Crack: New Directions in Drug

Research. Part 2. Factors

Determining the Current

Functioning of the Crack

Economy-A Program for

Ethnographic Research

Ansley Hamid

Department of Anthropology John Jay College of Crimin.J! Justice New York, New York 10019

Abstract

Factors which hypothetically inl1uence r:t tes , vol umes, and methods of income generation in crack d istribution, USL~, a nd misuse a rc ind icatl'd, and a research program to investi gate them is suggL:stt:d. This research will contribuk signtficantly to the dc vc loprm:nt o f a theoretical fralllc­\Vork which adL:quatcly rel:ttes Stibst;tncc using/abusing and trafficking populations to the widn connnunity :111d will explain why crack usc and distribution haVL: had such different m1tconws th:trt m;trij uana . hJCtors to be resca rcht:d include: polyethnicity, crack-related dceultura tion, gender differentiation in cr;tck usc and dl~x t s, nc:ighborhood elfL:cts, ve r1ica lly organized crack-distributing organiz:.ttions, crack-rd:t ted violence :md crime, and replacement of previous drug ma rkets by crack .

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Copyright © 1991 by \1arccl lkkkcr, Inc.

9 14 HA\llD

Key ll ·ords: f actors innucncing crac k di~t rihutiL)n and usc; Polyetl111icity'

C raek-rdated dcculturat illn: Gt'JH.k·r di l'fcrcnti:ltinn in crnck u,:,· :tnd t:!"f,~L· h:

Nt:ig hborlmod effects

INTRODUCTION

In the fi rst pan of this papn . the rah"s. lnl'lit<Jlb . and volu r!IL'S nf inc< Hilt' ;:=.t·n

a:llio n in the Jn:nij uan:IL'l."OIIPill)' were ;_·,mt r;,s !t'd with th<Jse cmcr~cnt in tit,~ n :1ck

economy. In this part :t!IL'X:IIni nalio n u fthc fllllowi l1;_! aJ\':tsuf hypotlit·tic:d irn por­

tanc~ 111a y gcm:ratc s pt:c ific hypo! ht·scs and lt's l:l hi t~ sta t,·menls conecrni ng thl· :-.t K"

i(lt:ultural , j)L)Iitical , and t:·co rH lll1ic pmn·sscs w h ich go\ ern ongoing cx pni m t·nta ­

tio n in c r:tt:k distribution and use and <.:oncnn tlw no nst ruct ural f:1 ctms w h ich han· s haped s pecific outcomes, t'SpLx:ia lly as these re late to vari:tblc typt'S of incom l· gennat ion.

CRACK DECUL TURATJON HYPOTHESIS

O ur preliminary s tudies of c mc k ust: and di s tribut io n have indicatL·d that

whe re as marked dhni c di s tinc tio ns were mainta ined among Afro -A111c rican, A fro . Caribbean, Hispanic, and Euro-Am cri can d rug USL'rs in low-income :--:cw Ymk

comm unitil's w ith antecede nt drugs, they appear I u have been eroded w ith crack.

Fo r example, m arijuana tra ffic king in these communi! ies had becnm~; by 19R2 the

more o r less t:xcl usivc preserve of Caribbean o r Ras ta fari operators (Hamic.J, 1983). This development reinforced prl~judiccd attitudes which th~·sc populatio ns har­

bo rt:·.d agai11s t o ne anothe r. Thus, altl10ugh R:ls tafari were grudgingly rcs pt:CtL:d fur

thei r conduc t of the traffic, they Vl" l'l"l~ nevertheless despised on account o f the ir

r,:putC'd d ri ve tll acc umubtl.' capita l no m a tter what the s ac rifice. Afro··An lt:rican

and His pa nic cons um ers were despised in the ir turn because tlwy rcmainl:d con

s umers a lone, o ften with lud icrously imprecise knowkdgc about any aspL:Ct of tr:t f­ficking.

These e thn ic contrasts were also cxpress~~d in using practices and eon vt:nl ions.

Among Caribbeanusl· rs . 111:1rijuana was frequently consumed as the sok: s timubmt.

It was rolled in huge "sp iills" (ciga r-sized j u ints , w Jth raw t.oh ll'CO

leavcs--"fronto"-s,·rv ing as wr:tppl~rs), in the sty le of Rastaf:1ri;m s, a nd was ex

pcctecl to have such effects as se ri ous mindcdness, reli g iosity , a nd equan imity.

