP’s poverty statistics, 28 districts was preselected as strategically

important target areas.

Synergistic Strategy: This strategy suggests developing two different levels of rural

development plan, which includes participatory development plan at village level and

decentralized regional plan at district level aiming at synergize the multiplier effects to

reduce poverty. Purpose of the micro-level participatory village plan is to increase per

capita income of rural poor by implementing a set of strategies including a) increasing

working capital, b) providing livelihood assets for reducing the living cost, c) enhancing

income-generating opportunities, d) upgrading village infrastructure, e) restoring

ecological stability and productivity, and f) improving community resilience and adaptive

management to mitigate the risks of climate change and social conflicts. On the other

hand, objective of decentralized district-level development plan is to support generating

development benefits from the process of village level participatory planning in view of

(1) promoting investment in sustainable land-based economic development, (2)

connecting rural villages with development centre through better infrastructure (3)

enhancing rural community’s access to one-stop public services such as citizenry

registration, agriculture/livestock extension, land registration, professional health care, etc.

(4) improving market linkage and value chain development, and (5) developing

entrepreneurship skill and management.

Sustainable financing strategy: To assure financial resources for rural development

sustainably, the strategy suggests establishment of Township Development Fund (TDF)

and District Development Fund (DDF). Ideal financial resources for the funds includes

utility and property tax, budget allocation from Union government and various

department, private sector’s investment and donation from individuals and institutions.

Collaborative strategy: To assure all inclusiveness of multi-stakeholders in joint

implementation of development activities, the strategy suggests creating consortium of

development partners at national, regional and township level, as a common platform for

all to participate. Also, establishment of communication channel to bring voices from the

grassroots or bottoms up to the decision maker at national level is important, in addition to

coordination among stakeholders and sharing learning from best practices and lessons in

development intervention.



69

Strategy of good governance process for rural development: The strategy of good

governance process for rural development includes transparency, accountability, active

participation effectiveness and efficiency, equity, rule of law, and responsiveness.

Agriculture sector development policy

The National Comprehensive Development Plan consists of sector development plans. The

President laid down the guideline for the Union ministries to draw the sector development

plans through holding regional workshops at Regional and State levels and to bring in voices

and suggestions from participants. According to the guideline, Ministry of Agriculture and

Irrigation has conducted the workshop for agricultural development in 2012 July to

November. Based on the outcomes of the discussion, the workshop has drawn policies and

action plans for agriculture projects under the long and short term development plan.

Hereinafter, the long term development plan of agriculture sector is referred to as “20-Year

Development Plan in Agriculture Sector”, whereas that of short term development plan is

referred to as “Fifth Five-Year Development Plan”.

20-Year development plan in agriculture sector (2011-2012 to 2030-2031): The President

of the new government delivered an address on the necessity of setting up of immediate short

and long-term agriculture sector development plan in accordance with the following mission

and vision. The 20-Year Development Plan in the Agriculture Sector (2011-2012 to 2030-31)

was established in compliance with the directions by the President. The mission of the

Sustainable Agricultural Development was to: (a) get the most of the market share at regional

and global markets for important crops and agro-based, value-added products, (b) to promote

the food security for rural people, and (c) to increase green-growth production in conformity

with natural environment. With the vision to: (i) keep a better competitive advantage than the

developed neighbouring countries, (ii) provide knowledge and technology know-how for

rural people being equal to the developed neighbouring countries in ability, and (iii) increase

rural industrial and social infrastructures just as neighbouring countries do.

Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (2011-2012 to 2015-2016): Accordingly 2010-2011

fiscal year, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of agriculture products would be expected to

increase average (1.8%) per year in Fifth Five-Year short term plan (2011-2012 to 2015-

2016).



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Table 1: Target production in Fifth Five-Year Development Plan (2011/12 –

2015/2016)



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Agricultural sector review

An Agricultural Sector Review Investment Strategy was conducted in 2004 by FAO from

which it is important to highlight what were the key potentials for growth in crop production

as identified by the study at that time.

With a combination of ample agricultural land, abundant water resources and favourable

agro-climatic zones, Myanmar possesses a tremendous potential for future growth in

agricultural production. However, much of this potential is not currently being realized, as a

result of inadequacies in policy, investment and institutions. All three of these areas will need

to be tackled in order to change this situation.

There are three main potential avenues for growth in crop production. These are (i)

intensification of production, (ii) expansion of the cropped area, and (iii) diversification from

a current cropping pattern to financially more rewarding combinations of crops. Only

intensification will give a significant boost to crop production and farm incomes in the short

to medium term. The production impacts of both area expansion and diversification on crop

production and farm incomes will take longer to materialise.



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Intensification: Given the generally low crop yields pertaining in Myanmar and availability

of technical know-how to achieve significantly higher yields, substantial agricultural growth

can be achieved from the existing cultivated area through modest increases in yields to levels

well within current regional averages. Rough estimates indicate that incremental production

of major crops through intensification in the medium term could amount to 3.3 million tonnes

of cereals, 265,000 tonnes of pulses, 310,000 tonnes of oilseeds, 110,000 tonnes of seed

cotton and 3.5 million tonnes of sugar cane. Particular potentials are believed to exist in

expanding the output of sesame through intensification under appropriate policy conditions.

Intensification will also increase demand for farm labour and thus contribute to improving

landless household and small farm incomes.

Key areas of action for successful intensification would include; (a) liberalization of both

domestic and export markets for cereals, oilseeds and perennial crops, so as to permit demand

and cost considerations to move growers towards intensified production of crops in which

there is a comparative advantage, as has been the case for pulses; (b) reorganization of

extension service linkages to research and outreach to producers, so as to ensure the

availability of information to growers which reflects optimal production practices according

to agro-ecological zones and input/output price relationships; (c) improved production and

investment credit availability to finance increased input usage, where economically justified;

(d) the promotion of small-scale supplemental irrigation – possibly at the expense of major

paddy-oriented irrigation schemes – to reduce risks to post-monsoon crop production; (e)

improved water use efficiency in both irrigated and rain-fed situations; and (f)significant

strengthening of the national capacity to produce improved, preferably open-pollinating seed

varieties for key cereal and oilseed crops (although for some crops, such as maize and

sunflower, hybrid production will probably be essential). Such increased capacity would

require legislative and institutional support for the emergence of a private sector seed

production capability working in collaboration with MOAI agencies such as CARI, the Seed

Division and the Extension Division.

Expansion: Whilst a significant part of the 7.2 million ha of the land classified as

cultivatable waste land must have a sustainable cropping potential, this review does not have

specific data on the total area suitable for conversion to crop production. Land clearing and

preparation for cultivation is costly and beyond the means of most small farmers without

access to special credit or capital grants. A survey of cultivable wastelands is required to

identify environmentally suitable areas of high potential within reach of population centres

that could be converted to permanent agriculture. GIS combined with ground-truth surveys

could facilitate this process. With such information, a land clearance programme combined

with re-distribution on a leasehold basis, especially to the small and marginal farmers and

landless, would contribute to both production and poverty alleviation objectives.

If one assumes a very conservative 1,000 kg/ha average yield across a range of crops – a

figure which would be much higher if a substantial proportion of rice, sugarcane or other high

yielding crops were sown – the opening up of just 20% of this available land could yield a

further 1.5 million tonnes of production. If undertaken in association with intensification

efforts, it is likely that this figure would be much higher.

Diversification: Given the wide diversity of the agricultural natural resource base, good

water resources and entrepreneurial farmers there is certainly scope for diversification from

current crops to higher value and more remunerative alternatives. However diversification

will not happen to any degree until the policy environment is liberalised to allow freedom of



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farmer choice within a market oriented system, backed by a more dynamic private sector

involvement in the sector overall. Diversification will depend upon innovation by individual

farmers responding to market opportunities. To be in a position to respond, access to the

basic services of credit, seed and input supply etc. will be essential. The prerequisites for

diversification are thus largely the same as those described above for intensification, and it is

believed that the two processes are inevitably linked; intensification in certain crops in some

areas will be accompanied by diversification into other crops in areas which prove less

competitive. The pace of diversification will depend upon how quickly these are

implemented and availability of market opportunities.

One area in which a considerable impact from diversification could be expected is in relation

to irrigated crops. Current policy is to impose the cultivation of paddy as at least a first

(monsoon) crop in all irrigated areas. However, rice is a heavy consumer of water, and a shift

into crops requiring low levels of water input, or even only supplemental irrigation in certain

months, could prove very advantageous, allowing farmers to greatly increase their area under

irrigation with no corresponding increase in water supplies.

Diversification would favour those crops for which Myanmar possesses a comparative

advantage within the region or which supply currently unmet needs of the national population

(currently limited by income or other factors). Analytical work in this respect is currently

underway as part of this review, but it would be likely to favour the following categories of

crops:

Oilseeds, especially soybean which could grow significantly in area if appropriate

processing and utilization facilities exist for the oil and cake;

Tree crops, where the extensive land availability and relatively low population density of

Myanmar would offer major advantages;

Horticultural crops, where domestic demand could be expected to rise as incomes rise, as

well as meeting increased import needs from higher labour cost countries.

Specific actions required for sub-sector growth as identified in the ASR: The most

critical steps required to stimulate significant growth in crop production mainly involve

policy, process and institutional reform to provide an improved production environment

coupled with strengthened farm support services. Attempt is made below to identify some of

the more critical of the many possible actions.

undertake a review of the centrally planned crop development process with a view to

agreeing and formulating a new “farmer first” approach based on improving farm

incomes, with a poverty alleviation focus; developing a planning and monitoring process

that is location specific relevant and need based;

review current land policies to develop firm proposals for reform, whereby a form of

land ownership or leasing is introduced allowing agricultural land to be used as collateral;

undertake a review of the current status of the transition to a market oriented system

as far as agriculture is concerned, identify steps required to complete the process and to

agree a short-term action plan for implementation;

develop a programme for seed and planting material sourcing, testing, multiplication

and distribution;



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develop a programme for reform of the agriculture finance sub-sector and future funding

and management of farm credit;

develop a programme to reform and implement a private/public partnership for

improved farm input, fertiliser, sprays, cultures etc. manufacture, supply and distribution;

review current functions and organisation of state institutions involved in crop

production and formulate plans that transform involved state institutions into regulatory,

monitoring and farm service providing institutions rather than central planners and

commercial operators;

undertake analysis of cultivable wastelands to identify blocks suitable for conversion to

sustained cropping by smallholders, and develop a clearance and land distribution

programme with security of tenure;

review options for diversification into more high value crops for new markets, especially

in the horticultural sub-sector where Myanmar has the resource base to grow a wide range

of high value products for export; and

develop a programme to improve soil and water conservation and management in

dry and hilly rain-fed zones to improve food security, productivity and farm incomes of

the more vulnerable high risk farming systems.



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ANNEX 6: KEY DATA, STATISTICS AND INDICATORS

Indicator Value Year

Agricultural land (sq km)

Agricultural land (% of land area)

Arable land (hectares)

Arable land (% of land area)

Arable land (hectares per person)

124,400

19.03

11,035,000

16.88

0.23

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

Fertilizer consumption (per hectare of arable land) 5.40 2009

Agriculture, value added (% of GDP)

Food production index (2004-2006 = 100)

Food exports (% of merchandise exports)

Food imports (% of merchandise imports)

48.35

127.18

53.39

14.65

2004

2010

1992

1992

GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) NA

Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)

Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24)

Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15-24)

Ratio of young literate females to males (% ages 15-24)

Ratio of female to male secondary enrolment (%)

92.02

95.31

96.05

99.23

106.48

2009

2009

2009

2009

2010

Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people)

Internet users (per 100 people)

1.23

0.22

2010

2009

Population, total

Population density (people per sq. km of land area)

Rural population

Rural population (% of total population)

Agricultural population (% of total population)*

Total economically active population**

Total economically active population in agriculture*

Total economically active population in agriculture (in %

of total economically active population)

Female economically active population in agriculture (%

of total economically active population in agriculture)*

48,336,763

73.39

31,703,551

66.1

66.55

27,431,220

18,789,000

68.49

47.81

2011

2010

2010

2010

2011

2010

2010

2010

2010



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77

ANNEX 7: MYANMAR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION, EDUCATION AND

RESEARCH

Agricultural extension

Agricultural extension service in Myanmar was started by the Department of Agriculture

in1927, that is, about 21 years before the country’s independence. The extension service was

responsible for providing educational activities, collection of statistical data, enforcement of

standard weights and measures, procurement and distribution of improved seed, farm

equipment, fertilizers and insecticides. The distribution of seed and the delivery of inputs

were considered as extension’s main activities. In 1976, the Training & Visit (T&V) system

of extension was introduced under a World Bank financed project. However, the operations

and resource persons could not be sustained after the end of the project. From 1979 to 1986,

the Selected Concentrative Strategy (SCS), more or less similar to the T&V system,

developed by the national staff was followed in a special production program focusing on

high-yielding crops in irrigated areas. This strategy along with the T&V system continues up

to the present time.

Currently there are 35 Seed Farms, 17 Research Stations, 53 Horticultural Farms, 10 Field

Crops Farms and five (5) Crop Substituting Farms in the opium cultivation areas—all under

DOA. Among these, Horticultural Farms, Field Crops Farms, and Crop Substituting Farms

are engaged in extension activities related to crop and horticultural production, crop

protection, systematic fertilizer application and soil and water management. All these

activities are undertaken under the supervision of the Agricultural Extension Division, which

is also responsible for seed multiplication and distribution in coordination with the

Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) and the Seed Divisions for major crops, that is,

rice, maize, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits.

1.1 Agricultural extension organization

The Department of Agriculture (DOA), headed by a Director General, is the sole government

institution responsible for providing public extension services to the farmers. The DOA

performs functions including extension towards the following objectives:

The increased production of major crops;

The development of improved production technology through proper research on

management of soil crop and pest control;

The development of suitable high-yielding crop varieties;

The transfer of appropriate crop production technology through agricultural extension

program;

The distribution of certified seeds through the seed program;

The provision of agricultural inputs;

The classification of soils and advising on soil conservation techniques;

The exploration of export markets on some agricultural produce.

The DOA is one of 12 institutions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (Figure 1). It

has eight divisions, the Agricultural Extension Division (AED) being the biggest. Recently,

the AED has been undertaking the following extension activities:



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Training and capacity building of extension agents;

Training of farmers in transfer of technology through Farmers Field Schools (FFS);

Farmers to farmers discussion, training and education;

Farmer-based participatory demonstration trials and field visits by local authorities and

extension agents;

Delivery of educational materials, pamphlets, newsletters and books on new crops;

Education of farmers on the utilization of quality seed, drum seeder, combine harvester,

dryers, etc.

Explanation of post-production losses in rice production to the farmers;

Cooperation among government, non-government and other relevant institutions for the

dissemination of advanced technology at village level.

Figure 1: Organizational structure of Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation



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The staff hierarchy of the AED is multi-layered. Starting from the top, it includes: Director

General of DOA, Deputy Director General, Director, Assistant Director, General

Manager(State/Region), Manager (District), Assistant Manager (Township Manager), Deputy

Township Manager, Village Tract Manager, and Village Manager. The following table

outline the number of public extension workers in Myanmar:

Table 1: Number of public extension staff in agriculture, forestry, fishery and rural

development in Myanmar (2009)

The extension coverage by various managers differs from locality to locality depending on

several factors including communication facilities. On average, a Village Manager, who is

supposed to maintain direct contacts with farmers, is required to cover a few village tracts or

villages with 1,215 to 2,430 hectares of cropland. As many as 10 Village Managers are

supervised by each Village Tract Manager. The village tract extension service is involved in

promoting rural development.

Table 2: Academic qualifications and gender of human resources in agricultural

extension in Myanmar (2010-2011)

Agricultural extension approaches, methods and strategies

The traditional extension approach has been practised in Myanmar since 1927. In this

approach, village extension managers meet with farmers individually or in groups for

discussions about technical problems and arrange field visits and field demonstrations. In

1976, a World Bank project introduced the Training and Visit (T&V) approach in most of the

rice growing areas in Myanmar. This approach succeeded by providing subject matter



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specialists: agronomists, entomologists, etc., and mobile facilities such as speedboats, small

ships and motorcycles. At the end of the project, however, this activity began to slow down

because of a reduction in the number of resource personnel and mobile facilities. In this

system, an extension agent receives one day rotational training every fortnight from

supervisors for some impact points (generally termed as lesson sheets) to be currently

applied, and passes on the same messages to a few selected farmers called “Contact farmers”.

The framework of the T&V approach consists of four components, farmer-groups, contact

farmers, coverage of extension worker and organizational structure. The T&V approach is

basically a top-down approach, including the “transfer of technology” philosophy from

research via extension to the farmer. Its “contact farmer” model (two- step flow of

information) may also not be universally valid (report on the performance of extension

activities, agricultural extension division, MAS 1996, p. 7).

In 1978, the Selective Concentrative Strategy approach (SCS) was born in Myanmar for the

whole township special high yielding paddy production program. The program is started

during the 1979-80 fiscal year and extended to cover about 2.4 million hectares in 1981-82

and involved78 townships. The paddy production has increased by a remarkable 65%, with a

national yield raised from 1.65 tons per hectare in 1974 to almost 3 tons per hectare in 1982.

The essence of the strategy is selective concentration. It consists of five components:

A correct and proven technology: a working group involving researchers and extension

agents formulate technology packages in a simple fashion which will be put into practice

after analysing the research findings of a particular crop.

Selectivity and concentration: in view of the scarcity of the production inputs, such as

seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, selective concentrated townships are located in areas

offering the most promising returns. As well as competent extension agents and subject

matter specialists are selected so that they can concentrate their efforts on the program

operation efficiently and effectively.

Governmental support and leadership: this plays a key role because the program to be

implemented is a centralized diffusion system. For the program to run smoothly, the

government at each level provides supportive measures as well as leadership.

Community organization and people involvement: the agricultural management

committee formed at all levels (divisions, townships, village tracts and villages). The

members are responsible for both giving the advice and implementing the program. The

people involvement activities are collective ploughing, collective harrowing and collective

transplanting.

Emulation and competition: farmers are encouraged to emulate each other and to

compete for high yield production. The government rewards the farmers who produce the

highest paddy yield about 100 baskets/acre (4,200 kg/hectare). Likewise, the MAS reward

the staff who make a significant contribution to the implementation of the program.

The SCS approach is also utilized to improve the production of other crops. During 1980, the

whole township high yielding varieties special programs were launched for maize, groundnut,

sunflower, cotton, wheat, sorghum, jute, potato and pulses. These programs have already

produced significant yield increases in cotton, maize, wheat, groundnut and sugarcane and

the average yields were two to three times the national figures. The SCS approach was put

into effect for the program and was found to perform well under the Myanmar conditions.



