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Council: SPECPOL Agenda: The Issue of Tibet
Tibet's history
Tibet has a history dating back over 2,000 years. A good starting point in analysing the
country's status is the period referred to as Tibet's "imperial age", when the entire country
was first united under one ruler. There is no serious dispute over the existence of Tibet as
an independent state during this period.
Even China's own historical records and treaties Tibet and China concluded during that
period refer to Tibet as a strong state with whom China was forced to deal on a footing of
equality.
International law protects the independence of states from attempts to destroy it and,
therefore, the presumption is in favour of the continuation of statehood. This means that,
whereas an independent state that has existed for centuries, such as Tibet, does not need to
prove its continued independence when challenged, a foreign state claiming sovereign
rights over it needs to prove those rights by showing at what precise moment and by what
legal means they were acquired.
China's present claim to Tibet is based entirely on the influence the Mongol and Manchu
emperors exercised over Tibet in the 13th and 18th centuries, respectively. As Genghis
Khan's Mongol Empire expanded toward Europe in the west and China in the east in the
thirteenth century, the Tibetan leaders of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism concluded
an agreement with the Mongol rulers in order to avoid the otherwise inevitable conquest of
Tibet. They promised political allegiance and religious blessings and teachings in exchange
for patronage and protection. The religious relationship became so important that when
Kublai Khan conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty, he invited the Sakya Lama
to become the Imperial Preceptor and supreme pontiff of his empire.
The relationship that developed and still exists today between the Mongols and Tibetans is a
reflection of the close racial, cultural and especially religious affinity between the two
Central Asian peoples. The Mongol Empire was a world empire; no evidence exists to
indicate that the Mongols integrated the administration of China and Tibet or appended
Tibet to China in any manner. To claim that Tibet became a part of China because both
countries were independently subjected to varying degrees of Mongol control, as the
People’s Republic of China does, is absurd. It is like claiming that France should belong to
England because both came under Roman domination, or that Burma became a part of India
when the British Empire extended its authority over both territories.
This relatively brief period of foreign domination over Tibet occurred 700 years ago. Tibet
broke away from the Yuan emperor before China regained its independence from the
Mongols with the establishment of the native Ming Dynasty. Not until the 18th century did
Tibet once again come under a degree of foreign influence. The Ming Dynasty, which ruled
China from 1368 to 1644, had few ties to and no authority over Tibet. On the other hand,
the Manchus, who conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century,
embraced Tibetan Buddhism as the Mongols had and developed close ties with the
Tibetans. The Dalai Lama, who had by then become the spiritual and temporal ruler of
Tibet, agreed to become the spiritual guide of the Manchu emperor. He accepted patronage
and protection in exchange. This "priest-patron" relationship, which the Dalai Lama also
maintained with numerous Mongol Khans and Tibetan nobles, was the only formal tie that
existed between the Tibetans and Manchus during the Qing dynasty. If did not, in itself,
affect Tibet's independence.
On the political level, some powerful Manchu emperors succeeded in exerting a degree of
influence over Tibet. Thus, between 1720 and 1792 the Manchu emperors Kangxi, Yong
Zhen and Qianlong sent imperial troops into Tibet four times to protect the Dalai Lama and
the Tibetan people from foreign invasion or internal unrest. It was these expeditions that
provided them with influence in Tibet. The emperor sent representatives to the Tibetan
capital, Lhasa, some of whom successfully exercised their influence, in his name, over the
Tibetan government, particularly with respect to the conduct of foreign relations. At the
height of Manchu power, which lasted a few decades, the situation was not unlike that
which can exist between a superpower and a neighbouring satellite or protectorate. The
subjection of a state to foreign influence and even intervention in foreign or domestic
affairs, however significant this may be politically, does not in itself entail the legal
extinction of that state. Consequently, although some Manchu emperors exerted
considerable influence over Tibet, they did not thereby incorporate Tibet into their empire,
much less China.
Manchu influence did not last for very long. It was entirely ineffective by the time the British
briefly invaded Tibet in 1904, and ceased entirely with the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in
1911, and its replacement in China by a native republican government. Whatever ties
existed between the Dalai Lama and the Qing emperor were extinguished with the
dissolution of the Manchu Empire.