Among A fro-Americans and Hisp;·mics, however. mari juana usc w as one fea turL·

o f polydrug usc or "get-high" I be: wrappt:d int<J tc>othpie.k-thin "jlJi nts, .. it \\ :1.s cun­

s umed in "gc:t-high" gathering,; where a lcohol, cocaine powder (fo r snorting), and

h eroin were also used heavily to pro111ote a "partying" atmosphcrl.'.

Among Euro-Amcricans, marijua ua us..: w:Js a lso accompanied l"L'gub r!y by the use of PCP, pills (amph~~tn 111 ines, barhiturat<~s. Va lium), and the psych..: d ..: li cs (mushrooms, LSD, p~~yot e or me,;c:tl in) (I !amid, 1 9X3) .

CRACK: NEW DIHcCTIOKS !N DRCG RESEARCH. PART 2 91 5

Th,~o;t: fi nd in~s a rl~ corroborated by much previous rcse[trcli, cspeci:dly on

m:trijuana and alcoho l, wh ic h n·port ck:1r dhnic :mel socia l class di fkrl·nt Ja tions

w ith r,·;;p,·ct to COll\\:nt io ns in usc, us,: paliL'rt Js, andju,c, ti f ic:t ti ons :111d bdids con­

ct:rn ing ust: and 1 ra ffic king ( Indi:m Hc 1n p D rugs Collllll iss ion, l R9._. : R uhi n, 1975:

J clli nt·k, 1962: YawnL:y, 19(Jt); Angmsino, 1972; Hamid, 1976) .

R ecru itment to drug-using c ircle:-. continued to take pl:~t:c w ithin s ingle ethnic

populations tmtil tlw advent o f smo kable coc:1 inc in 1981. \Vhen R astafarian nwri

juana t ralli <: kc rs ini t iak:d fn:d Jasc usc and d is tri bution (sce P:1rt One), tlwy re­

Vt~rsed the convclltions o f the marijuana traffic in which a strict st~p:tration was

maintained be tween S<: l kr and buyer. By admitting t heir cl ie ntele intu thei r se lling

loc:lt itm s to cxpniment with the noVL·I proct~durcs of prqxtring and consuming

free base , they found t! tt~msc l ves in the midst of com pany wh ic h w as no lo nger ex­

clusivdy CaribbL~:m, b ut inc luded J\fro-AmL~ricans, H ispan ics, nne! E uro·Ameri­

cans w ho nffcctcd R nsta fari mannerisms, speech conventions, d ie tary codes, dress,

and e ven "dreadlocks." In the mixcJ comp:my, everyone was obs.:ssed with

frcehase . and indiscriminatl' :11noun ts of it were consumed, us twlly ::ll the seller's

expense. In o nly a ft:w months, sc:vcr:tl R astafa ri marijuana forlUnL' S were t!t: ­s troyed. In the effort to reform these inju riotb selling arrangeme nts, the ir succL·s­

sor.s c r,~atcd a new form of ma rke ting frecbase-crack. Pre prepared and prepack­aged in tiny vials at accessible prices, crat:k cou ld be sold through hea v ily barred

doors or from th..: pockets of it i n t~ra nt street-level hdp w ithout the seller a nd buyer

join ing togetha in compuls ive usc.

Distributors in the crack market were quitL~ diffaent from thosl; of m arij u:ma

or f rL·ebasc. They included: Rast:1 f:tri who had reform ed o r disco!ltinucd frecbasc

and crack use and \vc rc now m otivated to recapture the ir los t fo rtunes; Afro­

Amnicans and Hispanics who had hel ped Rastafarians to <kpktc their fo rtunes;

and m a ny you th fu lncwco Jn l·rs- Afro-Caribbcan, Afro -Amt:rican, Hi ,c,pan ic, and

E uro-Anw rican-\vho o ftcn dcvdopt~d vmi:1bk ty pes o f assoc ia t io n a m ong them­

selves in the course of business. Crack selling opnations were thus noticL~:•hly

characterized by polyethnicity, and several specific selling locations were manned

hy polycthnic personnel.