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The AED uses the following approaches and programs for updating agricultural techniques of

farmers’ communities:

Large scale education camps

Farmers Field Schools

Ten-member farmers’ groups (Se-Le-Su) for extension contacts

Training & Visit system

Special high-yielding programs

Special crop production zones

Block-wise crop production programs

Farmers’ participatory technology development approach

As of 2002, there were 35 Seed Farms, 17 Research Stations, 53 Horticultural Farms, 10

Field Crops Farms and five (5) Crop Substituting Farms in the opium cultivation areas-all

under DOA. Among these, Horticultural Farms, Field Crops Farms, and Crop Substituting

Farms are engaged in extension activities related to crop and horticultural production, crop

protection, systematic fertilizer application and soil and water management. All these

activities are undertaken under the supervision of the Agricultural Extension Division, which

is also responsible for seed multiplication and distribution in coordination with the

Department of Agricultural Research and the Seed Divisions for major crops, that is, rice,

maize, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits.

Agricultural Knowledge, Information and Technology (AKIT)

Agricultural research, education (training) and extension programs in Myanmar are covered

through obtaining and utilizing agricultural knowledge, information and technology

(AKIT).Specific activities include research, collection of existing AKIT from other countries,

training of research scientists and extension workers, provision of extension advice to

farmers, enabling farmers and community-based organizations to participate in the activities

of farmer development community or agricultural cooperatives. The training and extension

programs are organized with two objectives: first, to ensure that officials, farmers and others

interested in agribusiness have access to and are well equipped to benefit from the best

available AKIT related to agriculture, agri-business and farm management; second, to enable

the rural community to take common action in matters of agriculture, agri-business and farm

management. Education of farmers is done through mass media (newspapers, radio,

television and journals), distribution of pamphlets, and training and visits by the extension

agents to individuals or groups of farmers.

Agricultural extension services in Myanmar are traditional. Several factors pose as

constraints in the meaningful development of its farmers. For example, extension program

planning remains prerogative of the government with little involvement of men and women

farmers. In other words, farmers’ extension needs are not taken into consideration. There are

no well-established farmers’ associations to constitute a strong lobby. All along, the emphasis

has been on improved technology to enhance agricultural production while the importance of

developing skills, knowledge and proper attitudes of the farmers has not received much

attention. Rural infrastructure, and farm infrastructure in particular, is under-developed and



82

the electrification is scant. Low salaries and benefits, lack of mobility and inadequate

operational budgets lower the morale of the otherwise sufficient number of extension staff.

There is only one agricultural university whose role in supporting extension has not yet been

defined. In addition, its agricultural extension curriculum is outdated. While it is good to see

coordination among the Agricultural Extension Division, Seed Division and the Department

of Agricultural Research in several important activities, there is no evidence of Agricultural

Extension Division promoting cooperation among public and non-public institutions. In fact,

contacting common farmers for imparting technical extension advice on food crops is not a

high priority for the private sector. Due to government rules, NGOs also face a number of

hurdles in carrying out human development work, especially in rural areas. Another factor

that lengthens red tape in extension matters is too many layers of bureaucracy in the public

extension service.

Training options for extension professionals

An important factor relating to technology transfer is the human resource development. The

MOAI, therefore has been undertaking educational activities, such as pre-service training, in-

service training, workshops, seminars, quarterly regular meeting and an annual conference for

its staff. In addition to the high education offerings, further training for agricultural extension

agents to improve their knowledge and skills are being carried out at the Central Agricultural

Research and Training Centre (CARTC), sometimes at the Central Agricultural Research

Institute (CARI now DAR)and Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and

Fishery Sciences. The irrigation and agricultural mechanization departments also offer

regular training for their own staff in related subject matters. The level of technical know-

how of each area is also being upgraded through overseas training. The extension workers

who received such training are doing their utmost to diffuse the technologies among farmers

by means of demonstrations, field days and field visits. The CARTC also provides pre-

service training for graduates from Yezin Agricultural University and State Agricultural

Institutes. Many of graduates from YAU and SAI are employed by the Extension

Department. The graduates from YAU are appointed as the village tract extension managers.

However, the graduates from SAI are appointed as the village extension managers and they

need at least 4 years work experience to promote the village tract extension managers

positions.

CARTC

The Central Agricultural Research and Training Centre was established with the financial

assistance of Japanese International Cooperation Agency in 1984. The main objective of the

CARTC is to upgrade the technical knowledge and the efficiency of the extension agents

through local training on modern agriculture technologies. In addition, the CARTC organizes

workshops and seminars to exchange the knowledge and experiences of the extension agents

from respective regions throughout the country. The CARTC has a training section

responsible for carrying out of training and improvement of teaching materials, a field section

for control and operation of the demonstration farm, a publication section for the compilation

and printing of training materials and an audio-visual section for the operation and

maintenance of training aids. The CARTC provides pre-service training, in-service training,

on-the-Job training and various kinds of technical training for the staff of the MOAI.

Pre-service training



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This training is provided for new graduates from the Agricultural University and Agricultural

Institutes for a period of 1 month. The duties and responsibilities of the extension agent and

the ideology of agricultural extension activities are introduced. The curriculum is based

mainly upon the theoretical education. Pre-service training consists of three sessions, namely

practical, research and lecture as follows: (a) Practical: cultivation of field crops and

horticultural crops and utilization of farm machinery are being practised; (b) Research: the

main research activities are conducting the yield trials, plant breeding, drawing the

experimental design, data analysis and interpretation, pure seed production, testing the

herbicides and pesticides, analysis of the crop yield from the sample plots and the crop

production cost per hectare; and (c) Lectures: the main topics are objectives, policies and

measures of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, duties and responsibilities of

extension staff, agricultural extension methods and basic agricultural research activities. In

addition, crop production technology, cropping system, soil fertility management, plant

physiology, plant protection technology, systematic water utilization, crop yield estimation

methods, pure seed production, agricultural mechanization and agricultural meteorology are

also emphasized.

In-service training

This training program consists of four courses for extension staff and specialists in every

field, such as subject matter specialists course, specialist comprehensive course, general

agriculture and extension course (administrative training) and planning analysis course

(advanced administrative training). The training period is 1 to 2 months. In-service training

consists of three main sessions like pre-service training but this is more concentrated in

practical rather than lecture. The research activities are the same as in pre-service training.

For practical session, the following activities are being practised. These are: program

planning, management of daily costs, drawing up a budget, harvesting the sample plot and

estimation of the crop yield, variety selection and pure seed production, high technological

modern farming, irrigation methods, soil analysis for different crop cultivation, application of

pesticides and insecticides and utilization of farm machinery. The main topics emphasized in

lecture session are agricultural development policies, seed technology, different cultivation

methods, systematic utilization of chemical fertilizer for crop production, plant protection,

weed control and management, postharvest technology, administration, budget and statistics.

On-the-job training/ training workshop

This training serves to improve the technical skill of extension staff from state/ division,

district, township, village tract, and village levels. The training period covers 1 to 2 weeks.

The curriculum applies to all levels of trainees and provides various kinds of technical

training and laboratory exercise training.

Department of Agricultural Research

The Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) organizes some training for the extension

agents in major crop production technology (rice, pulses, sesame, groundnut, sunflower),

plant protection technology, soil and water management and small farm machinery. The

Irrigation Department and the Agricultural Mechanization Department offer regular training

in related subject matters for their own staff. In addition, the Vegetables and Fruits Research

and Development Centre, the Plant Protection Department, the state and divisional research

stations and seed divisions also offer related training for extension agents and other MOAI

staff.



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Myanmar Academy of Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences

Myanmar Academy of Agricultural, Forestry, Livestock and Fishery Sciences was

established by the government in 1999. The main objective of the academy is to promote the

science and technology for the development of national economy, and collaborate with

international scientific institutions. The mandate of the academy is to assist in the

implementation of human resource development programs through various types of training

for the existing staff. Another approach is to organize the young scientists from different

fields to conduct research and to write papers on new findings, which could be published

later. Although the Ministry of Agriculture offered different areas of training, specialized

training programs based on farmers’ needs and constraints, agro-ecological and socio-

economic conditions, and realities of research and extension organizations, are virtually non-

existent. In Myanmar, extension officials and extension agents lack the needed knowledge

about market driven and pluralistic agricultural extension and advisory systems.

Information and communication technology for agricultural extension

Myanmar started installing Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over 250 ICT companies in

the country. The ICT coverage for some of Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated by the Post

and Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally under the Myanmar

Post and Communication (MPT). A multi-purpose community tele-centre was set up at

Phaunggyi village which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted by the

Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its purpose is to improve living

standard of people living in rural areas. The government plans to install about 6,000 small

satellite terminals at remote areas within three years.

Myanmar’s telephone system is the least developed in the ASEAN region and its electrical

system ranks second to last, behind Cambodia. According to the World Bank, in 2010, the

number of mobile cellular subscriptions in Myanmar was 1.23%. During the same year, the

number of Internet users in the country was 0.22%. However, the number of mobile phone

users dramatically changed in the year 2012, an increasing number of people now have

mobile phones in urban areas. In rural areas, however, only about 4% of the population has

access to a cellphone (LIFT 2012 Table 90). Starting from November 2012 free WiFi access

is provided by some public and private organizations in the City of Yangon and many other

towns across the country and increasing number of people have mobile phone with internet

access. Efforts are underway to liberalize and accelerate penetration rates by liberalizing the

telecommunication sector.

There has been talk of establishing an e-agriculture information centre in Myanmar to

efficiently publish and share essential information for agricultural business. The centre will

serve as two ways education: the main source of agricultural product distribution information;

answering calls from farmers re their field technical problems. Also, a website will be

launched for information sharing.

According to the extension management, publications are available on-line, around 60 to

65television programs are telecast per month, and about 16 radio programs are broadcast per

month. In addition a number of information bulletins and fact sheets are being distributed to

some farmers, but it is uncertain about the number of farmers actually receiving these

educational factsheets/information bulletins. Other than that, there is no evidence of any

significant modern ICT application in support of extension programs being used.



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Extension information and communication are essential components of the development

process and yet these systems are rarely well integrated into development strategies and

programs. For example, the rush to develop Internet access in developing countries needs to

be adjusted to the context of already established and effective communication systems, and

attention needs to be paid to bridging the rural digital divide between those who can afford

access to the new technologies and those who cannot. A very important consideration is that

information technology tools should facilitate the work of extension agents, not replace them.

Stakeholder participation in decision-making processes is crucial and requires multi-sectoral

collaboration and partnerships. Partnership is another way of saying “coordination”. There

are numerous, and interrelated, actors involved in development. Recognizing this pluralistic

environment means that extension must become more “extraverted” and cooperate with other

agencies within the public sector and with various organizations in the private sector.

Institutional linkages for pluralistic agricultural extension system

A farmer-centred, service-oriented extension system provides the conduit through which

common farmer problems get identified and flagged for the attention of researchers so they

can help farmers to solve practical problems that limit farm productivity. Linkages between

extension professionals and researchers are generally very weak in Myanmar. Extension

agents rarely come to the research stations and researchers do not routinely visit extension

offices or demonstration sites. The link between farmers and extension agents are also

limited. Farmers rarely see extension agents in the field. Farmers get some technical

information from local agro-input dealers like fertilizer, insecticide and pesticide distributors.

Recently, the government has created Myanmar Rice Industry Association (MRIA) to

promote the export of rice. The MRIA has been created by merging three existing

associations namely, the Myanmar Rice and Traders’ Association, the Myanmar Millers’

Association and the Myanmar Paddy Producers’ Association. In September 2012, MRIA

changed the name as Myanmar Rice Federation (MRF). Myanmar Agribusiness Public

Corporation (MAPCO) is a wholly-owned non-government Public Corporation, established

in September 2012. MAPCO is formed to mobilize public savings and to foster broader

investment in agriculture and agro-based industries of Myanmar.

In general, there has been little encouragement in Myanmar to form farmers’ associations at

village level and above. Apart from farmers’ groups (Rice farmers’ group and vegetable

growers group) formed by the Department of Agriculture, no significant extension-related

associations exist. The following two associations have been identified but they are

commercial and export oriented in character: Myanmar Fish Farmers Association (MFFA),

and Myanmar Rubber Planters and Producers’ Association (MRPPA)

The main problems faced by the current agricultural extension service were required to

determine before making suggestions on further development of extension services and

formulating an efficient extension system for Myanmar. In promoting development of

participatory agricultural extension services in Myanmar the effective institutional linkages

between governmental and non-governmental organizations will be required. In addition,

farmers’ organizations will play a vital role. With this in mind an institutional network that

can serve as a linking system for the government organizations (extension, research and

training institutions), international NGOs and the UNDP in Myanmar, as well as farmers’

association was proposed by Cho (2003) based on her research findings (Figure 2). She also

recommended a networking organizational structure covering the responsibilities of these

organizations for the participatory extension movement in Myanmar (Figure 2).



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Figure 2: The proposed institutional model for the implementation of a

participatory extension approach in Myanmar

Figure 3: Organizational structure of the proposed Forum for Participatory

Extension Movement

Process of reforming extension strategies



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In Myanmar under the current president's administration, political changes, reform agenda

and trade openness brought about the agriculture sector in better position to transform into

agribusiness structure. MOAI is now preparing regional integration and revising land and

virgin land law. Foreign companies are now seeking opportunities in feasible areas of

Myanmar Agri-business. Across the regional economic corridors, Myanmar is now in a

turning point to its agricultural transformation. It is expected to cover the supply of agri-

inputs, production and transformation of farm produces and distribution to final consumers.

Their role will be increasingly important in strengthening linkages between agribusiness

farms, farmers, retailers and other throughout the supply chain.

The structure of Myanmar agriculture is predominantly composed of small farmers. About

56%of the total farm households in the whole country are working on farm holdings with

smaller than 5 acres (<2 hectares). Despite their hard working in the fields, they do not often

enjoy fair profit share in the commodity supply chains. Some business entrepreneurs

exploited farmers by adopting unfair contract farming. They lose the bargaining power

because after they had sold all their farm products, the prices often went up. The

government’s rural development programs in collaboration with the international

communities have been directed to improve the rural livelihood of the rural people.

Reform strategy and development plan of Agricultural Extension Division includes the

following:

Strengthening agricultural extension mechanism and information dissemination systems

for rural development

o Mobile facilities for agricultural extension staff

o Conducting demonstration fields and experimental field

o Provision of mobile vehicles for quick information assessment for farmers

o Establishment of modern farms for rice, sunflower, groundnut, and other

important crops

Establishment of updated extension camp in states and regions

Provision of intensive training to produce quality seeds and grains

Establishment of modern rice mill to get quality rice and paddy

Strengthening agro-based industry for fruits and vegetables

Reform Areas in Agriculture Sector Development (Policy Statement from the Ministry of

Agriculture, Myanmar) are presented in Box 1.

Box 1: Reform areas in agriculture sector development

Reform for Land Management and Administration (Precision of land, land map and land record

for effective land management)

Reform for Advanced Agricultural Practices and Seed Industry (Dissemination of Good

Agricultural Practices (GAP) and seed production of high yielding crop varieties for increases

production)

Reform for Water Resource Management (Construction and effective operation of reservoir and

dams, pumping and flood protection for efficient use of water resource)



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Reform for Agricultural Mechanization (Systematic cultivated land reform for switching to

mechanized agriculture)

Reform for Advanced Agro-based Industry_(Development of Agro-based industries including

construction of chemical and fertilizer factories and modernized rice mill for value added

Agricultural Products)

Reform for Human Resource Development (Human Resource Development in Agricultural

Sector)

Reform for Research and Technology Development (Development of Agricultural Research and

Technology)

Reform for Credit Services (Development of Farm Credit systems for Supply Chain Reform for

Market Information Service (Information and data accumulation for development of Agro-

marketing system)

Extension for food security in Myanmar

The role of extension: Today, extension is more than it used to be. Its function and tasks are

increasingly assumed by multiple public and private organizations. In developed countries,

and in countries where extension reform has been pursued, pluralistic involvement of

extension providers now exists- including non-profit non-governmental organizations, for-

profit private companies, rural producer organizations, commercial individual sand

associations of extension specialists, as well as national, state and municipal extension

services.

A new vision for extension is needed- one that views extension as a main pillar in serving the

public good of food security, taking into account the immediate and potential impact of

external forces, such as globalization and trade liberalization. Future economic and social

development needs to be considered in the light of production, marketing and micro-

enterprise development of poor people in the rural sector.

Strategy for a new extension vision involves determining target areas and populations,

calculating the potential and capacities of these targets, and developing appropriate programs

– with targeted populations- to promote the necessary capacities to meet the needs and

demands of the target areas and populations selected. Once these basics are determined,

complementary actions need to be undertaken, viz.:

Design differentiated strategies to reduce poverty and food insecurity

Pursue approaches that recognize diverse livelihoods.

Implement programs to strengthen producer capacity.

Focus on development of human and social capital.

Establish social safety nets to enhance food security of the very poor.

Points to consider:

Determine who should pay: A new consensus is needed on who should pay for extension,

communication and information services for poor rural communities.

Ensure equitable access: New systems must deliver the right kind of information and

extension advice in the right format for poor people, to ensure that existing inequities are

not exacerbated.

Promote local content: It may be more useful to promote information sharing between

local institutions than bring in new information from outside.



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Strengthen existing policies and systems: Further work is needed to strengthen extension

and communication policies, and new systems would seek to build on existing systems.

Build capacity: Capacity building is needed at all levels, to equip people with the new

skills necessary to develop and manage new systems.

Use realistic technologies: The most effective systems use realistic technologies that

enhance and add value to existing systems.

Build knowledge partnerships: New technologies provide enormous opportunities to build

knowledge partnerships that cross national, ethnic and social boundaries.

A pluralistic extension network: In principle, a pluralistic extension network aims to promote

the advancement of “mixed economies” whereby public and private sectors cooperate more

closely. A study on the rate of adoption indicates that high rates of adoption of improved

agricultural technologies occur when government organizations, NGOs, and private

organizations form partnerships in extending agricultural technologies to farmers. A

pluralistic extension pattern demands that programs be jointly planned, implemented and

evaluated by all service providers, in active collaboration with farmers. The role of the

government becomes crucial in a pluralistic extension situation in terms of national policy

direction, coordination and quality control to safeguard the interests of farming communities.

Focus on development of human and social capital: Food security is a mammoth challenge.

The public sector alone cannot finance, let alone deliver, extension services to meet all

requirements. Also, as funding has generally been reduced for public sector extension

services, field extension agents have been downsized and those who remain are less able to

operate effectively at village level, especially in remote areas. A reassessment of how to

ensure maximum impact from the use of public sector resources is needed. Following

assessments and mapping of food insure areas, a division of labour could be determined

whereby different entities undertook distinct efforts either within an area or between areas.

Separated agencies, organizations and projects working without coordination will not achieve

the goals of the World Food Summit. IF food insecurity is to be tackled full-scale, then a

concerted integrated national approach is a major first step, one that involves farmers and

community at the decision-making level. Demand-driven extension, i.e. extension programs

based on the need and demands of food-deficit producers and communities, need to be

strengthened through a wider variety of institutional interventions then just public sector

extension. If the poor are to benefit from extension, extension reform is needed but

importantly, reform that promotes local programs within the framework of a national

integrated food security strategy that helps the poor enter society’s mainstream.

