Creating Inclusive

ClassroomsThe Ability/Disability Continuum and the Health Dimension

Chapter Eleven

Rationale for Inclusive Classrooms

Over the past 175 years, public education in the U.S. has continually broadened the definition of who shall be educated.

Today, that definition includes students with a variety of disabilities and those with chronic health problems.

There is both a philosophical and a legal basis for inclusion in public schools.

The Philosophical Basis for Inclusion

The belief that communities of learners are, by definition, inclusive

The belief that each member of a learning community is a unique individual, different from every other member

The belief that heterogeneity is both unavoidable and desirable

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A belief in the concept of normalization, or the idea that the lives of exceptional individuals should be characterized, as much as possible, by the same kinds of experiences as those without disabilities

A belief that normalization can occur when adaptations and supportive services are available and offered as unobtrusively as possible

The Legal Basis for InclusionElements of Civil Rights Legislation

Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973) prohibits discrimination based on disability in agencies and settings receiving federal funds.

P.L. 92-194 (1975), amended in 1990 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), mandates education in the least restrictive environment.

ADA—the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)—extends these prohibitions to the private sector.

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Public Law 94-142, reauthorized as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1990)

Recognizes a continuum of potential placements for individuals with disabilities

Mandates that, to the maximum extent possible, placement be in the least restrictive environment

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Like societal inclusion, inclusive education implies fully shared participation of diverse individuals in common experiences.

The concept of inclusion is interpreted somewhat differently by different people.

Full inclusion means that a student will attend the same schools she would if she had no disability, and participate with all of the same groups of learners as she would if she had no disability; she will, however, have supportive services as needed.

Definitions of ExceptionalityAbility/disability and health are distinct

dimensions of human exceptionality.

Some individuals may have a physical or developmental disability (e.g., a hearing loss or intellectual giftedness or impairment) and have no health problems.

Other individuals may have health difficulties (e.g., asthma) but no particular physical or developmental disability.

The Ability/Disability Continuum

Federal guidelines under IDEA define 13 disability categories in the following dimensions:Sensory differences (vision and hearing)

Other physical differences (motor, vitality)

Communication differences (speech)

Cognitive, intellectual, and information processing differences

Emotional and behavioral differencesContinued…

Explicit definitions of each category are important because the allocation of financial resources is involved.

Schools must ensure that eligible students receive the services to which they are entitled.

Differentiating exceptionality from normality in the course of a child’s development may be somewhat arbitrary.

Nevertheless, most exceptional children have the same needs, interests, and concerns as their more “typical” peers.

Historical Perspectives on Special Education

Special education emerged in the context of social reform.

It was inspired by a belief in natural rights and individual worth, and the conviction that, through education, every person can contribute to society.

Pioneers in Special Education Horace Mann (1840s)– believed that the

goal of education as preparation for citizenry applied to all children

Samuel Gridley Howe – founded the Perkins Institute for the deaf in the 19th century

Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard – French physician who taught Victor, the “wild boy of Aveyron”

Valentin Hauy – founded the world’s first school for the blind in Paris (1784)

Some Historical Highlights

In 1860, nearly two-thirds of those individuals in American almshouses were children with sensory or other physical impairments or mental retardation.

By the 1870s, a major “child saving” effort was undertaken by the National Conference of Charities and Corrections.

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The major concerns of 19th century reformers were proper care, some form of instruction, and maximum independence and integration into society.

While 19th century facilities were often called asylums, they were intended as schools—training schools, using utilitarian pedagogy to enable students to become, as much as possible, able to support themselves.

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Specialized instruction began its gradual move into the common schools at the beginning of the 20th century.

At the same time, schools were struggling to accommodate massive numbers of immigrant children, a fact that had important implications for special education:

Steamer classes, designed to expose immigrant children to English, led to programs for children with speech impairments. Continued…

Classes for “unrulies” were the forerunners of classes for children with behavior disorders.

Fresh air schools for children with tuberculosis or who were physically weak led to classes for children with other health impairments.

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Ungraded classes for those who just “didn’t fit” led to classes for students with mild retardation.

Special pedagogy was secondary to the perceived need to separate students who were different as a way of making schooling more manageable.

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Although many early special education classes sought to integrate their students into the “regular” school activities, over time special education became a “system within a system.”

In the 1920s, early efforts were directed toward children who were academically gifted.

By the 1930s, schools were adopting IQ testing—a seemingly more “scientific” approach—that led to different “life skills” curricula for students with disabilities.

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Special pedagogy, however, took a second place in the education of exceptional children.

With the increasing implementation of exclusionary policies, children with special needs were more likely to find themselves somewhere other than the public school, primarily in residential facilities.

Those who remained in public school were not offered any particular adaptations or pedagogical supports.

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In 1975, however, Public Law 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, required schools to identify all children with disabilities and to provide them with an appropriate public education, documented in an IEP (Individual Education Program).