It is hypothesized that incre3sing polycthnicity will also have an impact on

types and rates of cri rnin ~d offending and upon tht: level of vio lence a nd d egree of cohesiveness manil"cs t in today ' s d ist rib uting orga nizations. In this regard, ongo­ing work on g:mgs offC'rs usd"ul conu~ptualizations and mcthoclologics for explor­

ing the un iq ul~ features of recently organized, minori ty populat ion gangs (M oore Gt

al., 1983). Challenging carlin s tudies of youth gangs which found that gangs welT

e ithe r frangi ble e nt ities characterized by much volati li ty a nd membership turnnvcr

(Short and Stroc.Jlx:ck, 1963) or else perm:mcnt ly est:tblislwd in a territory and in an

•.·thn ic populatio n (Suttles , 1 968), this work shows how a (k -emphas is o n te rri tori· ality [:md in the case o f th is project ' s study populat ion, on ethn ic ity (Hamid, 1987 )j places unique s trai ns nn individua l gang members which may resu lt in a h igh inci -

')]() H \(\Jil.J

dencc of vioknce. The: argument i:; ~1L;u nuJc· th::t \k\J-.': lfi Anwnc:11: g:u,g Illc'll1

lxrs were 2nd and 3rd ge·ncr<~tion .\:nc:ric:t Jts ".dw ,':t tn:· !no111 LuJJili,·,., whi ch h.:d

LlllLJSUa!ly high kvc·ls uf accullur:tl l<lJJ. Sitt iJi:Jri:, . c·,:nt•:ll·y I<> pc1)>Ubr h·h..r·, .. Jt1·

rnaican pu:,s ,·" nh·rnhc·r:-. :Jr,· no t di.tft,·cl in L;,,( !<Jn,:~Jun U:JJll:llc :JJ :J11d lnut1;.,:ht hc·rc· ilkg:dly t11 \\Uik inn.tc.·k .. hu:-in,·c:.·,,·...:·· l>iit . IlL' l.i~j 1'1 ' 1'1' \<•liit_;'...:tl'l:'. \\hc l lll:l: he· A!'rtl·;\lllc·ricJII :Jild lli :-.jl:t llic· :IS \\c·ll :1 -.: :\l.l\ 1 l.':tn!d>c':J::. ff11 ·cc' :n·,· :<>ll!lg~ lc'l:-, wh<l h:1 ,.,. he'<' II Iii\ >llp.ln I< >_c;L'l h c··r till, 11:; 1: :-.i 1:1r t :1,: t h · ·· .. .: 1 " · llc' l_c' I tJ,,,rlt; '' od:~ . c-dh '' •I :-., L'l'lllbL'il >rS, L'U:Jl'h<'S, l'Lilll·ts,,i:ti b, ,\lid t•litc' l otllc!J .:-. J\iJ;ill •'ll'•. ]tl \tTl >llrtlli:tl· \\',!\,;,

they ki\'<' t'\jlc'rie·llL'c'd 1:in1th ::nd ):, •li>< l! c>L! !r:tii!'II,,Jity, ,-,;: \y· c'-'!"''•<11<' 1•.1 p:tl<' ll i:d ,.,id>;,(:liiL't.' :i\li t,.,,·, tllilllt :t!Jc.'!l. iiiull :1 11d lrll:-1:-:llh>il, t\i c iiL.>\\ II ; ,i;,·r~t:IJ<II i ill -,c!Jc H> ] Cilld d!U[Ipllt g ()lj[, k c'll:l:"l'l i J"l!IL'Iilh:><••J. J•::r!i c'!) >:,ti<>:J !II tilt• c·: h iJ L'L'<III<'IIIY , .111d Ll

C:Sill. Dcspitl· dillllc' h.JITin:-., thc:r,·f,m· , ·\ir< > .-\m,· ri c:.: ll yuuth wc·n· ,·,, p,·ci:dly fond ol alkctlllJ; C arihh,·:nt spc:c·ch p:~tlc'rth, j':trli..:u] ~,!i) :ho~;,· the l{:J:---IdLII'lL'!Il · ph:~:;u:,·,L Tlh.') Wl'rl' k •nd uf rq~c:<te· llllts ic i H l ~ t:ct': tn-lli:•[lJJL'd Ltm:~ic:tn t,1ii.. rtHI sic) :1 fcmdrll'·.;s \\ !!Jch lus ptilduc•:d tud: l)' ":'\.iril·Arn c·n·::tn "r:1p'' illlhic .... ;Jllli

ht'C:l1l1L' !:Jt!lili:~r with C:irihh,·;,n dr,·:.s u>..i,·,, >llld cuJ-,JII<'. T hc·y ador,·d the: R:IS·· t:;i':lli: Y<>ltlig girls rn:"k c·ycs :1t th,·m, )·.Jl111g ],, ,y:. lif.,·d th,·i r "n·:;:-.uning.·· Bllth i\fru-Amcric:m and Afro-C:Irihb,·;IJJ yuutlt :dsL' :h.llmru l the: f:.tct rltar the' Ras t:ti:tri wen: gruwing w•.:alrhy in drug dhtrihwiun a nd w,·r,· us1ng t!wir wealth tm \:Jrd the up\ i l't o f African pcopks. The·!'<' '' L't\ : thus Jt i: tny r,::bon:; why p• •lyctlt 11 ic gruuprttg:' sh<.Juld apprc:nt ice r!J,·m::;L'lvL'S tel the· R:ts!:II':IJ·i and ncn!u:t!ly SliLTL'l'll then:.