Summary on agricultural extension

Extension Alone Cannot Do It: Extension is a support and educational agency focusing on

changing human behaviour in positive sense, and as such is a very important actor in any

national strategy of food security. However, no matter how efficient is an extension system,

how qualified and competent its human resources, how generous financing it enjoys and how

sound is its operational strategy, extension alone cannot guarantee sustained food security.

The Key - An Integrated Approach: While extension is allowed to play its role within the

context of new vision, the governments should:



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build platform to promote dialogue and cooperation among relevant institutions and

programs in all sectors to develop a network for food security and income generation;

create multi-disciplinary agricultural and rural development teams to respond to rural

community-expressed needs;

build technical and operational capacity of public and private service providers as well as

recipients;

establish and maintain links between policy-makers, support services, small farmers and

markets;

explore multiple programs methodologies;

create participatory mechanism to upscale proven best practices in food security.

Agricultural education

The agricultural education system in Myanmar includes three universities, all under different

ministries and focused on different segments of the agricultural sector. The Yezin

Agricultural University (YAU), under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI),

covers crop sciences and in addition offers some courses in animal sciences and fisheries.

YAU also operates seven regional research stations where it deploys students to conduct

research during their final year. The University of Veterinary Science (UVS), also in Yezin

but under Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development (MLFRD) - covers

veterinary sciences and fisheries but not crop agriculture. The University of Forestry (UOF)

under Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (MOECF) specializes in issues

of land management, environment and forestry. In addition to these degree-conferring

institutions, seven State Agricultural Institutes (SAI) under the MOAI offer the agricultural

education diploma program for high school graduates.

Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)

Yezin Agricultural University is the principal agricultural agency of higher education in

Myanmar, and most agricultural scientists at the government agencies graduated from this

university. It is located about 11 miles north of Pyinmana in the new capital Nay Pyi Taw,

and has a farm which has access to irrigation.

The goal of the university is to educate students to enable them to attain high standard in

agricultural sciences, and generate well qualified agriculturists for the country. The university

has nine (9) departments of basic and applied agricultural sciences, and offers both B.Sc. and

M.Sc. degrees in agricultural sciences. Recently, the university has started Ph.D. program.

The faculty is well qualified and experienced faculty. Some of the teaching staff has received

post-graduate training overseas.

The YAU is a well-established university with its glorious past since its establishment in

1924 in Mandalay. On 22nd of December in 1924, Governor Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler

inaugurated the Burma Agricultural College and Research Institute which offered 3 year

Agricultural Diploma program. Before being set as a separate institute under Ministry of

Education as Institute of Agriculture in 1964, it was just a faculty under Rangoon and

Mandalay University alternately. In1973 the campus was moved from Mandalay to the

present location due to location and suitability of crop production 5 years after which Master

Degree course was started. In 1993, the management was transferred from Ministry of

Education to Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation for better facilities. It was renamed as



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Yezin Agricultural University in 1998. Two years after its Diamond Jubilee celebration in

1999, the university opened Ph. D course as its highest curriculum.

8. The three missions of the university are to provide education and develop human

resources for increased production through green growth, to provide career and business

opportunities for the graduates who are well qualified and to contribute the nation through

research and education.

Organization of YAU

Under the administration of the rector, the university affairs are assisted by two pro-rectors of

academic body and administrative body. There are 7 major academic departments and 6

supporting subject departments, these are as follows: Agronomy, Agricultural Botany,

Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Pathology, Entomology and Zoology, Horticulture,

Agricultural Economics, Animal Science, Agricultural Engineering, Myanmar, English,

Physics and Mathematics.

Campuses of YAU

In 2006, the university curriculum was modified and improved and with it, 7 new campuses

around the country were established for final year students’ research and specialization

studies. Currently YAU has 7 outreached campuses nationwide. Aungban campus in Shan

state for maize and other cereal crops, Lungyaw campus in Mandalay for, cotton and other

fibre crops, Pharauk campus for perennial crops, Hlegu campus for Plant Protection and

horticultural crops, Hmawbi campus for rice crop, Nyaungpinthar campus for sugar crops,

Magwe campus for oilseed crops, and the main campus in Yezin for agribusiness

management and soil and water management. Here in the main campus, the emergence of

biotechnology specialization is being developed.

Selection and admission to YAU

Normally to be admitted in YAU, the students are required to pass Basic Education High

School with good scores and physical and mental fitness. Moreover, a good character record

is a must. First year undergraduate students are selected by the University Board of Education

through entrance examination and annually 400 students are admitted to the university. All

the admissions are determined by entrance exam composed of two parts: 1) Written

Examination: Biology subject for 3 hours and English subject for 2 hours and 2) Personal

Interview. The university follows bi semester system where first semester falls in November

through March and second semester, May through September.

Curriculum and Degrees Offered at YAU



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As its curriculum, Yezin Agricultural University offers 5 Degree programs (Table

3) and the medium of instruction is English.Table 3: Curriculum and degrees

offered at YAU

No Curriculum Period Study Programs

1 Bachelor Degree (B.Agr.Sc.) 4 Years 11

2 Master Degree (M.Agr.Sc.) 3 Years 7

3 Master of Philosophy Degree (M.Phil.) 2 Years 7

4 Doctorate Degree (Ph.D.) 5 Years 7

5 Post Grad Diploma (Dip. Agr.Sc.) 0.5 Year 7

Source: YAU, 2012

Bachelor Degree in Agricultural Sciences (B.Agr.Sc.): Yezin Agricultural University

offers undergraduate programs in the following specialization areas: rice crop production,

plant protection, horticultural crops production, plantation crops production, sugar crops

production, maize and other cereal crops production, oil seed crops production, cotton and

other industrial crops production, agribusiness management, and soil and water management.

Postgraduate Degrees (M.Agr.Sc.: Ph.D.: M.Phil.): As postgraduate degrees, Master

degree in Agricultural Sciences, Ph.D. degree and Master of Philosophy are offered in Yezin

Agricultural University and specialization are on field crop production, crop science, soil and

water management, plant disease protection and plant pest protection, horticultural crop

production and agri-business management.

Postgraduate Diplomas in Agricultural Sciences (Dip.Agr.Sc.): Postgraduate Diploma

course is another opportunity of studying at YAU and specialization are agronomy,

agricultural botany, agricultural chemistry, plant pathology, entomology, horticulture and

agricultural economics.

Table 4: Students statistics of YAU (2011-12)



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Table 5: Distribution of undergraduate students at YAU (2011-12)

Table 6: Academic qualifications of YAU staff (2011-12 academic year)

Regardless of inadequacy in materials and poor infrastructures, the university is proud to

possess such well qualified academic staff for teaching and research. At YAU, 42% of the

teaching staff are those who got their master and doctorate degree from abroad. Some faculty

members attended overseas training in nutrition and food science technology and

biotechnology. Although the department of agricultural extension education does not as yet

exist at YAU some faculties from department of agronomy provide extension education

courses to undergraduate students as well as conduct extension research activities.

Research activities at YAU



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The following are some of agricultural extension and agricultural economics research

activities conducted by YAU in 2011-2012:

Completed Master Students’ Theses in 2011-2012 (1st Semester)

Market Integration Approach to Natural Rubber Market Development

Ex-Post Evaluation of Rice Research and Extension Expenditures of the Ministry of

Agriculture and Irrigation

Impact Assessment of Thonze Dam on Socio-Economic Status of Paddy Farmers in

Tharyarwady Township

Food Security Status of Rural Households in Man Man Sai township, Wa Special

RegionNo.2, Northern Shan State

Assessment of Sustainability in Rain-fed Cropping System of Natmouk Township

On-Going Theses in Second Semester, 2012 (2nd Semester)

Technical Efficiency of Sesame Production in Magway Township

Impact of Climate Change on Rural Livelihoods in Pakokku Township

Impact of Farm Mechanization on Crop Productivity in Pyinmana Township

Factors Affecting the Demand for Agrochemicals in Nay Pyi Taw

Comparison of Different Types of Extension Services on Rice Productivity in Pyay

Analysis of Rice Supply Chain in Waw Township

Impact Assessment of Microfinance on Climate Change Resilience and Livelihood

Security of Rural Households in Pakokku

International collaboration

Regarding Faculty Capacity building and Faculty skill development YAU has long been

working with the international organizations and institutions and still in link of collaboration

with many international universities and institutes. Presently, YAU has been in active

international collaboration with Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), India

Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA):

Library automation software system cooperated by KOICA

Establishment of Advanced Center for Agricultural Research and Education in

collaboration with IARI, India

Strengthening human development institution in Agriculture sponsored by JICA

Strengths and opportunities:

Compared to other universities YAU has lots of strengths and opportunities and plays a vital

role in many areas of Agriculture Sector Development in Myanmar.

Presence of a visionary, dynamic, energetic leadership who is getting broad support from

the faculty and staff.



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High interest on the part of the Ministry of Agriculture, its sponsor and link in the cabinet,

in collaborating with YAU particularly in manpower training and development, seed

production, technology testing, extension and advisory service.

Existence of critical number of highly trained faculty members from foreign universities

(35 PhD and 65 Master Degree holders).

Although needing much upgrading and improvement, existence of classrooms,

laboratories, research farms and stations, scientific equipment, housing for faculty,

students and guests, free WiFi on the campus.

Existence of land and stations for university’s field research, practicum for students, and

physical expansion.

Areas needing improvement

General review of the BS, MS and PhD curricula, develop an agro ecosystem-based

curriculum and research program

Improvement and completion of the University strategic plan including the departmental

strategic plans.

Continuing and expanded staff development program for new program offerings.

Need to review and rethink the 7 sub-campuses as facility for instruction, research,

practical and extension.

Need to create department of Agricultural Extension Education, conduct collaborative

research with DAR and DOA and provide the University direct extension service to rural

farmers like e-Agriculture Information Center

New campus layout, paved on-campus road system, student extra-curricular activities and

pro-student welfare facilities, IT-ready and connection facilities, staff housing, to mention

some, need modernization.

Academic administration including university governance and organization for higher

effectiveness and efficiency need streamlining.

Adjustment in pedagogy in the teaching of courses, considering large class size, limited

number of faculty, limited space and equipment for use in instruction need to be done.

Process, structure and content of university research agenda and programming need to be

clarified and defined.

The collection, system and facilities of the university library need to be upgraded and

updated.

Needs of technical assistance

Review of YAU different curricula and identify new curricular areas/programs

(Agricultural Extension Education, Agribusiness, Food Science/Nutrition Science,

Biotechnology, Information and Communication Technology-ICT, etc.). A more specific and

focused study and analysis of YAU is its curricula at the BS, MS and PhD levels. A

curricular review is essential because a curriculum is the recipe of the university in producing

graduates. The curriculum is the translation of the vision, mission and core values into



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program of studies, courses, academic and non-academic inputs, requirements and the total

learning experiences of the students while under the tutelage of the university.

Develop an agro ecosystem-based curriculum and research program at YAU (in partnership

with U.S. universities, Asian Agricultural universities). To make the university an inclusive

and unifying force to facilitate national unity and ease ethnic tensions, an agro ecosystem-

based curriculum and research program should be developed at the university, drawing on

indigenous knowledge.

Review of the organization, management and governance system of the university. The

organization, management and governance of an institution of higher learning is a system of

hierarchy. It provides the structure, and the players involved in making decisions, planning,

problem solving and communication. It programs the regular procedure in dealing with

emerging issues presented for resolution. The issues can be curricular, faculty and staff

welfare and conduct, infrastructural, budget allocation, staff development, etc.

Review of academic procedure and administration in the university (from admission to

graduation). There are set of rules, procedures and reviews at various levels in the journey of

the students from admission to graduation in a university. This is done to insure order and

quality of the guidance and supervision of the students so that the product is according to

design.

Develop strategy and approaches to strengthen the research function of the university.

YAU is not only an academic system of instructing students, imparting to them classical and

practical knowhow and do how in production, processing of products, making decisions,

problem solving agricultural problems. YAU is also mandated as a research arm of the

country through the Ministry of Agriculture so that cutting edge technologies and innovations

can be generated to spur growth and development in the sector. The U.S. and EU Universities

technical assistance can help structure the university’s research function so that it can respond

and be proactive in research for the country.

Develop ideas on utilization of the 7 sub-campuses of YAU. The seven sub- campuses of

YAU are vital assets that can be used to aid and realize the university goals in instruction,

research and extension. The activities at the stations should be driven by the needs of

instruction, research and extension programs of the university and relevant to the concerns

and reforms of the Ministry of Agriculture. The technical assistance should include how the

assets and resources can be positioned to serve the interest of the university including using

them to generate income for the university.

Establish a sub-campus in Ayeyarwaddy region. Since Ayeyarwaddy region is well known

for rice bowl of the country one of YAU sub-campus should be established in this region.

Presently, there are two sub-campuses in Yangon region. According to the current student

distribution at YAU, there are very few students from Ayeyarwaddy region. It is very

important to train youth for future Agriculture sector development in Myanmar. High school

children need to be motivated in studying agricultural and food sciences for future

Agriculture and food security in Myanmar.

State Agricultural Institutes (SAI)

The agricultural education training at the State Agriculture Institutes (SAI) was started in

1955 in Myanmar. There are seven agricultural institutes in Myanmar, such as Pyinmana

SAI, Thahtone SAI, Myaungmya SAI, Shwebo SAI, Patheingyi SAI, Pwintphyu SAI, and

Tharyarwady SAI. The annual intake for the first year students is about 200 for each institute



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and the total numbers of students for these seven Institutes is about 1500. The required period

of study is only three years. For the first year study English, Mathematics, Physics,

Agricultural Chemistry, Botany, Agronomy, Horticulture and Animal Husbandry courses are

introduced. Plant Protection and Farm Mechanics subjects are added to the courses for the

second year. In the third year, the courses follow eight major subjects, such as Agronomy,

Agricultural Chemistry, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Plant protection, Farm Mechanics,

Agricultural Extension and Farm Management and Accounting.

Students gain a Diploma in Agriculture after they completed three-year studies. The top ten

outstanding students can join the third year study of undergraduate program at YAU for

pursuing a Bachelor of Agricultural Science Degree if they pass the entrance examination.

Starting from1966, there has also been a golden opportunity for outstanding students from

SAI and service personnel holding diploma certificate of the SAI across the country to join

YAU and continue their academic destiny. However, only 30 seats for outstanding students

and 20 seats for outstanding service personnel per year are available.

The number of students that graduate annually from different educational training institutions

includes 300 from YAU and 1500 from seven SAI. Many of the graduates from YAU and

SAI are employed by different departments of the MOAI, while others go to NGOs and the

private sector.


Given the importance of agriculture in Myanmar, agricultural research and development is an

important priority. Agricultural research in Myanmar is overseen by three separate entities:

the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), the Ministry of Forestry (MOF), and the

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (MOLF). The Department of Agricultural Research

(DAR), under MOAI, is the principal government agency involved in agricultural R&D. In

2003, DAR accounted for about 40 percent of the country’s agricultural research staff and 30

percent of its expenditures.

The DAR is headquartered in Yezin, about 250 miles north of Yangon. Agricultural Research

Institute (ARI) was initially established at Gyogon, Insein township, Yangon in 1954. ARI

was then shifted to Yezin, Pyinmana Township, Mandalay Division (now Nay Pyi Taw) in

1971. It became Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) under the Myanmar

Agriculture Service (MAS) and then DAR became as a separate department in 2004.

Mission of DAR is to systematically conduct research activities that would suit to the needs

of all stakeholders, which include producers, distributors and consumers in developing, and

dissemination of regionally adapted crop varieties and crop production technologies. DAR’s

research focuses on increasing crop production through improved seed, crop management,

and crop protection techniques; and cropping systems tailored to suit the country’s various

agro-ecological zones.

The Forest Research Institute (FRI), under MOF, is headquartered in Yezin and operates

units on forest utilization and forest development. The Livestock Breeding and Veterinary

Department (LBVD) under MOLF is responsible for the development of Myanmar’s

livestock sector. It conducts research on biological production, veterinary medicine, artificial

insemination, and reproductive disorders. In addition, it produces vaccines and provides

extension services to farmers. LBVD is headquartered in Yangon and operates four

laboratories in Mandalay, Basein, Taunggyi, and Pyin Oo Lwin.



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Organization of DAR

Under the administration of Director General DAR is organized by two Deputy Director

Generals, 6 Directors, 8 Deputy Directors and over 700 staff including research officers,

research assistants, research technicians and others across the country. There are six major

divisions under DAR and each division is composed of 2-4 sections.

1. Rice and other cereal crops division

a. Rice section

b. Other Cereal Crops section

2. Oil seed crops and food legumes division

a. Oil Seed Crops section

b. Food Legumes section

3. Industrial crops and horticulture division

a. Industrial Crops section

b. Horticulture section

4. Soil, Water Utilization and Agricultural Engineering division

a. Soil Science section

b. Water Utilization Research section

c. Agricultural Engineering section

5. Agronomy, Agricultural Economics and Statistics division

a. Agronomy section

b. Agricultural Economics section

c. Statistics section

6. Biotechnology, Plant Genetic Resources and Plant Protection division

a. Biotechnology

b. Plant Genetics Resources section

c. Entomology section

d. Plant Pathology section

Agricultural research centres and satellite farms

The Vegetables and Fruit Research and Development Centre (VFRDC) was established in

1986by the cooperation of the governments of Japan and Myanmar research focusing on a

variety of issues related to fruits and vegetables. The Applied Research Centre for Perennial

Crops (ARCPC) in Mawlamyaing was founded in 1990 within the Myanmar Perennial Crops

Enterprise (MPCE), under MOAI. The centre conducts research on variety improvement and

production technology of plantation crops (mainly oil palm and rubber). The Myanmar

Cotton and Sericulture Enterprise (MCSE), under MOAI, was established in 1994. In

addition to carrying out cotton and sericulture research, it provides extension services to

farmers. The Myanmar Sugarcane Enterprise (MSE) was also established in 1994 under



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MOAI with the aim of integrating and developing sugarcane production and processing.

According to the new administration of MOAI in 2012 these three agencies of MPCE,

MCSE, and MSE are under the Department of Industrial Crops Development.

Table 9: Crop research centres and satellite farms under DAR

Table 10: Satellite farms and their mandate crops

Research activities conducted by DAR

The DAR engages in substantial collaboration at national, regional, and international levels.