Interest in gifted education has waxed and waned over the years. Two problems remain:

The inclusiveness of schools’ definition of giftedness

The identification of gifted students who are ethnic and linguistic minorities

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Subsequent amendments to P.L. 94-142 (IDEA and ADA) have added requirements for schools:

Extended provisions to children as young as three

Added a family-focused early intervention component for infants and toddlers

Stipulated a required transition plan by age 16

Distinguished autism and traumatic brain injury from other forms of disability

The Health Dimension While some forms of illness require major

adaptations or medical intervention, that number is relatively small.

It is the case, however, that all of us may experience a health problem at some time or other that interferes with our daily functioning, and this includes school children.

The need and eligibility of children with chronic illness for special education services depends on whether their condition adversely affects educational functioning.

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The number of severe cases of chronic illness has risen in the past two decades, due, in part, to:

Life-saving interventions at birth for premature infants

Medical advances in bringing some childhood diseases into remission in the first year

Increases in drug-affected pregnancies

HIV transmission to newborns

Implications of Health Needs for Inclusion

Three principles to remember:We can all expect to experience serious

health problems at some time in our lives.

Serious health impairment in children is not a new phenomenon.

A health problem is not a person’s only identifying characteristic or need.

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Another implication is the fear:

Of infection (all school personnel are advised to adopt universal health precautions)

Of harming children with special needs, or of neglecting so-called “typical” children

Of the unknown; in general, the more knowledge one has of a child’s condition, the more able a teacher feels to accommodate that child

Characteristics of an Inclusive Classroom

Two fundamental ideas underlie the relation of inclusion and human diversity:A major purpose of schooling is to prepare

the young for life in a heterogeneous democracy.

Today, the young must also be prepared for life in a global economy.

These ideas hold for all children, whether they have disabilities or not.

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Another fundamental idea – collaboration – emerges from general education and goes further than the legal requirements of special education.

The law requires multidisciplinary participation in assessing, planning, and monitoring students with special needs.

Collaboration suggests continuing interdisciplinary teamwork on the part of regular and special educators in implementing the student’s program.

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The law requires that parents give informed consent prior to a multifactored evaluation, participation in developing an IEP, and the right to procedural due process in the event of disagreement.

Collaboration suggests that all involved ensure that the IEP reflects a family’s concerns and priorities, that the student’s home and school experiences are mutually supportive, and that professionals respect the primacy and continuing influence of families on children’s development.

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The law requires that students with disabilities be educated as much as possible with peers who do not have disabilities.

Collaboration implies optimizing the potential benefits for both by fostering positive classroom interactions and creating opportunities for students to respect and learn from each other and develop feelings of group identification.

Pedagogies: Old and New

Traditional pedagogies still have a place in an inclusive classroom.

Constructivist approaches are fundamental to current conceptions of developmentally appropriate practices.

Constructivist approaches are especially important in special education because they provide an alternative to traditional medical and behavioral models.

Roles: Old and New

Because most children with disabilities now live at home with their families rather than in an institution, new roles are required for the adults in a child’s life.

New relationships and cooperative efforts are required of both regular and special educators.

All need to participate in multifactored evaluations.

Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New

Early ideas about curriculum for children with disabilities focused on employablity.

Contemporary ideas focus on a “criteria of ultimate functioning,” which means that what is taught is age appropriate, future oriented, functional, and community referenced.

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The advent of the concept of specific learning disabilities, which accounts for more than half the special education enrollment, prompted a greater focus on differential instructional strategy than on curricular content.

To a large extent, and based on an educational profile of each student, remediation or compensatory instruction can be devised within the context of a standard curriculum.

Assessment: Old and New

The general meaning of assessment is the same for special needs children as it is for “typical” children.

There are, however, two specific meanings of assessment for children with disabilities:

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Specific Meanings of Assessment

Determines, as a result of assessment, eligibility for special education

Determines how accountability for these services is demonstrated; the IEP is also an accountability document

Characteristics of Successful Inclusive Teaching

Emphasis on the importance of collaboration between regular and special education teachers

Mutual respect and understanding among all adults involved

Continued interaction and ongoing monitoring of a child’s progress by both regular and special educators

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Recognition of the importance of flexibility

Critical to the successful inclusion of students whose learning characteristics and needs may require adaptation

Adaptation may be required in four categories:

Curriculum materials

Instructional strategies

Classroom organization

Behavior management

Ethical Issues in Inclusive Education

Federal legislation does not mandate inclusion (although it does forbid exclusion), and there are some reservations on the part of both parents and professionals regarding any concept that can be interpreted to mean “one size fits all.”

If inclusion is implemented, there is considerable concern about whether or not sufficient resources are, or will be, provided.

There are also concerns about the impact that inclusion has, or will have, on “typical” students.

Modification or adaptation of curriculum, instructional strategies, classroom organization, and behavior management remains problematic as teachers and parents seek to learn what is the best “mix” for individual children.

Something to Think About

Many educators, parents, and persons with disabilities themselves maintain that if the society of the twenty-first century is to be an inclusive one in which human differences are recognized and celebrated, it must begin with inclusive schools and inclusive classrooms. They point out, correctly, that it is not inclusion that needs to be justified but rather separation, for even part of the school day.