Plllycthnrcity was esp<-ci:dl v pnJ! iOliiJCc'd in u~;ing circks. Crack tnducc,; :. powcrhd craving fl' r trL·qu ,·nt :ut,! rq>v:,:c·d rc::t.!nnr:i:Jr:ttll li1S, ~md thi :' l.ll\~lllll·

stnnce cncuulag,·d coopcr:.1tiun t<llhlttg li '->LTS whll h:ld hir);,~rto n·maill,:d sc·p:tr::k'. QuilL' co lt,·s ivc gruups of user, \H' l<.' tlll'lc·lurc f l.lrnwd frcH!l <~ll1 < 111~ Carihh,·:,n, Afro-Arnenc:m, and Hispanic per::;<> liS wIt, he' ft;r tel j, >n•; ind ud,·d not l;lll y liru,l! \1~ ,·, hutmutu:l! s ,·)f-hcip, thl' pruvi,i<lll of ~;uch s,·rvic:,·:. :1.~ h: .l);c sJttm g, and ckkns ,:

MALE-FEMALE (GENDER) DIFFERENTIATIONS IN CRACK USE HYPOTHESIS

furth,·r access to the· 111tL'I'L'Ulll lL'L'tl liJ1 b,·t\\'c·,·r: :.l)(' i:d ;m~nlgc: m,· nts :ll!d prnc ,.~,,.;,·,.; IIttd tltL' pccul i :t r ci rc llllhl:lllL'l'c; ( ,f 11:,· cr:~ck lltl i \ ,·r:,c' ill :I)" he pn )\ idnl by ,, >tl

ccntr:Hin,z rcsc~lrch l.ljlllll the· llt:IJ~c·d n:;i\,· -- km,i\, · thif,:J\ 'IIti:ttion,; wlllL"Il o.<'<'llll'd to h:II'L: repl:Jc,·d l'thnic l:tri:;tinll:, 111 cr:~ck t~>.t' (!Lmid, 1987). Tltc: c,)iJ c:srv,· pulycthnic gr<Hlps oi' u,;c·rs :tnd tr:d'lickns d,·,,crih,·d :d>U\ L' lilt' cl!'ll'n Slltgk gc'tl<kr

group~. This katll!L' was quih' twti c,·ahk· in a rhlpUbti.Hl which I ~tiS lung tc·l.:::~L-d rnixc~d drinking ]XIrtic~s . tnixcd hc~r<>in ;,l;uoting g:tlicneo., and mix,·d marij:J:tJJ:J 11o-. ing sc:ssinns. Users r <~kr tu the pruclainwd dfL:ds c)r· cr;~ck upon sc:xu:dity tu cx­pl.;in why \Vuntc~n 111 p~ : rticui:Jr prefer''' <.'<li :sutLc: c r,,d; .,ntong \\'011\<'ll<'Xd u,.:i vel y. They say that tnl'll nnkc ~-l'xual :td\·an,·,·,; \\hen tl:·.· : h:l\ ,. :-.qu::mkr,·,J r<'Vlllrc·c·s c>n crack, and arc· rnuit~ ag~r,·s~;i,·c and p.:r;.noid ~t!-tl!' u:'.c'. B<:~ : rlk,.,, m::ny '.V<'llh'll

CRACK : NEW DIRECTI ONS IN DRUG HLS E,\I<CII . f' ,\ln 2 ')] 7

spend tlwir public tr; utsk r incomes c>n crack and prekr to share it w ith othc::r women who com mak,· l'L'Ci proc:tl contri but io ns fro1 n the samL: dt:pendablc: sou rce· (usually Aid to DqK·nd,·nt f: tmi li cs) .