Nationally, DAR conducts joint research projects with YAU and other departments like

LBVD. The DAR engages in collaborative research with a number of centres of the

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), including the

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), International Maize and Wheat Improvement

Center (CIMMYT), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

(ICRISAT), Biodiversity International, and International Institute for Tropical Agriculture

(IITA). Other international partners include the World Vegetable Center (AVRDC) and the



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International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).Some research activities conducted by DAR are

as follows:

Crop Improvement

Development of improved high yielding crop varieties for favourable ecosystems

Development of rice and other food crop varieties with good yield stability under both

biotic and abiotic stress conditions due to climate change and global warming

Develop and promote food crop varieties with good quality

Varietal Improvement:

Rice varieties released:

o Irrigated rice (36 varieties)

o Rain-fed lowland rice (34 varieties)

o Upland rice (4)

o Drought tolerance rice (8)

o Deep water rice (8)

o Submergence tolerant rice (1)

o Salinity tolerant rice (4)

o Quality rice (4)

Other varieties released:

Maize and other cereals (32 varieties)

Oil seed crops (19)

Food legumes (37)

Industrial crops (20)

Horticultural crops (4)

Crop management

Generate environmental friendly crop management technologies to fully capitalize the

genetic potential of each genotype

Identify and promote crop management options to reduce yield variability under stress

conditions due to climate change

Conservation and management of plant genetic resources for sustainable utilization

Ongoing collaborative projects with international and regional organizations

Development of Iron Rich Rice through Nuclear Technique project (IAEA-MYA/5016)

Increasing food security and farmers’ livelihood through enhanced legumes cultivation in

the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar (ACIAR and ICRISAT)

Agriculture technology development and promotion of corn (ICF)



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Korea-Myanmar collaborative agricultural research and development project (RDA)

Biotechnology and pant genetic resources cooperation (NIAST)

Thai-Myanmar soybean research and development project (NRCT+TICA)

Consortium for unfavourable rice environment (IRRI)

International network for genetic evaluation rice (IRRI)

Irrigated rice research consortium (IRRI)

Development study on sustainable agriculture and rural development for poverty reduction

in the central Dry Zone (JICA)

Agriculture extension human resource development project (JICA)

Development of participatory multiplication and distribution system for quality rice seed

(JICA)

Capacity building and regional collaboration for enhancing the conservation and

sustainable use of plant genetic resources in Asia (FAO/Japan)

Source: Annex adapted from: Cho, Khin Mar (2013) Current Situation and Future

Opportunities in Agricultural Education, Research and Extension in Myanmar. Background

Paper No.5. March 2013.USAID.



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ANNEX 8: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS IN THE CROP SECTOR

Intervention 1: Improved agricultural extension and research system

Justification Agricultural R&D together with extension services are the pre-conditions

to get agriculture moving. These important activities are carried out by

the state agencies, and Department of Agricultural Research (DAR)

under Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI). Under budgeting

of funds for research and development activities results incapacitation

and ineffective extension services hence result in a serious constraint to

increase productivity. Extension works are the “agents of change” hence

should be equipped with the latest scientific knowledge and know-how in

agriculture (i.e. enable them to effective and productive). Currently there

is a lack of proper coordination between research and extension, where

the flow of information through these two entities to and from the

farmers is disjointed at best.

The development of the agricultural sector is largely influenced by

improvements in production efficiency which in turn depends on the

development and application of appropriate technology and adoption by

farmers. The knowledge and skills of the farmers and agriculture staff, as

well as their attitudes and commitments towards developmental change,

are critical to a scientific and sustainable growth of the agricultural

sector. In this context, agricultural biotechnology is another point out

back-up to sustain a viable and productive agriculture. The training of

farmers and technicians in new and modern farming technologies and

practices are important areas to consider hence capacity and in human

resource development should be given prominent emphasis.

With regards to the agricultural research activities in Myanmar, DAR is

the only central research institution for agriculture in the whole country.

Given the size of the country it is difficult to cover and integrate research

works for various crops among the different state agencies under MOAI.

There are also few research work conducted by some crop divisions but

coordination among the various agencies is still weak. The following

major weaknesses in agricultural research should be strengthened: (a)

giving priority in financing agricultural research and development; (b)

recruiting qualified more researchers and research staff:; (c)

strengthening modern equipment and laboratories for advanced research;

and (d) where appropriate involve the private sector in research (e.g.,

seed sector, biotechnology)

In agricultural extension, DOA is the principle agency in providing

extension and education services to farmers. Myanmar Industrial Crops

Development Enterprise (MICDE) also provides extension services for

industrial crops. However, extension activities cover only certain areas

where industrial crops are grown. Existing extension staff is inadequate

both in numbers and quality to provide for the target group i.e. farmers.

This has seriously constrained transfer of technology to farmers. For

example in paddy one extension worker is required to cover an average



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of over 2400 ha (6,000 acres). The current extension staff shortage is

inadequate to meet this target. There is a due need to address the issues

for farm productivities and income. Extension service alone is only

aspect in tackling rural poverty and productivity though it is an

important. The aspect is addressing farmers’ needs through providing

and institutional structure to mobilise and improve farmers’ capabilities

to meet the challenges brought about by socio-economic change and the

need for improved technologies for production and post-harvest

operations. Farmers must be equipped with their organisation to meet

their multipurpose needs, styled on an effective and sustainable farmers’

organisations. Such an organisation should be institutionalised and

supervised. With such an organisation, the transfer and dissemination of

knowledge and technology provided by the extension service will be

more efficient and cost effective.

Extension workers will address and promote the transfer of modern farm

management through and organise audience of farmers. This will be a

fundamental change in approach and methodology in dealing with

farmers. Such farmers’ organisation should multipurpose in function and

based on an “area and bottom-up approach”. External personnel need to

have equipped with adequate knowledge and skills related to production

and processing technologies, value addition, etc. However, they equally

need social mobilization skills to facilitate and strengthen farmers

organizations.

Considerations needs to be given to the involvement of the private sector

in the transfer of technologies. Cross border transfer of knowledge and

experience will speed up the process. In the absence of such an

organisation the farmers will always be exposed to exploitation by

middlemen/traders.

Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)

interventions, owing to the need to address the restructuring and

financing of R&D and extension at various levels impacting on

investment, policies and institutions.

Scope There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through

improved efficiencies in R&D and extension delivery systems, and the

scope for this much needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:

As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural research

and extension (only 1-2% of MOAI’s budget) need to significantly

increase investment in government entities responsible for service

provision.

The poor collaboration and coordination between the MOAI research

and extension services requires the formation of a National

Agricultural Research and Development Council which has the

mandate to coordinate and manage the R&D and extension activities

in the agricultural sector. For this to be really meaningful this should

include the involvement of both the crop and livestock components of



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the farming system and hence the development of strong linkages

between MOAI and MLFRD.

Serious consideration is required for much greater involvement of the

private sector in both research and extension activities.

Through a better understanding of the key constraints to farmers,

there is need to prioritise and develop interventions through a better

planning process.

Need for assistance in infrastructure rehabilitation for research centres

which also need to be properly equipped.

The need for much improved research management systems with

DAR.

The rationalisation of the institutional arrangement between and

within MOAI, more particularly DOA and DAR, with the possible

incorporation/transfer of DOA research centres to DAR.

Capacity building of research and extension staff to better understand

new technologies and production techniques, and matters that relate to

climate change, conservation agriculture, value chains and marketing,

and the socio-economic aspects of farming including use of social

mobilization and participatory tools.

Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the

organizational and institutional to the research and extension system

within MOAI.

Strengthen the coordination between all government, donor, NGO and

private sector entities involved in agriculture to avoid duplication and

ensure that all interventions follow government policy objectives.

Activities MOAI should prepare a roadmap to better outline the comprehensive

changes required to bring about the much needed change to the research

and extension system, involving importantly agricultural education.

Firstly, it should update its infrastructure and equipment and increase the

amount of funds allocated to support R&D, testing, and extension

services. Technical training of public servants, staff of agriculture/crop

based associations, and farmers is also urgently needed, as is recruitment

of additional staff with government service. Consideration should be

given in looking for international assistance in this area from

development partners.

The intervention will impact at three levels – investment, policies and

institutions and the activities associated with these areas follows:

Investment

Ensure the availability of adequate resources for an extension system

promoting more agricultural technicians able to provide training,

demonstrations—and awareness services to farmers at the townships

and village level;



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Increase support to research for developing improved appropriate

technologies across the whole range of farming systems in the four

main AEZs;

Improve government research station/centre facilities and capacity

skills of their staff.

Policies

Formulate and adopt a policy to reinvigorate the agricultural R&D

and extension system in Myanmar, incorporating the required

institutional, organisational and budgetary changes;

Create the formation of National Agricultural Research and

Development Council which has the mandate to coordinate and

manage the R&D and extension activities in the agricultural sector;

Encourage community-based farmer associations, and promote R&D

and extension through private sector development and public-private

partnerships;

Rationalise the institutional structure of MOAI to ensure that all

government implemented research comes under the direct

responsibility of DAR; this applies to all crops and cropping systems;

Design and implement a new agriculture sector research and

development program;

Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole range of

new and improved technologies, not least of which being

biotechnology and climate smart agriculture;

Introduce policy reforms promoting a shift from the current top-down

structure to one based on a bottom-up approach, able to incorporate

grassroots and public sector views.

Institutions

Facilitate coordination mechanisms at different levels:

o Between MOAI departments;

o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to

ensure that a holistic integrated approach to agriculture

development is undertaken;

o Between the private and the public sector to ensure effective

partnerships to service delivery and mobilize investment;

o Between international and national research centres to improve

access to improved technologies;

o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach

to farmers;

Create farmer associations at the township and village level and

encourage growers to engage in contract farming and establish a range

of crop commodity based associations to better service the farmers;

Develop and implement an improved system of research management

across all research units within DAR;



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Promote the emergence of private companies involved in agriculture

production and value chain development, and streamline existing

private business entities;

Establish a system to produce reliable statistics and marketing

information. Elaborate a clear marketing strategy for all major crop

commodities based on accurate and updated information base.

Expected

duration

Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)

Cost Estimate USD 100 million



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Intervention 2: Development of the agriculture seed sector

Justification The seed industry in Myanmar is in the midst of considerable change. A

Seed Law was enacted in 2011 and private sector participation in the

industry is growing. However, rice yield growth has been slowing down

since 2008 and certified seed production only accounts for less than 10%

of total rice area. The Department of Agriculture Research (DAR) and

the Department of Agriculture (DOA) of the Ministry of Agriculture and

Irrigation (MOAI) play a major role in developing new varieties and

production of breeder, foundation, and registered seeds. However, public

investment in agricultural research and extension is only 1-2% of

MOAI’s budget. Limited capacity in research and extension system is

also a major challenge for R&D.

The seed industry includes both formal and informal systems—over 90%

of cultivated rice is based on farmers’ own seeds which are often well

below agronomic potential. The seed availability situation is even worse

for other crops, more especially for pulses and oilseeds, and where

improved high yielding drought tolerant varieties are urgently needed for

the central dry zone. However in spite of the absence of a quality

assurance system, the informal seed system plays an important role in

preserving local rice bio-diversity and seed security in rural areas. The

formal seed system, consisting of research institutes, government seed

farms, and extension systems is mainly managed by DAR and DOA. The

many challenges the formal seed production system is facing include a

lack of infrastructure in production, processing, and storage facilities,

and quality control. International assistance is urgently needed in these

areas, also to support R&D and extension services.

The recent creation of the Myanmar Rice Federation has accelerated the

involvement of the private sector in the seed industry. More than 10 rice

companies are currently producing seeds. There are also foreign seed

companies investing in seed business, particularly in hybrid rice, maize,

and vegetables. Improved coordination among existing agencies in the

public sector and between the public and private sector is crucial in

developing a competitive seed industry in Myanmar.

Despite the existence of farmer organizations, there are not yet seed

growers’ associations or a national seed industry association. The 2011

Seed Law, which was enacted in the absence of the framework of a seed

policy, remains to be enforced. MOAI is currently working on the seed

policy with the support of FAO and other international organizations. A

Plan of Action for Implementing the National Seed Policy has been

prepared (FAO & MOAI, December 2013) and will form the basis for

moving forward on seed sector development.


interventions, owing to the need to address the seed sector at various

levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions.

Scope There is high potential for further crop yield enhancement through



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improved seed quality and distribution, and the scope for this much

needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:

Reduce the large gap between supply and demand: certified rice

seed only cover less than 10% of current needs.

As a result of the extremely low investment in agricultural

research and extension (only 1-2% of MOAI’s budget) need to

increase investment in the seed industry in particular.

Promote seed associations, seed community-based production, and

seed banks.

Promote mechanisms for coordination among government

agencies and between government, private sector, and farmer

organizations, encouraging also public and private partnerships .

Need for assistance in infrastructure for seed production,

equipment for seed quality control, and capacity building of

farmers, technicians, and private sector operators.

A seed policy is needed to effectively implement the existing Seed

Law

The rice seed industry could also greatly benefit from introducing

a Rice Policy.

Activities MOAI should prepare a roadmap to strengthen the competitiveness and

productivity of the local seed industry. As a first step, it should update its

equipment and increase the amount of funds allocated to support R&D,

testing, and extension services. Technical training of public servants,

staff of seed-related associations, and farmers is also urgently needed.

There is merit to seek for international assistance in this area from

development partners.



Investment

Ensure the availability of adequate resources for an extension system

promoting more agricultural technicians able to provide training,

demonstrations—and awareness services to farmers at the townships

and village level;

Increase support to research for improving capacity in seed breeding;

Improve government seed farms facilities and capacity skills of their

staff;

Improve existing central seed laboratories and establish new seed

laboratories at the central and regional levels;

Strengthen existing seed processing facilities.

Policies

Formulate and adopt a seed policy to support the full implementation



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of the Seed Law enacted in 2011. The seed policy should facilitate the

development of an efficient and competitive seed industry which

meets the needs of all stakeholders;

Encourage community-based seed production, and promote the seed

industry through private sector development and public-private

partnerships;

Design and implement a new seed sector development program;

Formulate and implement a national Rice Policy with the support of

national and international experts;

Collaborate with international research institutes to establish seed

standards;

Ensure border crossing control and proper quarantine procedures to

avoid illegal imports or export of seeds and planting material;




Institutions




ensure a successful dissemination and adoption of new

improved varieties;


partnerships to improve quality and mobilize investment;


pure varieties;

o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach

to farmers;

Create farmer seed associations at the township and village level and

encourage seed growers to engage in contract farming and establish a

“National Seed Industry Association” to support the development of

growers’ seed associations

Promote the emergence of private seed companies and the adoption of

certified seeds;

Establish a seed quality assurance system and a monitoring and

inspection system to improve the seed quality. Promote transparent

and simplified administrative procedures for quality seed certification

system;

Adhere to the principles and standards of the International Union for

the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (IUPOV);

Establish a system to produce reliable statistics and marketing

information related to seed supply, distribution, and seed demand by

farmers. Elaborate a clear marketing strategy based on accurate and



110

updated information base.

Expected

duration





111

Intervention 3: Climate-smart agriculture and conservation farming

Justification Climate change is a serious issue in Myanmar more particularly in the

drought prone CDZ which impacting on the livelihoods of the farming

community. There is therefore a serious and urgent need to address and

mitigate the situation through the introduction of a wide range of climate

smart agriculture technologies, incorporating an integrated system of

conservation farming. Currently these issues are not being addressed in a

comprehensive manner by the key Ministries in government, namely:

MOAI, MLFRD and MOECF.

Climate smart crop production contributes to food security, by

addressing different aspects of current and projected climate change

impacts through adaptation and mitigation actions. While agriculture

contributes significantly to climate change, it also provides opportunities

for adapting to, and mitigating, climate change effects. In this respect it is

essential to firstly outline the impacts of climate change on crop

production as it related to Myanmar. Secondly it is important to be able

to describe the Sustainable Crop Production Intensification (SCPI)

concept and illustrate how sustainable agriculture is inherently “climate-

smart.” In describing the underlying principles of SCPI, it is useful to

draw on the FAO publication Save and Grow: a guide and toolkit of

sustainable technologies and practices, but which also explores the

policies and institutional arrangements for the large-scale implementation

of SCPI. Furthermore, describes options for land managers and farmers

to adapt, and contribute to the mitigation of climate change.

Key messages are:

Unpredictable and erratic climatic patterns resulting from climate

change will affect crop production; this will have an impact on farmer

livelihoods and food availability. Climate smart crop production

provides management options to farmers to both adapt to, and

mitigate, climate change.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is sustainable agricultural production

“seen from the lens” of climate change. Sustainable crop production

looks at reducing reliance on non-renewable external inputs, and

capitalizing on/enhancing natural biological processes to improve

production in a more environmentally friendly way and avoiding

degradation of production relevant natural resources.

To cope with the challenges of climate change, crop production must

adapt (e.g. crop varietal selection, plant breeding, cropping patterns

and ecosystem management approaches) and become resilient to

changes (frequency and intensity).

Crop production can contribute to mitigating climate change by

reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – for example by reducing

the use of judiciously using inorganic fertilizers, avoiding soil



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compaction or flooding to reduce methane emissions (e.g. in paddy

rice systems) and sequestering carbon (e.g. planting perennial crops

and grass species).

Farmers are the primary custodians of knowledge about their

environment, agro-ecosystems, crops and cropping patterns, and local

climatic patterns. Adapting cropping practices and approaches will be

related to local farmers’ knowledge, requirements and priorities.

Sustainable crop production provides farmers with options for

farming sustainably, taking into account the local ecosystem.

Integrated approaches – such as crop-livestock – aquaculture systems,

rice-fish systems and agroforestry – diversify food sources and

consequently strengthen the resilience of farmers’ livelihoods. They

also provide opportunities for mitigating climate change.

CSA needs to be strongly supported by sub-national and local

policies. Agricultural ecosystems are site specific, with their own

environmental, social and economic specificities.

Agricultural approaches and practices contribute to climate change

adaptation. Different approaches and practices for sustainable crop

production can contribute to climate change adaptation. They provide

options for location-specific contexts and should be adapted with local

farmers/farming communities. Examples include: ecosystem-based

approaches, conservation agriculture, integrated nutrient and soil

management, mulch cropping, cover cropping, alterations in cropping

patterns and rotations, crop diversification, using high quality seeds and

planting materials of adapted varieties, integrated pest management,

integrated weed management, grasslands management; agroforestry,

water and irrigation management, rain and flood water harvesting,

landscape-level pollination management, organic agriculture; and land

fragmentation (riparian areas, forest land within the agricultural

landscape). For many of these approaches integrated community based

planning is required to develop appropriate and sustainable changes to

the villages lands/micro-watersheds.


interventions, owing to the need to address the financing of CSA R&D at

various levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions.

Scope There is good potential to mitigate the risks of climate change to crop

and farming systems sustainability through improved R&D and

extension delivery of climate smart related technologies, and the scope

for this urgently needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:

While the intervention will target the country as a whole, particular

focus will be on the CDZ where the adverse effects of climate change

are most apparent.

The initial primary concern will be the need to establish within MOAI

an entity responsible for the coordination of the climate smart



113

initiative, this will require cross sector collaboration and linkages

(MLFRD and MOECF), and strong bonds between DOA and DAR.

The program will need to source the whole suit of existing climate-

smart technologies that have been developed/used in Myanmar, while

in addition other appropriate technologies will need to be sourced

from international sources, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IRRI, CYMMIT, FAO,

etc.

Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming community,

and where wide scale extension of CSA is undertaken through the

involvement of village development committees and participatory

dialogue using integrated village watershed planning approaches.

A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of the

key constraints to farmers in regards to the impact of climate change

and the appropriateness of the technologies.