From 1911 to 1950, Tibet successfully avoided undue foreign influence and behaved, in
every respect, as a fully independent state. The 13th Dalai Lama emphasized his country's
independent status externally, in formal communications to foreign rulers, and internally, by
issuing a proclamation reaffirming Tibet's independence and by strengthening the country's
defenses. Tibet remained neutral during the Second World War, despite strong pressure
from China and its allies, Britain and the US. The Tibetan government maintained
independent international relations with all neighboring countries, most of whom had
diplomatic representatives in Lhasa.
The attitude of most foreign governments with whom Tibet maintained relations implied
their recognition of Tibet's independent status. The British government bound itself not to
recognize Chinese suzerainty or any other rights over Tibet unless China signed the draft
Simla Convention of 1914 with Britain and Tibet, which China never did. Nepal's recognition
was confirmed by the Nepalese government in 1949, in documents presented to the United
Nations in support of that government's application for membership.
The turning point in Tibet's history came in 1949, when the People's Liberation Army of the
PRC first crossed into Tibet. After defeating the small Tibetan army, the Chinese government
imposed the so-called "17-Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" on the
Tibetan government in May 1951. Because it was signed under duress, the agreement was
void under international law. The presence of 40,000 troops in Tibet, the threat of an
immediate occupation of Lhasa and the prospect of the total obliteration of the Tibetan
state left Tibetans little choice.
In the course of Tibet's 2000-year history, the country came under a degree of foreign
influence only for short periods of time in the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries.
From a legal standpoint, Tibet has to this day not lost its statehood. It is an independent
state under illegal occupation. Neither China's military invasion nor the continuing
occupation has transferred the sovereignty of Tibet to China. As pointed out earlier, the
Chinese government has never claimed to have acquired sovereignty over Tibet by
conquest. Indeed, China recognizes that the use or threat of force (outside the exceptional
circumstances provided for in the UN Charter), the imposition of an unequal treaty or the
continued illegal occupation of a country can never grant an invader legal title to territory.
Its claims are based solely on the alleged subjection of Tibet to a few of China's strongest
foreign rulers in the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries.
Unresolved Political status of Tibet
The contemporary dispute over Tibet is rooted in religious and political disputes starting in
the thirteenth century. China claims that Tibet has been an inalienable part of China since
the thirteenth century under the Yuan dynasty. Tibetan nationalists and their supporters
counter that the Chinese Empire at that time was either a Mongol (in Chinese, Yuan) empire
or a Manchu (Qing) one, which happened to include China too, and that Tibet was a
protectorate, wherein Tibetans offered spiritual guidance to emperors in return for political
protection. When British attempts to open relations with Tibet culminated in the 1903-04
invasion and conquest of Lhasa, Qing-ruled China, which considered Tibet politically
subordinate, countered with attempts to increase control over Tibet’s administration. But in
1913, a year after the Qing dynasty collapsed, Tibet declared independence and all Chinese
officials and residents in Lhasa were expelled by the Tibetan government. Tibet thenceforth
functioned as a de facto independent nation until the Chinese army invaded its eastern
borders in 1950.
But even during this period, Tibet’s international status remained unsettled. China
continued to claim it as sovereign territory. Western countries, including Britain and the
United States, did not recognize Tibet as fully independent. After founding the People’s
Republic of China in 1949, the new communist government in China sought reunification
with Tibet and decided to invade it in 1950. A year later, in 1951, the Dalai Lama’s
representatives signed a seventeen-point agreement with Beijing, granting China
sovereignty over Tibet for the first time. The agreement stated that the central authorities
“will not alter the existing political system in Tibet” or “the established status, functions and
powers of the Dalai Lama.” While the Chinese government points to this document to prove
Tibet is part of Chinese territory, proponents of Tibetan independence say Tibet was
coerced into signing this document and surrendering its sovereignty.
Experts also point to the years from 1913 to 1950, a time when Tibet behaved like a de facto
independent state, to argue that Tibet was not always part of China. But China blames the
British influence at the time for provoking the idea of Tibetan independence and refuses to
be bound by any treaties signed between Tibet and Britain during that period. This includes
the 1914 Simla convention where the British recognized Tibet as an autonomous area under
the suzerainty of China.