Other p rocesses :dsu work to istll:itc W O lllL' ll or llll'< II IVLTt tliL'll l i11to a s p,·ci :II it1tcrcst g ru up w ith in the Lr:tc:k phc·nun tc'llOII. Fur exa tl iple , th,·IT han: lll'<'n tlllln y tdk altcrnpts to vanq ui,;lt the uni n· rs:dly rcpcli'll'd Cll111puls ivcnc·ss of (T~tck liSL' . A

slr:tll'gy which has lw,·n wiikly ad<.>pll'd by lllL'll is tu disco nti nue· Lbe llf the lllOrc· int c~ ll Sl: cr:lCk p ip,· , to usc "wu lla" joints (c i,_;a rdks uf tn:J riju:m:J int tl \\ htc h fint'ly crushn l crack has bcc:n adrnixc d) in;;tcad, to gl'lher wi rh Slllll<' :dcuho l, am !- rl:e

ilecessa ry ingredient· - fo l !ow,·d by a S2.00 "hlowjoh." Thi s strakgy to ensure n m­trol and minimal expense the rcfure dq>ends upon tlw c ontimting cxistl:nce ur" large pool of young wom,·n who nre able: tu o fkr s ,:xu:d snvicL:S at untts ua !ly low prin ·s . T ypica lly, tlwsc womc·n arc cntck users who r,:nta in d,:voll'd to the crack pipe~ and who arc cont imtou:-.ly in ne,~d u f rc:Hhninistrations,

VARIATIONS BY NEIGHBORHOOD HYPOTHESIS

Stri king diff,·renn·s ha v<: , ·rn ,:rg,:d hc:t wn·nnL· ighhelrhuo,b ,., ith r,·:-.p,·ct lL' the· ways in which cr:1ck is sold and consumed, a nd w ith r-.·spc·ct lu typ<:s u l cra ck -r,> lake! c rimes a nd the m:lll Jll'r 111 wh ich th,·y a rc Clllll lllittcd. It is hypothe sized tk 1t these d i!lerenccs rdatc to d i!lcrct;ecs in ),lea l culture, c lass, household com p<b i­tion, as wel l as the physic:.tl asp<~Ct of the ne ighborhoods. For e xam ple, whi le t wo study s ites, Flatb ush and Cemral Harkrn, arc rL:iat ivdy low-i ncome, with high pn ­centages of people· n:cciving public assist ance~ a nd \v ith tn:.my fema le -headed households, Harlem is primaril y Afro -;\nwric:lll while Fl:t tbush m:1intains a mo re immigra nt a nd Caribbean tl :;vor. In Fl:ttbush, ap:tn tnl'!lt build ings arc cru wlkd to­gethe r and hDu,;L~ a morL: trans ient pupubt il>n, frequently uf lll<)rc recent imm i­grants. Hnc, c rime:· and d rug usc arc·. a! the; same ti!l1L' more publ ic a nd vi;;i blc· , yet conta inc:d anlong kin and neighborho(ld cliques. In Ccm ral Harlem , where run ­clown apannwn t bu ildlllgs a rc widely in tcrspL' rsed hl'lwt:<:nl •. mg ,;tn:tdK:s u!' ab:;n ­doned bu ildings and garhagl~·slrnv n empty lots , drug us,· and trafficking a pp c·a r morL' often as intnact ions betwee n str:mgers al!ll chan c ,~ con tpan ions.

:\ corn(Mri sun by tll· ighborhGml in fu ture rc:sc:·~;rch is ex pected to re v(:a l th c agency o r so me non:-:t ructura l factors consick:rcd in Part 1.

EMERGENCE OF NEW TYPES OF DISTRIBUTOR SJDISTR 18 UTI NG ORGANIZATIONS

T hr,:e new types of d istrihutu rjuscT h<.l\C hc,·n idcnt ifi c·d in ou r prcl illl ina ry observations, in neWS]K> pcr accounts (Nc\\ Y urk Tinlcs, 1986, Jl)87), by :--urVL:ys

from tlw cocaine hot! inc , a nd by crilllina! justi ct' di,·nts and operatives (C riminal Justi ce Age ncy, 1987; Wish, 1987). T hese ty pes arc:

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•

•

•

H A:-.IIIl

Young pc:opk who \Vl're fmnll'r!y priced o ut of rc!-!ul:l r COC;! ill(' hyd rochloride· usc (for snorti ng) m:1y have h.~cn :-~tlraetcd by t il<~ dw:1p initial n>,;t o f cr:~~.:k and havt: bt'<.:Oil lc compubi\\' u,;crs \\-Ill> ;;uppt>rt th,· ir h:ll•it,; thi\lU:!h dist ribu­t ion .

1\'la rij uana and pnlydrug us,·rs, h:n·in)-! add,·d cr:1c k to lh,·i r usc· J>:ll tcrn:·;, n1 :1y ab" s upp<>rt thl·i r C<>l llj llds iV<' uo.t' t h n >11~h dis tri hul i\'>11 .