Need to training both research and extension government staff in the

CSA and sustainable agriculture methods and technologies; assistance

in this respect from development partners could be appropriate to

facilitate this capacity building of staff. Subsequent to this farmers

would be trained in the technologies.

Policy will be needed to effectively implement the changes to the

development of village lands on a communal basis, especially with

regards to the impact that these will have on land tenure

arrangements. In this respect a legal framework on land tenure might

need to be prepared for approval by GOM.

Activities MOAI should take the lead and in collaboration with the other key

Ministries (MLFRD and MOECF) prepare a strategic and operational

plan to initiate the process of addressing the effects of climate change in

risk prone areas of Myanmar. Furthermore, technical training in CSA of

public servants, staff of agriculture based associations, and farmers, even

the general public is also urgently needed. Consideration should be given

in looking for international assistance in this area from development

partners.


institutions and the activities associated with these areas as follows:

Investment

Focusing in particular on sustainable agriculture, conservation

farming and CSA, ensure the availability of adequate resources for an

extension system promoting more agricultural technicians able to

provide training, demonstrations and awareness services to farmers at

the townships and village level;

Increase support to research for accessing and developing improved

appropriate technologies across the whole range of farming systems in

the four main AEZs, while focusing in particularly on CDZ; Costal



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zone - ?

Improve government research station/centre facilities and capacity

skills of their staff to better facilitate the R&D in this area;

Provide the necessary funds for DAR and other government staff to

study CSA technologies in suitable institutions abroad.

Policies

Review the existing land tenure policy with a view to promulgating

changes to the legal framework to better address the issue of long

term and sustainable changes to land use in villages lands;

Create the formation of a "climate smart/sustainable farming unit"

within the MOAI which has the mandate to coordinate and manage

R&D and extension activities in agricultural livestock, fisheries and

forestry sectors;

Encourage community-based integrated planning through village

development committees;

Design and implement a new sustainable agriculture research and

development program;

Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole range of

new and improved technologies, focusing in particular on climate

smart agriculture;



grassroots and public sector views; being essential for the integrated

village planning required under this intervention.

Institutions



o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to ensure

that a holistic integrated approach to sustainable agriculture

development is undertaken;

o Between international and national research centres to improve access

to improved technologies;

o Between extension and research agencies to improve outreach to

farmers for CSA;

Build on the existence of the village development committees at

village and village tract levels and encourage farming community to

develop their lands in integrated manner to ensure negative impacts of

climate change are mitigated;

1. Support DOA and other GOM entities involved in climate and natural

resources to be better able to monitor the impacts of climate change.

Expected

duration





115

Intervention 4: Integrated area development planning and rural development

Justification In terms of agro-climatic conditions and characteristics, the country is

divided into four regions; namely, the Delta Region, the Coastal Region,

the Central Dry Zone Region, and the Mountainous Region. The Delta

Region is characterized by the highest population density, highest land

productivity (mostly alluvial soil), moderately high rainfall, generally flat

topography, and has excellent environment for growing rice. In contrast,

the Central Dry Zone is characterized by the lowest annual rainfall,

sandy soils, and the second highest population density. The Coastal

Region has the smallest land area but has the highest annual rainfall,

exceeding 4,000 mm per annum, and, accordingly, this region is highly

suitable for growing perennial crops, such as coconut, palm oil and

rubber. The mountainous region has the largest land area characterized

by dense forest. The region accounted for about 34.4 million hectares or

about half of the total land area, poor road infrastructure, and low

population density. Farming is to a large part less well developed than

other areas of the country.

Cropping systems and patterns and indeed farming systems vary

according to agro-climatic conditions. In the irrigated areas, paddy-paddy

or paddy-pulses-paddy patterns dominate. In the Dry Zones and other

upland rainfed areas, the mixed cropping or intercropping of pigeon pea

with sesame or peanut or other pulse cropping patterns are practiced. In

mountain or hilly region’s upland paddy, maize, millet, oil crops, and

pulses are also grown. Many farmers still practice shifting cultivation in

these areas. Fruit crops and vegetables are grown throughout Myanmar

all year- round.

While the Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) have been defined for Myanmar

further work is required to detail these zones and break them down into

sub-zones. Support to the MOAI more particularly DOA is required to

undertake a more detailed categorisation of the sub-zones, based on

climate, soils and other natural resource parameters, plus the need to give

greater definition to the cropping and farming systems in these areas. For

the zoning exercise to be really meaningful, additional information on the

socio-economic characteristics will be required, plus detail on the sub-

zones susceptibility to climate change; particularly important in the CDZ.

With the characterisation of the AEZ and sub-zones will provide a useful

basis for not only Regional, District and Township planning, but more

importantly be the basis on which location specific development can be

planned and implemented at the village tract and village levels. It will

enable holistic village development plans to be prepared involving the

village communities and the village development committees. It is only

by having an intimate understanding of the natural resource base,

existing cropping and farming patterns, plus the social dynamics of the

villages will meaningful development on a collective community basis be

able to be achieved. It is important to note that a large part of the village



116

lands are shared community land, where any intervention as regards to

reforestation, agroforestry and establishment of common grazing areas.

Finally, the new GOM initiative on rural development, through the

MLFRD, the communities at the local level will be provided with funds

for a range of interventions in support of village development and to

enhance farm family livelihoods. It is therefore only through the use of a

systematic approach to rural development through agro-ecological and

agro-socio-economic study at the sub-and micro-watersheds will

meaningful sustainable development of the village lands be achieved.

This will need to integrate all aspects of the farming system, including

crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry, and linked to the markets and

value chains of the commodities traded in these locations.


interventions, owing to the need to address the proper development of the

integrated area development planning and implementation, impacting on

investment, policies and institutions.

Scope There is good potential to ensure that the sustainable management of the

natural resources base plus importantly the economic wellbeing of the

communities at local level, can be achieved through community based

integrated area development, and the scope for this much needed change

is anticipated to be brought about by:

The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer term,

but initially will focus on areas which are at greatest risk these being

the CDZ and the vulnerable communities in the hilly regions of

Myanmar.

Initially the program is to expand on the activities of DOA Land Use

Division for detailed mapping of the AEZ's while incorporating the

support of DAR and other entities in the expanding the categorization

of the various zones and sub-zones to include information on the

agro-socio-economic aspects of the farming systems. Links with other

Ministries namely MLFRD and MOECF will also be essential.

The program will need to source the whole range of information

which will entail close collaboration with concerned donors and

CGIAR institutes. It should be noted that FAO have done a

considerable amount of work on the development of AEZs.

Training materials will be prepared covering aspects of AEZ, farming

systems, integrated planning etc., and DOA staff will be trained in

the use of these material. This exercise could involve the use of NGOs

where appropriate.

Subsequent to the definition of the zones, a pilot program will be

initiated targeting the Townships and villages as identified by

government for the rural development program.

An awareness and training exercise will be undertaken among the

communities in integrated village land development planning, using



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background material on the characteristics of the farming and land use

systems.

Subsequent to the training exercise the selected village communities

lead by their village development committee will prepare an

integrated village development plan, incorporating changes to land

use and land development, linked both to sustainable development of

the NR base but also the improvements to livelihoods from both on-

farm and off-farm sources.

The final stage will be the financing of the village development plans

through the GOM rural development fund administered by MLFRD.

Policy changes to the Land Law will be needed to address the issue of

the change to land use and land tenure that will be identified during

the village planning process

Activities MOAI and MLFRD in liaison with other Ministries should prepare a

roadmap to better outline the requirements and modalities of developing

a system of integrated area development planning. Subsequently it needs

put in place the necessary capabilities in terms of physical and human

resources to expedite the preparation of the AEZ mapping and socio-

economic characterisation of the country on a pilot basis. Technical

training of public servants at all levels in the research and extension

services, plus the farming and rural communities will be an essential part

of the intervention. Consideration should be given in looking for

international assistance in this area from development partners.



Investment

Ensure the availability of adequate resources for the development of a

unit within the LUD of DOA to undertake the AEZ exercise, this will

not only include physical resources but also training and information

technology;

Provide support to DAR in a similar manner to LUD, where staff in

particular will need to be trained;

Staff at field level and communities will need to be trained in

integrated development planning.

The main aim of the intervention will be the funding for rural

development which will come from the MLFRD rural development

fund.

Policies

Review current Land Law to ascertain potential changes that could

impact on this law as regards to the changes in land use which could

be an outcome from the intervention, especially at the implementation

stage;

Formulate and adopt a policy to expand on the mandate of the DOA



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LUD which will link closely with the concerned departments within

DAR especially as regards to agro-socio-economic aspects;

Create the formation of a focal point within GOM for integrated

planning and implementation – this would be a cross-sector entity;

Encourage community-based farmer associations, and link these to

the village development committees for sound location specific

development planning;

Collaborate with international research institutes in a AEZ and

integrated development planning;




Institutions



o Between the Union Ministry and State Ministries/Agencies to ensure

that a holistic integrated approach to agriculture development is

undertaken;



o Between international and national research centres to improve access

to improved methods;


farmers in integrated planning;

Build on the existence of the village development committees to be

better able to ensure the equitable development of villages lands.

Create Land Use and Rural Development Planning Unit within MOAI

based on the DOA LUD, with strong links to DAR.

Expected

duration



Intervention 5: Improved information technology and communications



119

Justification The transfer of improved agricultural technologies to farmers in

Myanmar is currently through an under resourced extension system

run by the DOA, where most farmers have little access or are aware

of technologies to change their farming practices. The delivery

system needs to be improved in a cost effective and comprehensive

manner and on way of achieving this is through the use of improved

advanced systems of Information and Communalisations

Technology (ICT). The Myanmar ICT sector has seen increased

interest from investors as ongoing telecoms reforms promise

increased competition in the market and access to 60 million

customers, most of whom have little or no access to communication

services. While many are looking at telecoms operation and

infrastructure, there is more than this to the local market.

Reasonable-cost talent, increasing government support, and

organized industry and improved connectivity all make the

Myanmar ICT sector an enticing opportunity.

Though in the past Myanmar has been consistently ranked as one of

the least developed countries in the field of e-government, the new

administration is keen to adopt technology as a tool for not only

increased efficiency, but also "good government and clean

governance". The government has been working closely with the

Korean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) to develop the

use of e-government platforms and incorporate ICT into policy-

making and legislation, mainly through the development of National

ICT Master Plan, starting since 2000. While implementation of said

plans had been behind schedule and the adoption of technology in

practice requires necessary trainings and facilities, the Myanmar

government is gradually implementing more and more e-

government projects, both within ministries, and in the interface

with other agencies and citizens.

Through ICT, farmers and agricultural producers can more easily

access relevant and timely information—from the acquisition of

quality seeds, credit and insurance, water supply for irrigation, to

livestock care and market prices. Efforts in this area can help create

and spread agricultural knowledge, disseminate up-to-date

technology, facilitate trainings, and connect rural enterprises to

markets.

An example of such an ICT system can be found in Cambodia,

where the government requested ADB to provide a capacity

development technical assistance (TA) for technology

demonstration and information and communication technology

(ICT) application for accelerated growth and diversification of

agricultural production and improved access to markets. The

intervention was aimed to address several interlinked constraints

facing Cambodia’s agricultural sector: (i) lack of secure and clear

property rights (land titles, rule of law, and policy transparency); (ii)

limited access to good practices in agricultural production, markets,



120

and timely and relevant information; and (iii) absence of proper

irrigation and extension services.

More specifically, Myanmar started installing ICT

tools/applications more than ten years ago. Presently, there are over

250 ICT companies in the country. The ICT coverage for some of

Myanmar’s rural areas was initiated by the Post and

Telecommunications Department (PTD), which is organizationally

under the Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT). A multi-

purpose community tele-centre was set up at Phaunggyi village

which is located about 48 miles from Yangon. The centre is assisted

by the Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB), and its

purpose is to improve living standard of people living in rural areas.

The government plans to install about 6,000 small satellite terminals

at remote areas within three years. There is considerable potential to

expand on the use of ICT for the transfer of technology to farmers

given the current constraints within the DOA.

The plan in Myanmar is therefore to expand the reach and content

of the agriculture messages to the farming community through ICT

using the internet and through the new generation of smart phones.

In the case of the latter it has been ascertained that presently in the

region of 60-70% of farmers have the use of or access to the latest

smart phones.

Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5

years) interventions, owing to the need to address the resourcing

and financing of ICT at various levels impacting on investment,

policies and institutions.

Scope To increase access of smallholders, marginal farmers, and poor

households to good agricultural practices, technologies, and

information in order to diversify and improve income of

smallholders, marginal farmers, and poor households in the rural

areas of Myanmar through an improved ICT system. The scope for

this much needed change is anticipated to be brought about by:

The intervention will target the country as a whole in the longer

term, through better access to information technology, and will

involve not only MOAI, MLFRD and MECF but other

government entities including the Post and Telecommunications

Department (PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT),

and Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB).

The current capabilities of DOA as regards ICT and the transfer

of information will be enhanced, and where the latest proven

technologies and GAP will be made available from the DAR and

other agriculture information providers, through the internet.

The latest communication technologies in terms of soft and

hardware and computer IT skills will be provided to government



121

staff.

The intervention will incorporate the development of a

completely revised and comprehensive internet interface that is

both topical and user friendly. This internet site should be in both

the Burmese and English language.

Training at all levels – government staff, civil societies, NGOs,

farmers and farmer association, and private sector will need to be

conducted

The possibilities of the involvement of the private sector and

PPP will be explored to enhance the efficiency of the networks

and information transfer, especially with regards to agriculture,

livestock, fisheries and forestry sectors.

A range of interventions will be introduced including : (a)

agriculture market information system (AMIS); (b) ICT for rural

development planning and implementation; (c) establishment of

e-kiosks; (d) establishment of community e-Centers; and (e)

establishment of village information centers (VICs) with

connectivity and content.

There most likely will be a number of GOM policies which will

need to be reviewed/amended to ensure that the systems is able

to function and private sector access in support of the

intervention is enabled.

Activities MOAI in liaison with other Ministries should prepare a roadmap to

better outline the requirements and modalities of developing an

improved system of ICT which better services the rural farming

community. Subsequently it needs put in place the required facilities

and staffing building on the existing ICT units within DAO and

other communication units in other Ministries for livestock,

fisheries and forestry. Technical training of public servants at all

levels in the research and extension services, plus the farming and

rural communities will be an essential part of the intervention.

Consideration should be given in looking for international

assistance in this area from development partners. The intervention

will impact at three levels – investment, policies and institutions and

the activities associated with these areas as follows:

Investment

Ensure the availability of adequate resources (infrastructure,

software, hardware and staff) for the development of a unit

within the DOA to undertake the ICT exercise, this will not only

include physical resources but also training and information

technology;

Comprehensive training in ITC of all government staff in the

rural development sector to ensure that they are capable of using

the system but also to impact this technology to the farmers and



122

rural community;

Large scale training of the rural community and private sector,

including farmers and farmer associations, community leaders,

deprived and landless households, and private sector SMEs and

large scale commercial enterprises.

Policies

Review current legal frameworks related to ICT and if necessary

propose changes to ensure that the information transfer system to

beneficiaries take place;

Formulate and adopt a policy to expand on the mandate of the

DOA to be better able to handle the new demands as regards to

ICT, a new stand-alone ICT Unit is proposed; which will link

closely with DAR and other R&D entities in the NR sector;

Encourage community-based organisations to establish e-centres

and other IT facilities,

Collaborate with the key donor organisations in the provision of

support to ICT, e.g. KOICA.

Institutions




ensure that a holistic ICT for agriculture development is

undertaken;

o Between the GOM Post and Telecommunications Department

(PTD), Myanmar Post and Communication (MPT), and

Telecommunication Development Bureau (TDB);




access to improved methods;


farmers in integrated planning;

Build on the existence of the village development committee and

community centres to be better able to introduce ICT facilities at

the village, village tract and Township levels

Create an ICT Unit within MOAI based in the DOA, with strong

links to DAR, DOF, DOLB, DOF and other concerned R&D

and extension entities in the other sector Ministries.

Expected

duration





123

11. Intervention 6: Crop diversification for improved livelihoods and human

nutrition

Justification Ensuring food security is an important issue for all countries.

However, the driving force with mandatory production target on

food crops in all sub-national areas will lose the comparative

advantage in crop production because of the differences in agro-

climatic condition, physical environment and cropping practices of

the region in the country. Concurrence with the food security

programme is the need to address post-harvest and processing

facilities which needs to be developed simultaneously. Market price

is a signal to determine the magnitude of supply and demand.

Mandatory planning on summer rice under irrigation scheme needs

to be reviewed in some areas where paddy production is less

lucrative compared to other crops. Under this condition farmers’

planting programme and choice must react to market forces in order

for them to benefit from increase productivity and income.

Rice provides 71% of the average daily calorie intake for most

people in Myanmar. The per-capita rice consumption – 190

kilograms a year – is the highest in the world. Much of this rice is

grown in Myanmar’s Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Bago Regions during

the monsoon season, with more than 3.2 million hectares planted. In

the non-monsoon months, a second rice crop is planted, or

alternatively a pulse crop such as black or green gram.

With economic prosperity and the shift from agrarian to urbanised

societies, diets become more diversified. This is occurring in

countries such as China and Indonesia. No country has been able to

sustain a rapid transition out of poverty without raising productivity

in its agricultural sector. A key factor in this transition is the shift of

the greater part of a country’s population from agriculture to other

work.

In Myanmar 73% of the population lives in rural areas, with one-

third of the population living in poverty. In 2010, 35% of Burmese

children younger than five years had stunted growth. However, the

examples of rural-to-urban migration in China and Indonesia

suggest Myanmar is at the point of a large-scale transformation in

the demographics of the country. Already, millions of Myanmar's

people work in neighbouring countries’ cities, and the countries

own cities are growing. This situation is likely to accelerate with the

recent political and economic reforms.

In both China and Indonesia, economic reforms supported the

transition from rice production to more diversified farming. The

increased diversity of farm production has helped millions of people

in both these countries move from poverty and subsistence rice

farming to a better life.



124

Growing rice at a subsistence level is known to be a poverty trap.

Farming is restricted to the growing of rice to feed families and

provide seed for following crops, without generating sufficient

income to break this cycle. This trap also has serious implications

for nutrition intake. A 195-gram serving of long grain, cooked

brown rice provides 11% of the recommended daily calorie value

(based on an adult diet of 2,000 calories a day). The same serving

provides no vitamin A, C or D intake, only 5% of recommended

daily iron value, 2% of daily calcium and no vitamin B12 value. Yet

for most people in Myanmar, rice is the main staple, providing

almost three-quarters of their daily calorie intake. So how can this

situation change?

A common approach to breaking the poverty trap and improving

dietary intake is diversifying farm production. The success of

diversification mainly depends on inclusion of higher value, non-

rice crops within rice-based farming systems. Applied correctly, this

approach increases the overall productivity and provides additional

income for farmers and their families. On a larger scale,

diversification of production can accelerate economic growth,

creating markets and the beginning of the transition out of poverty

and towards prosperity.