Yo uths who a r,· t'll l i rc I y llt ' < 1phytc·s in drug IN ' 111:1;: h :1 \ \' :1d< 'J'lnl cr: IL' k : 1s tlll' i r "g:J ic:way" d rug; in lh is rqc:m l, w,·JI .:;; t:lhlisllt·d st: 1gcs ,,f ''iioid 1<> :d c·••IJ<>L cig:II-L'IIL's, lll:lri_jtl:ill:\, p ill s . coc;Jilll', and hn, ,in rn :ty han~ hL'Ul d,·r:m~· ·d by cra c k.

Some· o thL·r novel katurc~s ofconlt'nlpor:try drug dis tributio n which ll<.'c·d tube rcscarchcd inc ludL' th~~ f,,JJ, )wing .

Some Crack D istributing Orgwri-;_ations Alar Bccol!le "Husincsses ., Espet"if/1/v

Desig 11ed for tltc R11picl Propagation r:f Cmck Use anti [)istrilmtiOII

P revious studiL'S o f cocaine hyJ roch lorid,· po\\'dtT trafficking ~tpp<·a r to maiJJ­

tain tha t the t ra tl i<.: supports only " frc c: bnctTs " and not long- last ing coo ptTativc d is tri buting o rg;lllii'.at ions, s uch :ls those described in the n1~1 r ij u~1n : J tr;t ffic (Wa l­dorf et a!. , 1977: Adler, 1985). Our prcli ntinary nh,;crva ti,ms in Nt:w York (1 -b mid, 1987), by Waldorf (1987) in S ;1n Francisco, :llid by Cooper (I 987 ) and by

!>.-1ieczkowski in Chicago ind ica te th:tt o rganizati o n:d st ructures arc c-mcn:, i n~ which may be more centr:dizcd and "btl~in,·ss'' or i ,~nkd to\\':'lrd coc:tine and c~: 1ck distri bution. Researche rs in Sc·w York ar,· f:tm iliar \\ith m any former R:tstaf:tri rn :-~rijuana dis tributors who ha vt~ lost their rnarijt1:ma fn rttlll<'S by initi at in g: n;tc k use and tra ffi ck ing, but who art: :1bk now tu cont rol n r di scon t inu~ ust~- :l!ld hav~ returned ll> traffic king wit h th~ dt~krmination to rt:g:t in th.-~ i r lost fo nutJ•:s (H:tmid,

1987). Other o rgani za tiuns l'Uillprisc youn~csk r:;, l>oth A fro-A IIIl:ric:l!l and Atn• Caribbean , who kid appr.~nticcd tl wnlSL'I vcs to thl~Sc~ R:JSt<J!':t ri hl-l'cl rl' thei r ,Jt>wn fa ll, or who g rew up I'L'(:ognizing in thL~ R:Js taLt ri a ll r:lct ivc ru le lll<><kls. "Busi ­

ncsst'S" o rgani7cd b)' s uc:h pcr,;ormd have r<·cent ly all racll'd l'Xlcn:-.iv...: media cov ­

erage (NeH· York Times, 19XS; Dailr Ne11·s, 1988; Nell'SII cck, 19K8l on account o f

the-i r vinlt:nt Cl.)nduct of the tr:d't'ic. "J:l!n :t ic:tn pDsses" (as thc·y h:l\ e bL'UI called)

have n::porlt'd ly pcnt:t mtt·d a reas in th<~ Un ikd S tates -.\·h ic h !.:1(1 bccn inl liK'L'Il t <lf c rack usc , and they have comple tdy dom inakd drug dist ribut iun thL· r.:·.

These data , viewed together w it h find ings in the l\-kxican-Am c· rican pc>pt!l:! ­tion in Los A ngek s UvloorL· t:1 al., I ')fU) <llld fromth .~ studies in S:lll F r:lllc isco and Chicago, indicate a na tio nwide tre nd toward inst itutio n:li iz:1tio n <~nd toward cen­trali zat ion in all noncorpo ratc s.::ctor innHnc gL:ncr~tting "b us inesses." Rt-~;L·arc: h em th e; StrUCIUI'e and funct ion ing of S UCh l'elllr:·JJizcd "huSill L'SSL'S" , the ir illll(T OJ't:':IJ1i ­i'.;J{i OII o f roles ("kilo connections:· "wcight dealers ," crac k house ::;upp li c~r~ and

CRACf.: : NEW DIRECTJO!\S IN DRI_I ( ; RtoS f::ARCH. PART 2 l){')

proprietors, sccmity personnd and ''h itmen," li cutenant~/c rcwbosscs, "runners:·

"go-bet wc:cns," holders o f drugs and cash, stn.:ct st:llcrs, "coprnen," steercrs. touts, lnokouts, haggersipac:kagn s, knct·s, mo ne.y l:tundL'r(·rs, "execut ive personnel,"

de.), and how the la11n perfmm in lt>\V-incorne C<>lllmunitics wi ll greatly illum i­nak this trc nd.

Crack Distr i/){(tioll Is A ssocio ted 11 ·irh U11prcademed High Ln-cls of Viole11ce

und Nondrug Crime

This n.:scarchc r is :-~s s truck as the~ ge nera l public l>y the high Jcvds of v ioknc:l~

and llCHldrug c rime a ppar,~ nt l y all ri butahle to c rack d i:::t ri butio n :llld use (/1-icH· York Tim es, 1987). Some o f thi s violence may be accounted for by the paranoia and fear

of hann wh ic h users/dist ributor:; ex pcril~nce on account o f cocaine ingest illll per se . Futurl' ft~scarch , however, will cxplort~ the possibi lity that much violence is the out­

come of un iq ue fea tures o f tht~ novd c rack dist ribution "businesses." Fo r cxample,

contra ry to newspaper accounts, "posses" arc by no mc~111~ e xclusively "Jamaican" org::llli7.~J tions: their mcmlwrs ::qlpear to be d r:l\vn from all the. isbnds, and the pro jcct team knows o f severa l o rganiz::1 t ions hcadcd by C 1ribbcan opera to rs wh ich

would not b.:: viab le b ut for I Iispanic bulk suppliers :-~nd Afro-American and H is­

pan ic s treet dist ributors('cm ployecs." Such o rganizations , whic h m ay not be hdd togl:ther or recruited th rough c thn icity, ki ns h ip, or terri torial ity, may be sub_]t~ct to

pecu lia r organ iznt ional wc~a knesses or p lace unusua l s tra ins upon ind iv idual mem ­bers wh ich result in violenCL\ rather like. gangs in the ),1cxican-Amnic an barrios

(nl:ighborhoods) of Los Angdes (\1oo re ct al., 1983). Competition, exacerbated

perhaps by un ique, c rack-specific relat ions between distributo rs a nd consumers, m:ty a lso promote vi oknce, as m:-~y the imp:lct o f /all' enforccment efforts. In futurl~

researc: h, therefo re , consumer-distri butor rd:ttions , rebtions between d istrib ution

groups, as well as the impact of c hanging law e nfo rcem ent empha~cs, will be espe­cia lly investigated.

\Vith respect to tht> issue of nondrug c rime, genera I rebtionships betwccn d rug

usc and crimi n:-~lit y have been established. Jo hnson ct a !. ( 1987, 1988) have shown

tha t the most serious s treet offenders nppcar to be those exhibit ing a complcx life­

sty le which combines rout ine cri me commission in 5evcral offense classes (bm­g lary, robbery, theft, fe nc:ing stolen goods, etc .); polydrug use (w.::ckly to mu lti ­

daily use o f cocaine, heroin , marijuana, a nd pills); and drug sales (weekly or m ore frequen t sa les a nd distribution of illic it substances, primarily coca ine, hero in, and

mariju:tna). A ccord ing to thcse o bserve rs , s uch serious s treet off'enders v; i ll com­m it one or m ore nonclrug crirncs during a typica l day, use coc nim: a nd/ or h~roin and/or marijuana severa l t ill1L'S, possibly engage in sev..:ral d rug sales, and drink

a lcoho l several times or cont inuous ly . An emerging litc.r ::t turc s uggests that during pe riods o f dai ly coca ine or haoin usc, robbe ry rates <~re much hi gher tha n wh en t he. sam e persons arc us ing cocaine/heroin o n :1 wc.ekly o r less than weekly basis. As

920 HA:\11D

association between ··very n.:gular"' cocaine/heroin use and high robbery rates is therefore indic[ttcd. Rnhbcri,·s \h~t'<: assuciatcd with needing both C(lcainc and her­

oin_ In thc'SL' studie,_, how,·ver. Ltct,,r,.; acl'llllllting fo r this connection-dc~prt'ssiun, eravin•' p;tr;tnnia --WtTl' nul c·st:thlishc:d. Ft·:tr uf wtthdr:t\v;tl, or the cxpc·ricnn· ul

it, hav~· hcc·n suggc·sll'd as causc·s ,,f thcs,· critnin:d :lets_ Robins futmd th:tt tht:

grL':lk'r the ntllnbn uf phy:.;ic:tl dt·pc'llLkncy syntptnrns anHmg Vi,·tn:tm \ l'(,·r:tth,

the: gn.~:llLT the· lil\dihotld of a high scut\~ t.lll scvnal dc~viancc~ itc'rns.