The experience of donor projects (e.g., ACIAR) elsewhere, such as

Cambodia, has seen farmers improve rice yields and expand into

other crops, increase their livestock numbers and begin to focus on

supplying markets. However, the complexities around farm size,

varying soil types and climate, agricultural inputs, seed varieties and

traditional customs mean that no one solution fits each country or

farm. Selection of the crops and management strategies best suited

to local conditions needs research and careful planning.

In Cambodia for example, tailoring research to the specifics of local

climatic conditions, agronomic skills and nearby markets has helped

farmers diversify production into maize and other valuable crops. In

Myanmar, ACIAR projects are similarly focusing on providing

locally appropriate ways to enhance crop yields and introduce crop

diversity. The aim is to not only enhance productivity and provide

income opportunities, but to also improve diets through access to

increased nutrition.

Legumes are the second-most-important group of crops in Myanmar

predominantly grown in the CDZ, after rice. They are a major

source of protein, minerals and vitamins, so improving legume

productivity is potentially one of the most successful strategies to

improve nutritional security.

ACIAR research into enhancing legume production in Myanmar’s

CDZ has been running since 2007. It has provided smallholder

farmers partaking in an ACIAR survey in the central dry zone of

Burma. Inspecting new pigeon pea lines in Burma’s central dry



125

zone, farmers with higher yielding crops and improved rhizobial

inoculants for natural fertiliser, and established the country’s first

village-based seedbanks. The improved varieties of chickpea,

groundnut and pigeon pea yield as much as 35% more than

traditional varieties and are being readily adopted by farmers. The

work is now being built on to capitalise on its achievements and will

also inform other projects in Myanmar.

In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, opportunities for smallholder farmers to

increase diversification in rice–rice and rice–pulse cropping are

being examined. This research is determining best practice for crop

selection and management to both increase and sustain crop yields.

The adoption of new rice varieties and alternative management

options by farmers in the delta will allow them to advance their rice

harvest and also have better options for post-rice crops such as

black gram.

For many poor farmers in Myanmar, crop diversification will play

an important role in escaping poverty and lifting their daily nutrition

intake towards recommended levels. Younger family members may

especially benefit from opportunities to access improved nutrition.

Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5

years) interventions, owing to the need to expand the ongoing R&D

and extension efforts on crop diversification at various levels

impacting on investment, policies and institutions.

Scope There is good potential to mitigate the risks of the ongoing poverty

trap related to the continuous reliance on the cultivation of rice

through crop diversification through improved R&D and extension

delivery of improved cropping systems, and the scope for this

change is anticipated to be brought about by:

The intervention will target the country as a whole, with

particular focus on regions where large scale cultivation of

alternative crops like legumes and oilseeds are predominant. For

this a cropping systems approach to diversification will be

applied.

Initially the program is to expand on the activities of ACIAR and

other donor projects within MOAI working closely with DAR

and DOA. For this to happen and improve impact at the farmer

level the linkages between DOA and ACIAR will need to be

strengthened.

The program will need to source the whole range of existing crop

diversification technologies that have been developed/used in

Myanmar, while in addition other appropriate technologies will

need to be sourced from international sources, ACIAR, ICRAF,

ICRISAT, IRRI, CYMMIT, FAO, etc.

Testing of technologies to closely involve the farming



126

community, and where wide scale extension of crop

diversification is undertaken through the involvement of farmers

and farmer groups/association, village development committees

and participatory dialogue.

Farmers and rural communities are to be made aware of the

benefits of diversifying their existing cropping patterns,

especially as regards to the nutritional value and economic

benefits.

A feed-back mechanism will facilitate a better understanding of

the key constraints to farmers in regards to the impacts of

changes to cropping systems and the appropriateness of the

technologies.

Need to training both research and extension government staff in

cropping systems R&D and diversification, human nutrition and

other related technologies; assistance in this respect from

development partners could be appropriate to facilitate this

capacity building of staff. Subsequent to this farmers would be


As regards to legume cultivation the DAR facilities for the

production of rhizobia will need to be radically expanded, if

possible the production is to expanded through PPP and/or

private sector entity.

To expedite the large scale roll-out of the technologies, it will be

important to ensure that the seed supply of legumes and oilseeds

is enhanced to meet demand.

At the production level suitable contract farming ventures will be

needed involving farmer groups/associations and private sector

enterprises involved in the marketing and export of the

commodities.

Policy changes will be needed to address the issue of the change

from rice cultivation to alternative crops, where rice cultivation

is often considered to be mandatory by GOM staff, more

especially the DOA whose role it is to expedite government

policy.

Activities MOAI should take the lead and prepare a strategic and operational

plan to initiate the process of addressing the importance of

diversifying crop production away from predominantly paddy

cultivation. Furthermore, technical training in crop diversification

and the positive human nutritional benefits of the change, of public

servants, staff of agriculture based associations, and farmers, even

the general public is also urgently needed. Consideration should be

given in looking for international assistance in this area from

development partners, in addition to ACIAR and IFAD who are

already involved.



127

The intervention will impact at three levels – investment, policies

and institutions and the activities associated with these areas as

follows:

Investment

Focusing in particular on crop diversification, ensure the

availability of adequate resources for an extension system

promoting more agricultural technicians better able to provide

training, demonstrations and awareness services to farmers at the

townships and village level;

Increase support to research for accessing and developing

improved appropriate crop diversification technologies across

the whole range of farming systems in the four main AEZs,

while focusing in particularly on CDZ;

Improve government research station/centre facilities and

capacity skills of their staff to better facilitate the R&D in this

technical area;

Improved supply of important inputs, more especially improved

seed and rhizobia.

Provide the necessary funds for DAR and other government staff

to study cropping system technologies in suitable institutions

abroad.

Policies

Review the existing land use policies related to paddy cultivation

with a view to promulgating changes to the legal framework to

better address the issue of crop diversification and its impact on

land use in villages lands, especially as regards to irrigated lands

and summer cropping;

Create the formation of a "crop diversification research unit"

within DAR closely linked to DOA extension system;

Collaborate with international research institutes in a whole

range of new and improved technologies, focusing in particular

on the diversification of agriculture;

Working with a wide range of government and non-government

entities, ensure that the policy for crop diversification is fully

understood by the farming communities and the general public to

inform the benefits of improved income generation and human

nutrition.

Institutions




access to improved technologies;




128

farmers for alternative cropping patterns and diversification;

Build on the existence of the village development committees at

village and village tract levels and encourage farming

community to develop their lands in integrated manner to ensure

better management of irrigated lands, ensuring a move away

from rice monoculture to alternative crops (legumes, oilseeds

and vegetables).

Expected

duration





129

ANNEX 9: RURAL POVERTY AND AGRICULTURAL/RURAL SECTOR ISSUES

Priority areas Affected group Major issues Actions needed

Low productivity

of agriculture,

livestock and

fisheries sectors

Poor and marginal

farmers;

Farmers with small

(>2ha) and medium

(>4ha) landholdings;

Landless dependent on

livelihoods from farm

labour, livestock or

subsistence fisheries;

Communities dependent

on food security and

livelihoods from use of

natural resources such as

forest sand fisheries;

Female-headed

households are especially

vulnerable;

National ethnic groups

are particularly

vulnerable.

High incidence of small

land holdings,

landlessness in the

agriculture production

areas;

Insecurity of land tenure

and user rights;

Climate change resulting

in increased incidence of

severe droughts in the

Central Dry Zone

(Sagaing, Mandalay, and

Magway Divisions), as

well as seasonal droughts

in other parts of the

country such as the border

areas and the

Ayeyarwaddy Delta;

Food insecurity,

particularly on a seasonal

basis;

Lack of productive

farming resources and

agriculture inputs

including land, irrigation,

draught power,

equipment, fertilizer and

improved HYV seed;

Lack of effective water

harvesting and

management practices;

Relatively weak

agriculture extension

service especially in

minority and remoter

border areas;

Inadequate investment in

agricultural research

services;

Lack of market oriented

production – top-down

directives on quota for

rice production for export;

High dependency on a

single annual rice crop for

Increased public and

private sector investment

in agriculture and rural

infrastructure and services.

Development of

differential policies for

promoting market-driven

agriculture and other

interventions related to

using agriculture as a tool

for poverty alleviation.

Promote evidence-based

policy development for the

agricultural sector.

Support dissemination of

improved crop and

livestock production

technology for sustainable

agricultural intensification

and diversification.

Support community seed

production for

multiplication of the

foundation seed at the

farm level

Strengthen linkages

between agricultural

research and extension

services

Build links with the

private sector for

marketing, input supply

and other services.

Introduce cash–for–work

programme to provide

rural employment and

reduce rural poverty.

Focus on integrated

farming system to promote

livestock development.

Strengthen the capacity of

the agriculture extension

service and livestock

agent.

Promote income



130

main source of income for

farmers in many areas;

Lack of access to credit,

markets, marketing

information, trading skills

and input supplies;

Agriculture value chain is

inefficient;

Traditional systems of

livestock husbandry with

high incidence of

mortality (poultry) and

production inefficiency

(pigs, cattle & buffalo);

High incidence of animal

diseases with limited

monitoring and

surveillance systems and

poor access to

vaccination.

generation of resource

poor household through on

– farm and off – farm

activities.

Promote climate change

adaptation practice at

community level

Promote evidence-based

policies and action plans

for adaptation to climate

change

Irrigation Poor and marginal

farmers, especially those

with small (>2ha)

landholdings and female

headed households;

Landless, especially

female headed

households dependent on

livelihoods from farm

labour;

National ethnic groups.

Severe water scarcity in

some areas, e.g.

Mandalay, Sagaing, and

Magway Divisions, and

seasonal water constraints

elsewhere in the country –

e.g. parts of Bago and

Yangon divisions, as well

as Kachin and Shan

States;

Poor operations and

maintenance of irrigation

schemes;

Provision of irrigation

facilities not well-

supported by extension

and agricultural research

services;

Lack of water

management and water

catchment strategies;

Strict cropping pattern

required by government

for those receiving

irrigation, limiting

farmers’ choices in

selection of appropriate

cropping patterns;

Absence of an enabling

Strengthen the role of

water user community for

O&M of the irrigation

scheme

Promote local planning of

seasonal cropping based

on farmers’ preferences

and collaboration among

scheme operators, water

user groups and farmers.

Review of the Current

Water Charges

Creation of an Enabling

Environment for the

Formation of Water User

Associations

Establishment of a Water

Resource Management

System

Enhanced training for

extension staff in

participatory approaches

to planning and

implementation of

irrigation projects;

Improved access to credit

for rural poor to enable

them to pay water charges

and fees.



131

environment for the

formation of effective

water users associations;

Absence of sufficiently

experienced technical and

facilitating staff in

participatory planning,

management and training;

Inadequate financial

capacity of farmer and

water users to pay water

charges and fees.

Rural Finance Poor and marginal

farmers, especially those

with small (>2ha)

landholdings;

Landless dependent on

livelihoods from small

businesses, livestock or

subsistence fisheries;

National ethnic groups

High incidence of debt

distress;

The poor are still largely

dependent on high cost

informal credit;

Extreme shortage of credit

shrinks bargaining power

of the poor farmer

Household indebtedness is

high and rising;

Formal micro-finance

fails to reach poorest

HHs;

Lack of finance limits

option for improved

agricultural production;

Self-help requires more

than credit but provision

of livelihood promotion

services need to be

developed.

Financial viability of

SRG-bank linkage and of

other microfinance

initiatives is poor but

starting.

Legislation to nurture the

sector has been passed but

not as yet fully

implemented.

Targeting the poorest for

micro-finance will require

addressing the issues of

vulnerability and risk,

especially measures to re-

capitalize the poorest

households.

Provide inputs (in kind

and cash) to groups of

poor households, with

repayments used to

establish self – help group

or savings and credit

groups to finance

investments and for

emergencies.

Development of a national

institutional framework

and schemes for providing

rural credit, micro-finance

and group lending,

especially for women.

Fostering development of

second tier organizations

of SRGs – federations to

take over support and

promotional tasks and to

provide a stronger base for

lobbying for entitlements

of the poor.

Institutional development

of intermediary and

support organizations such

as NGOs, banks, training

institutions and apex

organizations.

Promote off – farm

activities that add value to

agricultural, fisheries and

non-timber forest products

e.g. simple processing,

grading etc.

Provide appropriate

vocational skills training.



132

Limited opportunities for

off-farm income

diversification.

Promote flow of

information on off-farm

income diversification

opportunities.

Build linkages with the

private sector.

Gender Disparities Women and women-

headed households

especially poor and

marginal farmers from

national ethnic groups;

Women and women

headed landless

households, especially

those dependent on

livelihoods from small

businesses, livestock or

subsistence fisheries.

Low participation by

women in economic

activities

Lack of participation by

women in decision-

making bodies at local

(village and village-tract)

levels;

Lack of participation by

women in elected bodies

at regional and national

levels;

Poor access to assets,

especially land and

livestock;

Lack of access to formal

and informal credit

facilities;

Heavy burden on women

to collect water and fuel

wood

Lack of opportunities for

off-farm IGA.

Empowerment of women

in social and community

affairs through

membership of SRGs,

village councils, etc.

Capacity building for

leadership and

management for both men

and women.

Policies and programmes

to promote equitable

access to land and other

productive assets for both

men and women.

Enhanced and equitable

education, literacy, skills

and income generation

training for both men and

women rural poor.

Improved and equitable

access to financial services

for both men and women

rural poor.

Reduce women’s

workloads by improving

access to water and fuel

wood and labour saving

technologies for rural

poor.



133

ANNEX 10: ORGANIZATIONS MATRIX (SWOT ANALYSIS)

Organisation Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities/threats Remarks

Enablers

1. Ministry of

Agriculture and

Irrigation

Potential to take

considerable

action once

convinced;

Composed of a

number of

departments

covering a range

of agricultural

related issues;

Synergies

between different

departments

under one

umbrella

Ministry;

Strong national

network covering

all agro-

ecosystems;

Good network of

facilities located

in all agro-

ecological

regions;

Strong senior

cadre of

committed

managers.

More priority on

production than on

policies and service

delivery;

Top down and ad

hoc approaches to

planning and

decision-making;

Lack of

transparency in

budgets;

Decision making

centralized;

Poor coordination

with other line

agencies including

forestry, livestock

and fisheries;

Lack of investment

in service delivery

and facilities;

Emphasis on

production rather

than on food

security;

Paucity of new

qualified and

skilled personnel to

replace retiring

staff;

Centralised

decision-making

not responsive to

local priorities.

Need to provide for

coordinated approach to

farming systems under one

Ministry;

Potential for a more

strategic approach to

planning;

Climate change: unusual

rainfall patterns,

salinisation, flooding,

drought;

National Economic

problems are likely to

impact on further

investment in agriculture;

Lack of investment in

educational institutions

will reduce availability of

qualified staff;

Potential for conflict with

other natural resourced

based Ministries e.g.

Forestry, Fisheries.

Has potential to be

a strong partner for

NAPA investment

in Myanmar;

New Government

may positively

influence role of

MOAI in rural

development;

Need for a more

strategic and

systematic

approach to

agricultural

development;

Important to focus

on vision for

inclusive rural

development in

Myanmar.

Agencies within

MOAI:

a. Department of

Agriculture

(DOA)

Committed staff

keen to help poor

farmers;

Presence of staff

at all levels of

governance in

country;

Ability to take a

farming systems

approach to

extension;

Linkages with

DAR (for

Lack of investment

has resulted in a

decline of number

and quality of

extension staff;

Lack of well-

trained personnel

with participatory

skills;

Insufficient

resources for

effective field

visits.

Continued lack of

availability of qualified

extension personnel;

Under-resourced

department unlikely to be

able to meet demand for

extension services.


helping to provide

extension services

for NAPA

project(s);


giving farmers

choice in selection

of economically

viable crops best

suited to local

conditions;

Potential for



134

research and

YAU (for

training);

Townships and

District

Agricultural

Supervisory

Committee

provides

opportunity for

coordination with

other

Government

agencies and

local councils;

Technical

expertise in land-

use planning in

Land Use

Division.

partnerships with

civil society in

delivery of

extension services.

Potential to build

on coordination at

village tract and

township levels.

Potential to

promote local level

land use planning,

working with

SLRD and local

councils.

b. Department of

Agricultural

Planning(DAP)

Commitment of

staff, desire to

really help the

poor;

Well-trained

senior staff;

Potential for

coordinating

different

departments in

MOAI.

Few well-qualified

staff to replace

retiring managers;

Tends to be Nay

Pyi Daw focused

with little feel for

regions.

Move to Nay Pyi Taw

likely to increase distance

from farmers;

Emphasis on policy

influenced by politics

rather than realities in the

field;

New post-election

Government structures

may allow for better

responsiveness in planning

for regional needs.


coordinating

NAPA activities

with other Depts.

of MOAI;

Can help to ensure

lessons from

projects are fed

back into the policy

development

process at the

national level.

c. Irrigation

Department

(ID)

Technically

qualified and

committed staff;

Potential for

strong linkages

with other MOAI

departments and

with Local

Authorities;

Tendency to take a

technological

approach to

delivery of services

Lack of financial

resources for

investment in

irrigation facilities

and service

delivery;

Lack of a farming

systems and water

management

approach;

Lack of trained

personnel with

participatory skills.

Climate change likely to

increase demand for

irrigation but will reduce

consistent supply of water;

Potential for good

coordination with other

line depts. under MOAI;

Poor coordination with

other line agencies such as

forestry;

Potential for conflicting

demands for water.


giving farmers

choice in selection

of economically

viable crops best

suited to local

conditions in

cooperation with

DOA;


NAPA projects to

provide irrigation

and supporting

services to poor

farmers.

d. Settlement and

Land

Records

Department

Potential ability

to coordinate land

tenure issues with

agricultural

Land tenure

insecurity linked to

failure by farmers

to comply with top-

Lack of a national land

policy that defines user

rights and assures security

of tenure;

Will play a key

role in linkage

between security of

land tenure for



135

(SLRD) priorities;

Ability to work

with other MOAI

depts. to foster a

farming systems

approach;

Mandate allows

for a systematic

approach to land-

use planning.

down cropping

directives;

Political

imperatives can

influence access to

land;

Land-use decisions

are made on an ad

hoc basis.

At local level, security of

land tenure at whim of

local officials

farmers and their

choice of cropping

patterns.

Potential to work

with DOA in land-

use planning.

e. Water

Resources

Utilization

Department

(WRUD)

Ability to work

with other MOAI

depts. to foster a

farming systems

approach;

Mandate allows

for a systematic

approach to water

resources

planning

Lack of a planned

and strategic

approach to water

management and

water catchment;

Tendency to take a

technological

approach to

delivery of

services;

Lack of investment

in water resources;

Climate change likely to

increase incidence of

droughts and floods;

Potential for conflicting

demands for water;

Poor coordination with

other line agencies such as

forestry;


NAPA projects to

provide access to

groundwater and

supporting services

to poor farmers.

f. Yezin

Agricultural

University (YAU)

Highly

committed staff

but the more

experienced are

now retiring;

Close links with

other MOAI

depts. Can foster

a cooperative

approach;

Knowledge of

teaching staff

outdated;

Poor teaching and

research facilities;

Lack of young


over from retirees;

Lack access to

external knowledge

and resources;

Poor infrastructure.

Lack of investment by

Government in

infrastructure

Neglect of national

education

institutions

aggravated by

international

sanctions

g. Dep. of

Agricultural

Research (DAR)

Highly

committed staff

but the more

experienced are

now retiring;

Strong foundation

of applied

research in the

past;

Network of

agricultural

research stations

throughout the

country;

Strong links with

DOA.

Lack of young

well-trained staff to

take over from

retirees;

Lack of investment

has resulted in a

decline of number

and quality of

research staff;

Lack of investment

has resulted in a

decline of research

facilities;

Lack of access to

external knowledge

and resources.

Research driven by

political priorities rather

than by needs of farmers;

Climate change offers both

an opportunity (for

adaptation) and threat

(need for anew mind-set).

Potential partner

for NAPA project

in selection and

development of

cultivars best

suited to local

conditions;

Neglect of national

research

institutions

aggravated by

international

sanctions

Ministry of

Finance and

Revenue

Main

Government

financial

Poor absorptive

capacity to utilise

new investment;

As a Myanmar

Government institution,

the MoFR is subject to

The sanctions on

Myanmar mean

that the MoFR



136

institution that

has oversight of

the Myanmar

economy;

Central bank is

now

independent

because of

reforms;

Financial and

economic

reforms provide

a foundation for

inclusive

economic

growth.

Lack of skilled

human resources;

Poor institutional

capacity;

Segregated from

economic

planning

processes;

Centralised

decision-making

being addressed

to improve

responsive to

local priorities.

international sanctions;

New parliamentary

structure may improve

transparency of

budgetary processes.

cannot be a

partner institution

for management

of UN & other

donor funds.

Ministry of

Livestock,

Fisheries and

Rural

Development

Technically

qualified and

committed staff;

Some laboratory

services;

Provides

vaccination

service in some

areas of the

country;

Ability to respond

to major disasters

(e.g. Cyclone

Nargis) to help

replace lost

livestock;

Fisheries is a

major export

sector;

Fishing

legislation

supports

sustainable and

equitable use of

resource on

paper;

Good extension

services in some

areas of the

country;

Infrastructure is

outdated and

suffers from lack of

investment;

Lack of qualified

younger staff

Lack of resources

for surveillance of

major animal

diseases;

Fishing licensing

system does not

support small-scale

fisheries;

Centralised

decision-making

not responsive to

local priorities;

Lack of effective

implementation of

national legislation

at local levels.

Need to provides a

direction for future for

livestock and fisheries;

Recognised lack of human

resources and the need to

provides for capacity

building but resources not

certain;

Threat from too strong an

emphasis on export sector

for fisheries;

Threats to livestock sector

from increasing incidence

of disease.

Potential partner

for alternative

IGAs for landless

in livestock

production.

Ministry of

Environmental

Conservation and

Forestry

Umbrella

organization for

all forest related

activities –

conservation and

sustainable

Lack of

coordination with

other Government

agencies in natural

resource

management;

Framework required for

sustainable management

of forest resources, forest

plantations, and for IGAs

for rural poor;

Need to address problems

Poverty root cause

of deforestation

and so MOECAF

needs to work

closely with

MOAI;



137

management of

forest and

biodiversity

estate;

Technical

competence at

national level;

Extension

services reach

down to local

level;

History of

working with

local NGOs in

community

forestry;

Forestry

Instruction (1995)

allows for

community

forestry.

Inability to

implement forestry

legislation in some

remoter parts of

country;

Centralised

decision-making

not responsive to

local priorities;

Lack of

transparency in

statistics on forest

estate and illegal

logging.

with lack of coordination

with other sectoral

agencies.

Could be a

potential partner

for FAO/LIFT

(with MOAI) in

providing IGAs

and greening of

CDZ project areas.

Service Providers

Myanmar

Agricultural

Development

Bank

(MADB)

Sole financial

institution

permitted to loan

money to

farmers;

Network of

branches all over

the country down

to township level;

Staff know local

conditions

Need to streamline

loan procedures;

Too much

bureaucracy;

Weak credit

assessment;

Funding constraints

limit loans to poor

farmers;

Access to loans is

not equitable.

Enhancement of

institutional capacity

needed;

Policy of requiring

immediate repayment of

loans creates severe

burden on farmers

MADB retains

monopoly on agric.

credit;

Could be a

potential partner

for NAPA

programme funds

but this could be

subject to

sanctions.

FAO FAO presence in

Myanmar since

1978;

Good working

relationship with

Government –

trusted partner;

Sound local

knowledge and

works throughout

the country;

Good partnership

with MOAI,

MLFRD, and

MOECAF;

Assisted the

Government to

prepare NMTPF

and CPF;

Experience of

Experience more

with technical

implementation;

High level of

technical and

overhead costs;

Substantial reliance

on international

consultants for TA;

Lacks close

relationships with

local NGOs;

Does not share

information easily

with other donors;

Both NMTPF and

CPF lack

consultation with

stakeholders;

Previous history of

working with IFAD in

other countries;

Government favours FAO

as partner but concerned

about costs;

Would provide strong

linkages with

NMTPF/CPF and UNCT

country strategic

framework for 2012-15;

Could provide both

technical

support(with a

cost);

Strong

complementary

with IFAD for

technical support in

procurement and

infrastructure

development,

financial

management, and

oversight.

Potential partner

for strategy

development for

agriculture and

rural development.



138

managing

agricultural

projects;

UN agency with a

mandate to work

with Government.

UNOPS Good experience

of fund

management in

Myanmar;

Manages 3MDG

and LIFT funds;

Able to provide

financial and

project services;

Core support staff

based in Yangon.

Lacks technical

expertise in

agriculture;

No existing strong

links with

MOAI,MOBA or

MLFRD.

Provides potential linkages

with LIFT;

Linkage with country

strategic framework for

2012-15 for IFAD.

Could be a

potential NAPA

partner for

procurement,

project

management and

financial

management;

WFP Experience of

food security

situation across

Myanmar;

Experience of

vulnerability

analysis in

country;

Strong human

and technical

resources needed

for surveys;

Has worked with

MOAI in past;

Strong links with

INGO sector

Seen by the

government as a

UN watchdog on

food security issues

and human rights;

Links with local

NGOs and CBOs

are not as strong;

Some activities are

restricted by

Government;

Focus is on food

aid to tackle food

insecurity;

Does not have

strong links with

MOBA.

Keen to work with on

poverty and vulnerability

analysis in project areas

Provides linkage with

UNCT country strategic

framework for 2012-15

A potential partner

in carrying out a

baseline poverty

and vulnerability

analysis in CDZ for

selection of project

areas and

beneficiaries

UNDP Experience with

HDI since 1994

ICDP operational

in townships in

23 townships,

including some in

CDZ

Focus is on the

poor in rural

areas – marginal

farmers and

landless

Experience with

microfinance in

22 townships

Solid body of

experience in

working with

poor -

Spread very thinly

over country so

CDZ experience is

limited

Previous

Programme

addressed five areas

and lacked focus

Resources are

insufficient for the

areas addressed

Sustainability is not

assured – relies too

much on donor

inputs

No Government

ownership of HDI

programme

Lack of a policy /

HDI experiences provide

lessons and best practices

for NAA

Body of evidence in

building social capital

through SRG –

experiences + skilled

people

Government tolerates

community-based

activities of HDI providing

for acceptance of IFAD

targeting of rural poor

HDI activities were

subject to annual IAM

reviews and continuity of

UNDP support was not

assured – this will be

rectified in the full-scale

A potential partner

for NAPA in

carrying out

baseline poverty

and vulnerability

analysis in CDZ for

selection of project

areas and

beneficiaries, and a

partner for

implementation

activities.



139

documented

through annual

IAM reviews

Experience in

working with

Government

agencies

Experience of

strengthening

community based

groups.

New country

programme now

approved

legislative

framework that

would allow

replication in other

areas

Tension with donor

community in

coordinating donor

activities.

country programme

New country programme

developing partnership

with the Government

LIFT programme MOU with

Government

allows LIFT to

operate

throughout

country

Funding

approved for

livelihoods and

food security

projects in CDZ

Works through

national and

international

NGOs

Building on

previous

experience to

forge partnerships

with Government

agencies since

lifting of

sanctions.

Multi-donor

consortium means

that donor priorities

may not always

concur

Focus is on livelihoods

and food security and on

rural poor – allows for

partnership with like

minded donors

LIFT consortium involves

many donors – both an

opportunity for

partnerships and a threat in

terms of continuity of

funding

Assured funds have been

less than requested but

lifting of sanctions offers

new opportunities.

LIFT keen to work

with FAO and

other UN agencies

LIFT plans in CDZ

would complement

IFAD & ACIARD

projects

Funding

mechanism

provides a model

for future projects

INGOs Some agencies

(e.g. ActionAid)

have good track

record of working

with

Government;

Solid experience

of working with

communities in

Myanmar;

Good

participatory

skills;

Some have a

wide

geographical

Some activities

were restricted by

Government in the

past;

Some did not have

trust of old

Government;

Some restrictions

on where they can

work in the

country;

Some challenges in

working with UN

agencies in the

country;

Lack of experience

Experiences with Nargis

have fostered trust

between NGO community

and Government;

Nargis has built capacity

of local NGOs for

development activities;

Since cyclone

Nargis more room

and freedom to

work



140

coverage,

including CDZ;

Mix of

international and

national staff in

INGOs;

Work well with

LIFT (a potential

partner for

NAPA);

Work well with

local government.

in managing size of

funds such as the

IFAD loan

Local NGOs Strong

commitment to

empowering

communities;

Some have teams

of committed

young people and

retired

Government

officials able to

work with

national line

agencies;

Work well with

Local

Authorities;

Good knowledge

of local

conditions;

Generally have

trust of local

communities

Lack of capacity in

technical areas and

participatory

planning;

Lack of financial,

technical and

human resources;

Some NGOs are

subject to political

pressures;

Some NGOs are

controlled by Govt.

Lack of project

management and

financial

management skills.

Experiences with Nargis

have fostered trust

between NGO community

and Government;

Nargis has built capacity

of local NGOs for

development activities;

Since cyclone

Nargis more room

and freedom to

work

Client

Organisations

Formal Village

Institutions:

Village and

township level

development

committees

formed as a result

of recent

changes to the

Village/tract

administration law

Strong links with

local

communities;

Sound local

knowledge;

Support of

national

Government

institutions;

Personnel

committed to

local

communities

Townships and

District

Agricultural

Supervisory

Lack of capacity

and trained human

resources

Lack of financial

resources –

dependent on

national

Government for

funding

Local level

development

committees have

little experience;

Not clear if officials

will be elected or

not

Subject to national

New constitution and

changes in legislation give

formal local institutions

more powers;

Potential for role in

participatory rural

development;

Potential conflict between

local and military

priorities in some areas;

Potential for fostering

partnerships between

donors and Local

development committees

LIFT projects able

to work with Local

Government;

Potential partner

for delivery of

NAPA programme/

project services to

communities;

Potential to build

on existing

coordination

structures at village

tract and township

levels

Government

reforms and

decentralisation



141

Committee

provides

opportunity for

coordination

between relevant

Government

agencies and

local councils and

authorities.

directives. provide

opportunities for

working with local

government

Informal Village

Institutions

Farmers

associations

Water-user groups

Self-reliance

groups (SRG)

Based on strong

social capital;

Strong

commitment to

local issues;

Trusted by local

communities;

Often associated

with religious

communities;

Ability to

mobilise

assistance in

emergencies;

Brings private

sector and local

communities

together

Sound local

knowledge.

May lack

Government

support;

Lack organization

and outside support

at present;

Subject to pressure

from local

authorities and

Peace and

development

councils;

Lack of capacity

and resources –

financial, human,

etc.

Changing political

situation may provide a

stronger role for informal

institutions.

Major role in participatory

rural development;

Strengthen ability of

community members to

interact with Government

agencies and outside

service providers.

Legislative changes

provide opportunities for

formation of local level

informal organizations.

Social capital

provides a solid

foundation for

water user groups,

women’s

organizations, and

farmers’

associations

UNDP programme

on HDI offers

some lessons and

best practices for

NAPA.

Government

reforms and

decentralisation

provide

opportunities for

working with local

informal

organisations.



142

ANNEX 11: COMPLEMENTARY DONOR INITIATIVE/PARTNERSHIP POTENTIAL

Agency Priority sectors Areas of focus Period of

current

country

Strategy

Complementarities/Synergy

Potential

UN Family

UNCT UN Strategic

Framework (2012-

2015) provides a

framework for

coordinated UN

assistance to

Myanmar.

Four strategic

priorities:

1. Encourage

inclusive growth

(both rural and

urban), including

agricultural

development and

enhancement of

employment

opportunities.

2. Increase equitable

access to quality

social services

3. Reduce

vulnerability to

natural disasters and

climate change

4. Promote good

governance and

strengthen

democratic

institutions and

rights

2012-2015 Potential for partnerships and

synergies with UNCT on

strategic priorities 1 (poverty

alleviation in rural areas of

CDZ), 3 (climate change

adaptation) and 4(policy

advocacy).

WFP New Country

Programme

focuses on 3 pillars:

Transition from

HDI to sustainable

community

development;

Climate change,

environment and

DRR; Policy advice

and review on

poverty reduction

and democratic

governance

Old HDI focused on

activities such as:

Strengthen village

community

institutions

Strengthen Local

Community Based

organizations

Capacity building

for local

communities on

basic social needs

such as health,

education,

HIV/AIDS

Assist communities

to gain access to

cultivable land and

land development,

agriculture inputs

and tool.

Community forestry

2013-2015 Complementarities with IFAD

programmes and high potential

for collaboration in

community dev. and micro

lessons and best practices from

HDI projects, esp SRG for

NAPA initiatives.

Assessments of Integrated

Household Living Conditions

Regular review of Agricultural

Sector, with FAO.

Experience with self-reliance

groups (SRG).

Potential for strong linkages

with Pillars I and III of 2013-

2015 country programme.



143

activities.

Provision of micro

finance through

NGOs;

Renewed focus on

Climate change,

environment and

DRR

Support policy

dialogue and

discussions with

development

partners.

FAO Agriculture / rural

development

Health & nutrition

Support for

sustainable

agriculture and rural

livelihoods in

Northern Rakhine

State;

Capacity building

and technology

adoption for

sustainable food

security and the Wa

Special Region;

Support for ex-

poppy farmers and

poor vulnerable

families in the

border areas;

Preparation of a

National Medium

Term Priority

Framework and a

Country Programme

Framework;

Support income

generation of coffee

small holders,

oilseed crops farmer

and oil palm small

holders, and dairy

farmers;

Strengthening the

capacity and

upgrading the Forest

Research Institute;

Avian Influenza

programme

2012-2016 Strong complementary with

IFAD for technical support

and policy intervention at

higher level

Strong complementarities with

IFAD programmes and high

potential for collaboration in

the Central Dry Zone.

UNOPS Multi-sectoral

programme

Management

Food Security &

Increasing

agricultural

production

Diversifying income

2010-2013 Strong complementarities with

FAO/IFAD programmes and

high potential for collaboration

in the Central Dry Zone



144

Livelihoods

Health

Rural infrastructure

sources (primarily,

but not only for

landless)

Improvements in

nutrition and

hygiene

Improved social

protection measures

in place

Improvements in the

enabling

environment for

food security and

livelihoods,

Reduce the burden

of communicable

disease mortality

and morbidity for

Tuberculosis (TB),

Malaria and HIV

and AIDS

Turnkey project

management &

procurement of

goods and services

Strong complementary with

IFAD for technical support in

procurement, project

management, financial

management, and oversight

UNODC Drug control Supporting

alternative

livelihoods to opium

production

On going

ILO Labour rights Labour migration

Social protection

and discrimination

Child labour and

forced labour

Assist Government

with formulating

legislation on trade

unions and workers’

rights

On going Potential for

complementarities with

NAPA in terms of ensuring

that only voluntary paid

labour is used for irrigation

infrastructure and other

project activities;

Help to monitor land tenure

and user rights in project

areas.

UNAIDS Health AIDS policies and

briefs

Drivers of the

epidemic

Gender

Greater Involvement

of People Living

with HIV/AIDS

HIV care and

support, prevention,

testing and

counselling,

treatment

On going



145

Human rights

Key populations

Monitoring and

evaluation

Resources and

funding for AIDS

Science and

research

UNHCR Humanitarian

assistance

Refugees

Builds houses,

peace of mind for

Cyclone Nargis

victims

Protect refugees and

resolve refugee

problems

On going

UNICEF Health & Nutrition

HIV/AIDS

Education

Water & Sanitation

Child Protection

Communication

Work to protect

children from many

deadly diseases,

improve their

access to healthcare

and essential drugs,

and enhance their

mental and physical

development.

Work to empower

children, youth and

women to protect

themselves against

HIV/AIDS, and help

ensure that people

infected with and

affected by

HIV/AIDS are

supported.

Work to help

primary school

children receive a

quality education,

and to help ensure

that children are

being taught

fundamental life

skills in the

classroom.


complementarities with

NAPA projects in terms of

improved incomes, food

security and nutrition for

rural poor.

Potential for synergies in

capacity building activities

for communities

UN-HABITAT Water Sanitation

and Infrastructure,

urban development

and land records

Support for

Coordination of

Early Recovery

Shelters

The Mekong Water

and Sanitation

Initiative

Agreement with the

government on DRR

On going Potential for cooperation

with IFAD on land tenure

rights and DRR



146

and DRM

Urban and regional

development;

Working with

Settlement and Land

Records Dept. to

modernise land

tenure title records

and cadastral maps.

UNFPA Health Support to its

partners focuses on

reducing maternal

mortality

Preventing the

spread of HIV


complementarities with NAPA

projects in terms of improved

maternal and child nutrition,

and empowering women.

World Bank Interim Strategy

Note (2013-

14)

Pillar I:

Transforming

Institutions –

institutional

strengthening for the

government;

Pillar II: Building

Confidence in

ability of current

reforms to deliver

benefits to the

people;

Pillar III:

Preparation for

resumption of full

country programme

for

Myanmar.

Grant programme

for national

community-driven

development (CDD)

of $85million.

2013-2014 Potential for working with

community development

programme and also with

Pillar I of ISN on institutional

strengthening.

Experiences of CDD provide

opportunities for joint

activities and learning from

experiences

Carrying out Public

Expenditure and Financial

Accountability

Assessment(PEFA) and Public

Expenditure Review (PER) –

useful for future NAPA

investment

Asian

Development

Bank

Interim Re-

engagement

Strategy for

Myanmar

Building human

resources and

capacities in ADB’s

areas of focus;

Promoting an

enabling economic

environment;

Creating access and

connectivity in rural

livelihoods and

infrastructure

development.