\Viddy )wid arntHlg rl·sc':Hchns is the hclid- th:tt drugs, L'spc·cially akllhPL

"cause:" disinhibitiun. a procc·s:--. by which a).'grc·ssivc hd1avinrs (:tssaults, fights,

st:xual dcviailL'l') arc pulL·ntiat,:d and result in crime_ This vinv has proved difficult

to tc:st; moreover, it is Lknicd by :tlc(lholic and heavy drinking oJTcnd,:r::; who s:ty

tktt instc:td of c:tusing th,·ln lo lose cuntrnl, drugs and akoho lcn:1bk them to carry

out criminal ;Jets awrc cff,Ttivc·ly and with greater success (Johnson l'l al., 1987, I9RR).

Future research in this area must account fm crack-specific novelties. Tit is n:­

searcher and knmvkdgc·:thlc strcd people lxl icvdhat crack usc h:t::; been accutnp:t­

ni,·d by dr:nnatic departures from prn itllts uffc·nding, even where it has hcc'll drug­

rel:ttcd. It :tppcars th:tt successful crimiml ctreers (burglary, robbery, shoplifting,

nwtor car lhel'l, ctc.J :1re~ oftut disc,mtinued after onset to crack, to he rcplac,~d by a

lifestyle which feature'S honll'lessne·ss, vagrancy, bL'ggary, p,·tty l:trccnics dirL·ett~d again::;t kin and neighbors, and by sporadic violent assault and robbery.

Rcpfuccl!lellt oflv!arijuww, Cocaine Pm,der, and lleroin Distriburion by Crack

Adding to the peculiarity of cr.1ck distributing org:mizations and JistributDrs

lll<J)I be the circumstance that crack appenrs to have Ullrnirwted drug Ji::;tributiun

generally, displacing marijuana, eucaine powder, and hnoin distribution signifi­

cantly (or in the case of heroin, probably dominating and promoting it). A primary

focus of future rese;uch will be to gcnerat,: a series of individual drug distribution

profile-s for study p:trlicipants (esJwcially !hose with pre-crack distribution ca­reers, i.e., informants over the age of 30) which illustrat,· how crack has ::;upcrc,:dcd well-c:stablishcd drug distribution engag(~rnents.

The future~ research efforts which this paper advncttes arc timely and impor

t:mt. The proper idcntificalion or the cr:1ck using/:1b using :mel distributing popula­

tion is crucial to the design of eJTccti \\' trcatmc~nt nHH.blitics for crack dqxndcnc,:.

Arc they "deviant .. or arc·thL~Y (lhc I3cepcTS, BM\Vs, and gold chains notwith:;tand­

ing) the sor1 of laborers undocumented aliens in sweatshops and farms are? The

careful scientific study of crack distribution org[mizations such as the "Jam:tican

posses" is the needed response to widespread public conccm about their opem

lions. finally, these new directions in drug research will identify factors which in­fluence income gcncratiun and reinvestment in dmg economics, and illurnirJnt(· a

CRi\CK : NLW DJRECIJO:\S 1\ . Dl<l 'G RF SEARC H. J' ,\ Jn2 l)2 1

vi ta l mi:>si ng lin k in cxpl:ln:t tion s winch n·latc the· drug un i\\'rse to the DVerall co rn

!l1!11l ity .

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Th is paper was written in 19l\X as :1 p:ut ,, f applica tions to var ious agcncic·s fo r

funding to in iti :tlL' ct ad; spc·,· ifi c· rc·sc·:lrl'h.

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I ..

HAt--liD

THE AUTHOR

Ansley Hamid is Assistant Pro ft.:ssor o f

J\nthrnpology at John Jay Colkgc of C rimina l J ust ic~·. New York C ity . lie was t ra incJ at St. Mary's Colkg~·

(T rinidad and T obago), a t the Londnn

School of Econu mics ( UK), and at

T l'achcrs Cnlkge, Co lumbia Univcr s ity. He h:ts bt:cn doing dhtH)graphic fi ddwork i11 the areas of drug use. mis­

use, anJ dis tributio n in the Caribbean and in Caribbean conununities in New York si nce 1976. Professor I Ia m id has

also s..:rveJ as a social worker/crack spc·

cialis t at t rca tnw nt centers in I b rlcm . He has written scvna l articles on marij uana

and <.Tack usc a nd dis tribution, and he is currentl y prcpnring a manuscript on these

to pics.