2012-2014 Potential for working with

NAPA programme in

strengthening human

resources, promoting an

enabling environment, and

improving access to services

for rural livelihoods

Sector assessments provide

useful materials for NAPA

project design

WHO Health Prevention and

control of

Communicable



projects in terms of improved



147

Diseases

Health System

Development

Child, adolescent

and Reproductive

Health

Non-Communicable

Diseases and Mental

Health

Country Health

Profile.

nutrition, and health.

Donor Agencies

ACIAR Agricultural/rural

development;

ACIAR’s medium-

term strategy aligns

directly with the

priorities of the

Australia–Myanmar

Aid Program

Strategy (2012–14)

for improving the

livelihoods of the

rural poor through

agricultural

development and

sustainable

economic programs.

Future research

priorities will be

within the following

spectrum:

Further

collaboration for

improvement in the

productivity of grain

legumes

Diversification and

intensification of

rice-based cropping

systems to increase

overall productivity

and farm income

Smallholder and

community

aquaculture

development, and

post-Nargis

community

remediation, in the

Ayeyarwaddy Delta

Research support for

smallholder

livestock-based

cattle enterprises in

2012-2014 Potential for


projects in terms of cropping

systems, plant breeding, seed

multiplication, diversification,

smallholder livestock, in CDZ

& Delta areas of Myanmar



148

the central dry zone

Strengthening of

institutional

capacity and

extension services

affecting the

acceptability and

adoption of

promising

technologies in the

central dry zone and

Ayeyarwaddy Delta

regions.

Diseases Fund

(3DF)

now expanded

to

3MDG Fund

Health Reduce the burden

of communicable

disease mortality

and morbidity (TB),

Malaria and HIV

and AIDS – now

includes maternal

and child health

On going

Japan (JICA /

JBIC)

Agricultural/rural

development;

Education;

Health

Provides grant aid,

technical assistance,

loans, and

assistance through

regional

organizations

Encourages private

sector investment

by Japanese

companies

JBIC provided

bridging loans of

$900 million to

clear WB and ADB

arrears in January

2013

Eradication of

Opium Poppy

cultivation and

improvement of

drug law

enforcement

Agriculture

extension human

resource

development

Nutrition and child

health

Malaria control

Rural Water supply

in the Central Dry

Zone

Education, training,

scholarship

programme to

government staff

Rehabilitation of the

Yangon port and

main inland water

transport facility

Technical support to

fishery and livestock

On going Recent discussions between

JICA and IFAD have focused

on possibilities to have

collaboration in the Central

Dry Zone.



149

sector

Climate change

early warning

system

Community

reproductive health

Social welfare

administration

Animal disease

control

Study on sustainable

agriculture and rural

development for

poverty reduction

programme in the

Central Dry Zone

UK - DFID Humanitarian Aid –

Nargis and other

areas;

Non-humanitarian

aid

Health

Rural development

Education

Civil society

strengthening

Environment

On-going –

now also

contributing

to LIFT

Potential for learning from

experiences in environment

(forestry) and rural

development

Potential for learning /

synergies from policy

advocacy experiences

Swiss Agency

for

Development

and

Cooperation

SDC

Humanitarian Aid Access to and

quality of social

infrastructure and

networks among

vulnerable

communities in the

Delta, eastern of

Myanmar and

in/around the

Myanmar refugee

camps

Food and livelihood

security of internally

displaced persons

(IDPs),host

communities and

ex-poppy farmers

On going

EU Food Security &

Livelihoods

Rural development

Health

Rural infrastructure

Increasing

agricultural

production

Diversifying income

sources (primarily,

but not only for

landless)

Improvements in

nutrition and

hygiene

Improved social

protection measures

in place



projects in terms of rural

development and assisting

rural poor (once Government

approves LIFT activities in

rest of country).



150

in the enabling

environment for

food security and

livelihoods,

KOICA Agriculture

ICT

A specialised

laboratory in upper

Myanmar to develop

the agriculture

sector and improve

irrigation

Myanmar ICT

Development

Master Plan

Study of Fuel

production The

central dry zone

Training programme

on Hydro-graphic

Survey



projects in terms of ICT and

technology transfer

USAID Support for political

and economic

reform

Democracy

promotion

Humanitarian

Private sector

development

Income generation,

Micro credit,

Livelihood, health,

and sanitation

improvement

May also contribute

to LIFT

Future programme

details to be

announced

On-going and

expanding in

the

future

Potential for cooperation on

projects in CDZ

LIFT Program

Livelihoods and

Food

Security Trust

Fund.

Food and livelihood

security of the

poorest and most

vulnerable

populations

Agriculture

production support

for poor households;

On-farm and off-

farm market and

employment support

for target

populations;

Social protection

measures for poor;

Capacity building

for local

organizations to

support livelihoods

and food security;

Support for poor

households for

nutrition and

hygiene.

Five year

programme:

2009-2014

Donor Consortium of the LIFT

Fund comprises Australia, the

European Community, the

Netherlands, Sweden,

Switzerland, New Zealand and

the UK – others also joining.

Initial focus on Nargis-

affected areas but now

expanded to other food

insecure areas, including the

CDZ- potential for

collaboration on food security,

poverty alleviation and

capacity building

IFAD Smallholder

agriculture

Rural development

IFAD's efforts,

therefore, focus on

agricultural

modernization,

Five year

programme:

2014-2018

Planned IFAD project in CDZ

would like with other projects

in area.



151

value-chain

upgrading,

agribusiness

linkages, livelihood

diversification, rural

enterprise

promotion and non-

farm employment

generation. The

overarching goal is

to contribute to

reducing poverty

among poor rural

women and men –

particularly

smallholders, the

landless, ethnic

minorities and other

marginalized

groups. Strategic

objectives in

Myanmar include:

Empowering rural

people with access

to agricultural

resources,

technologies,

services and markets

Creating business

and employment

opportunities for

rural women and

men

Promoting the social

and economic

empowerment of

marginalized

populations,

especially ethnic

groups.

Coordination

Mechanisms

Thematic

Group on

Food Security

and

Agriculture in

Myanmar

(TGFSA)

Food security

Agriculture

Assist Myanmar

achieveMDG1

Forum for

coordination of

activities of UN

system, donors, and

INGOs in

agriculture/ food

security

Coordination of

needs assessments

for food security

and poverty

Five years – to

align with

NMTPF

Provides a mechanism of

coordinating NAPA activities

with poverty alleviation and

food security activities of

other development partners in

the CDZ and nationally.

A constraint is that

Government agencies are not

members of the TGFSA

Presence at township level

would also help in



152

Design and

implementation of

strategies for food

security and

agriculture in

specific areas

Sharing experiences

and lessons learned

Information

management on

food security and

agriculture

coordination activities with

Local Authorities

Food Security

Working Group

(FSWG)

Food security

Livelihoods

Poverty alleviation

Learning and

exchange on best

practices on food

security

Promote access to

knowledge on new

areas for improved

food security and

livelihoods

Networking and

collaboration

Advocacy to help

voice local issues at

national level.

On-going Provides a mechanism of

coordinating NAPA activities

with poverty alleviation and

food security activities of

national NGOs and INGOs

INGOs

Action Against

Hunger

Humanitarian

Assistance

Life-saving

programs in

nutrition, food

security &

livelihoods, and

water, sanitation, &

hygiene

On going

Action Aid Human Rights Activist rights to

food, shelter, work,

education,

healthcare and a

voice in the

decisions making.

On going Potential for synergies with

NAPA projects in terms of

improved extension services

and utilisation of irrigation

facilities in CDZ;

Potential for synergies with

NAPA projects for capacity

building for participatory

planning activities in CDZ.

ACTED Humanitarian

Assistance

Micro finance

Health

Education

Emergency relief

Food security

Health promotion

Education and

training

Economic

Development

Micro finance

Advocacy,

institutional support,

On going



153

regional dialogue

Cultural promotion

Basic Human

Needs

Association

Grass-roots

Telecom

infrastructures

Medical Radio

Network

Telemedicine

Humanitarian

Community Radio

Other VHF radio

network

ICT vocational

training for local

people

Installation of PBX

at rural medical

facilities and

educational

institutions

On going

CARE Agriculture and

food security

Education

Health

Economic

development

Water, Sanitation

and Environmental

Health

Support production

more food and

income generation

Promotes and

facilitates discussion

between parents,

teachers and other

members of the

community to

overcome the

barriers to education

that can keep

families in a cycle

of poverty

Improving access to

quality health

services, nutrition,

family planning,

immunization and

HIV awareness and

prevention

Supporting money-

making activities,

especially those

operated by women

Help prevent

malnutrition,

including

demonstrating

effective breast

feeding, cultivating

and preparing

nutritious food,

providing food as

part of emergency

relief efforts, and

On going



154

managing food-for-

work projects to

help communities

improve

infrastructure

Build and maintain

clean water systems

and latrines and

educates people

about good hygiene

practice to reduce

the risk of illness

Caritas Peace and

reconciliation

Emergencies

Economic justice

Climate Change

Health

Bring divided

communities

together at

grassroots level

Emergency release

to post natural

disaster

Advocacy for

economic justice

Advocacy the

impact of climate

change

Support HIV

affected family

On going

IDE Small – plot

irrigation

Agriculture

Food security

Rural Livelihood

Introducing and

promoting valuable

small scale

irrigation

technologies to

boost household

income, food

security and

productivity

including treadle

pumps (food –

powered irrigation

pumps) and drip

irrigation systems

and low – cost water

storage

Start from

2004

MercyCorp Humanitarian Aid

and relief

Emergency response

to bring relief and

recovery

Water and sanitation

project

Medical aid supply

Clean up fold

damaged village and

replant rice paddies

Repairing

embankments,

On going



155

rebuilding irrigation

canals, clearing

walkways, and

desalinating fields.

PACT

Myanmar

Micro Financial

Services

Health

Provide credit

without collateral

for micro-enterprise

development,

mobilizing

members’ saving

Strength community

responses to

TB/HIV and other

disease burden

Promote sustainable

access to health for

the needy

communities by

increasing

community

capacities in term of

health awareness

and income

generation activity

to support health

On going Potential for learning from

PACT’s activities in the

provision of rural credit.

Cetana

Educational

Foundation

Education Help support

students to pursue

university study at

universities abroad

On going

Habitat For

Humanity

Myanmar

Humanitarian Aid Support shelter to

local community On going

Oxfam Emergency

response

Development work

Campaigning for

change

Save lives, swiftly

delivering aid,

support and

protection

Help communities

develop the capacity

to cope with future

crises.

Support poor people

to take control,

solve their own

problems, and rely

on themselves.

Campaigns hard,

putting pressure on

leaders for real

lasting change

On going

Solidarités Health and

Sanitation

Agriculture

Civil work

Access to drinking

water

Sanitation

Hygiene

On going



156

Rehabilitation

program for

agriculture and

fishery activities

Civil work

reconstruction

Save the

Children

Fund

Health

Nutrition

Food security

SCF is lead agency

for Myanmar NGO

Consortium on

HIV/AIDS working

with 3D fund;

HIV prevention for

high risk groups;

Prevention of

mother to child

transmission;

Household food

security and

nutrition surveys in

CDZ

On going Could be a good partner to

carry out poverty and

vulnerability assessments in

CDZ for NAPA, IFAD in

partnerships with WFP.

World Vision Community

development

Child

Responding to

disasters

Health

Trafficking

Children in crisis

Child, maternal

health & nutrition

Child rights &

participation

Climate change

Conflict & peace

building

Economic

development

Gender

HIV & AIDS

Human trafficking

Urbanisation

Regional Priorities

On going



157

ANNEX 12: TARGET GROUPS, PRIORITIES AND POTENTIAL NAPA RESPONSE

Typology Poverty Level

and Causes

Coping

Actions

Priority Needs Support

from Other

Initiatives

NAPA

Response

Rural poor, especially

small

marginal and

vulnerable farmers as

well as ethnic groups

Living on less

than $1.25 per

day;

Chronic food

insecurity

Lack adequate

access to

productive assets

(land, draught

power, water

control/irrigation

facilities)

High ratio of

dependents to

workers

Little or no wage

employment or

off-farm income

generating

opportunities

available locally;

Small

landholdings

insufficient for

household food

security;

High level of

indebtedness

Lack of access to

credit services at

an affordable

cost;

Poor education

and literacy

levels;

High levels of

illness and

expenditure on

health;

Vulnerability to

drought and

floods

Local

agricultural

wage

labour with

larger farmers;

Seasonal

migration for

work (urban

areas and

overseas);

Reduction in

food intake

Dependence on

exploitation of

natural

resources such

as forests;

Homes

gardening and

subsistence

fisheries for

food security;

Selling off

assets

Borrowing

from money

lenders

Household Food

security;

Opportunities to

intensify/diversify

agricultural

production

(including

traditional

varieties, local

breeds and

traditional

practices).

Additional

productive assets -

(land, draught

power, water

/irrigation

facilities)

Secure land tenure

Access to public

and private sector

agricultural

services

(extension, input

supply, marketing,

microfinance

etc.)

Availability of

off-farm

opportunities in

rural

areas(including

traditional

activities)and

provision of

services;

Improved health

and education

services

Improved rural

infrastructure

Capacity building

of community

organizations to

assist with

extension and

development

Limited

support

services from

Government;

UN Strategic

Framework

will help

coordinate

support from

UN agencies

on poverty

alleviation

and food

security

activities;

TWGFSA

strategy for

CDZ will

complement

NAPA/IFAD

project

activities in

CDZ;

Proposed

JICA support

for poverty

reduction

initiatives in

CDZ will

target rural

people in

target villages

in the area of

the pilot

project;

FAO

managed

OFID project

(since 2005)

on oil seeds

production in

37 townships

in Myanmar

to increase

farmers’

incomes

through

improved

NAPA will

target

assistance to

rural poor in

project areas

in the CDZ

by providing

access to

irrigation

services and

supporting

services;

Coordination

of NAPA

activities

with UNCT

strategic

framework,

UNDP CP,

LIFT and

with

TWGFSA

activities in

the CDZ and

other AEZ's.



158

seeds,

extension

services and

market outlets

for their

crops.

Some

sporadic and

scattered

INGO and

local NGO

initiatives on

income

generating

opportunities;

UNDP HDI

programme

was

operational in

limited areas

but new

country

programme

will have a

wider

geographical

focus and is a

potential

partner for

NAPA,

especially in

targeting rural

poor;

WFP only

able to

provide

emergency

food aid and

food-for-work

in a limited

number of

areas;

LIFT active in

all areas,

including

CDZ and is a

potential

partner

especially its

“learning and

innovation”

window.



159

Rural women,

particularly

female —headed

households; including

women from ethnic

groups

Living on less

than $1.25 per

day;

Chronic food

insecurity

Lack of adequate

access to

productive assets

(land, draught

power, water

control/irrigation

facilities)

Little or no wage

employment or

off-farm income

generating

opportunities

available locally;

Small

landholdings

insufficient for

household food

security;

High level of

indebtedness

Lack of access to

credit services at

an affordable

cost;

Poor level of

education and

literacy;

High levels of

domestic

violence;

High levels of

illness and

expenditure on

health;

Vulnerability to

recurrent drought

and floods

Local

agricultural

wage

labour with

larger farmers;

Seasonal

migration for

work

(urban/abroad);

Reduction in

food intake

Dependence on

exploitation of

natural

resources such

as forests;

Homes

gardening and

subsistence

fisheries for

food security;

Selling off

assets

Borrowing

from money

lenders

Taking children

out of

school

Household Food

security;

Opportunities to

intensify and

diversify

agricultural

production

(including

traditional

varieties, local

breeds and

traditional

practices).

Productive assets;

Secure land tenure

Access to public

and private sector

agricultural

services

Availability of

off-farm IGAs

(including

traditional

activities) in

rural areas and

provision of

services;

Opportunities for

home gardens and

subsistence

fisheries for food

security;

Improved health

and education

services

Support for

children

Improved

personal and

livestock security

Tackling domestic

violence

Capacity building

of CBOs for

women’s

empowerment

Limited

support

services from

Government;

Proposed

JICA support

for poverty

reduction

initiatives in

CDZ will

target rural

people,

including

women, in

target villages

in the area of

the pilot

project;

UN Strategic

Framework

will help

coordinate

support from

UN agencies

on poverty

alleviation

and food

security to

help reduce

gender

inequities;

Some

sporadic and

scattered

INGO and

local NGO

initiatives on

income

generating

opportunities

targeted at

women;

UNDP HDI

programme

was

operational in

limited areas

but new

country

programme

will have a

wider

geographical

NAPA will

target

assistance to

rural poor,

and

especially

women-

headed

households in

project areas

in the

Myanmar by

providing

access to

irrigation

services and

supporting

services,

including

training;

Coordination

of NAPA

activities

with UNCT

strategic

framework,

UNDP CP

and with

TWGFSA

activities in

the Myanmar



160

focus and is a

potential

partner for

NAPA,

especially in

targeting rural

women;

Limited WFP

food aid and

food-for-work

in

a some areas;

LIFT active in

all areas,

including

CDZ and

Delta.

Landless and poor

rural

Households(including

ethnic group

households)

Living on less

than $1.25 per

day;

Little or no wage

employment or

non-farm income

generating

opportunities

available locally

High ratio of

dependents to

workers;

High level of

indebtedness

Lack of access to

credit services at

an affordable

cost;

Poor level of

education and

literacy;

High levels of

illness and

expenditure on

health.

Local

agricultural

wage

labour;

Seasonal

migration for

work (urban

areas and

overseas);

Reduction in

food intake

Dependence on

exploitation of

natural

resources such

as forests;

Homes

gardening and

subsistence

fisheries for

food security;

Selling off

assets

Borrowing

from money

lenders

Household Food

security;

Availability of

off-farm income

generating

opportunities

(including

traditional

activities) in

rural areas and

provision of

associated support

services;

Opportunities for

home gardens and

subsistence

fisheries for food

security;

Improved health

and culturally

sensitive

education

services;

Improved access

to livestock;

Capacity building

and

strengthening of

community-based

organizations to

assist with

empowerment

activities

Limited

support

services from

Government;

Proposed

JICA support

for poverty

reduction

initiatives in

CDZ will

target rural

poor,

including

landless in

target villages

in the area of

the pilot

project;

UN Strategic

Framework

will help

coordinate

support from

UN agencies

on poverty

alleviation

and food

security

targeted at the

landless;

FAO

managed

DFID project

(since 2005)

on oil seeds

production in

NAPA will

target

assistance to

rural poor,

and

especially

women-

headed

households in

project areas

in the

Myanmar by

providing

access to

irrigation

services and

supporting

services,

including

training;

Coordination

of NAPA

activities

with UNCT

strategic

framework,

UNDP CP

and with

TWGFSA

activities in

the Myanmar



161

37 townships

in Myanmar

may increase

access to farm

wage labour;

Some

sporadic and

scattered

INGO and

local NGO

initiatives on

income

generating

opportunities;

UNDP HDI

programme

was

operational in

limited areas

but new

country

programme

will have a

wider

geographical

focus and is a

potential

partner,

especially in

targeting

landless and

poor

households;

WFP only

able to

provide

emergency

food aid and

food-for-work

in a limited

number of

areas;

LIFT active in

all areas,

including

CDZ& Delta.

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