The political status question is also complicated by uncertainty about what constitutes
Tibet’s borders. The Chinese only accept the term Tibet for the western and central areas,
the area which is now called the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). This area was directly
ruled by the Lhasa government when the Chinese invaded in 1950. But Tibetan exiles have
been demanding a Greater Tibet which includes political Tibet in modern times (TAR) as well
as ethnic Tibetan areas east of TAR, most of which Tibet had lost in the eighteenth century.
These areas, earlier known as Amdo and Kham, are now scattered among parts of Chinese
provinces of Sichuan, Qinghai, Yunnan and Gansu. The March 2008 anti-government
protests, which started in Lhasa, soon spread among the ethnic Tibetan areas in these
provinces.
Conflict with China
China’s policies towards the Tibetans can perhaps best be described as a mix of brutality
and concession. The first Tibetan uprising of 1959 resulted in the flight of the Dalai Lama
and about 80,000 Tibetans. During these years thousands of Tibetans were allegedly
executed, imprisoned, or starved to death in prison camps. So far no Chinese official has
publicly acknowledged these atrocities. This period also included a policy of induced
national famines that resulted from tenets of the so-called Great Leap Forward, when
Beijing set up communes in agricultural and pastoral areas. The Cultural Revolution, the
next phase of Mao’s revolutionary politics, followed in 1966 and continued in effect until
1979 in Tibet. During these years, all religious activities were prohibited and the monastic
system in Tibet was dismantled. The campaign included an attempt to eradicate the ethnic
minority’s culture and distinctive identity as a people.
Deng Xiaoping’s rise to power in China in 1978 brought forth a new initiative to resolve the
Tibet question. Besides reaching out to the Dalai Lama in exile in India, the Chinese
authorities also initiated a more conciliatory ethnic and economic development policy.
Tibetans were encouraged to revitalize their culture and religion. Infrastructure was
developed to help Tibet grow. But pro-independence protests in Tibet that started in 1987
led to the declaration of martial law in the region in 1989. After martial law was lifted in
May 1990, Chinese authorities adopted a more hard-line policy with stricter security
measures, curtailing religious and cultural freedoms. At the same time, a program of rapid
economic development was adopted which included much resented incentives encouraging
an influx of non-Tibetans, mostly Han Chinese, into Tibet. This, Beijing hopes, will result in a
new generation of Tibetans who will be less influenced by religion and consider being part
of China in their interest.
China's claims
The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims that Tibet is an integral part of China. The
Tibetan Government-in-Exile maintains that Tibet is an independent state under unlawful
occupation. If Tibet is under unlawful Chinese occupation, Beijing's large-scale transfer of
Chinese settlers into Tibet is a serious violation of the fourth Geneva Convention of 1949,
which prohibits the transfer of civilian population into occupied territory.
If Tibet is under unlawful Chinese occupation, China's illegal presence in the country is a
legitimate object of international concern. The question of Tibet's status is essentially a
legal question, albeit one of immediate political relevance. The international status of a
country must be determined by objective legal criteria rather than subjective political ones.
Thus, whether a particular entity is a state in international law depends on whether it
possesses the necessary criteria for statehood (territory, population, independent
government, ability to conduct international relations), not whether governments of other
states recognize its independent status. Recognition can provide evidence that foreign
governments are willing to treat an entity as an independent state, but cannot create or
extinguish a state. If, on the other hand, Tibet is an integral part of China, then these
questions fall, as China claims, within its own domestic jurisdiction.
The issue of human rights, including the right of self-determination and the right of the
Tibetan people to maintain their own identity and autonomy are, of course, legitimate
objects of international concern regardless of Tibet's legal status.
China makes no claim to sovereign rights over Tibet as a result of its military subjugation
and occupation of Tibet following the country's invasion in 1949-1950. Instead, it bases its
claim to Tibet solely on its theory that Tibet has been an integral part of China for many
centuries. China's claim to sovereignty over Tibet is based almost exclusively on self-serving
Chinese official histories.
International law is a system of law created by states primarily for their own protection. As a
result, international law protects the independence of states from attempts to destroy it
and, therefore, the presumption is in favor of the continuation of statehood. This means
that, whereas an independent state that has existed for centuries, such as Tibet, does not
need to prove its continued independence when challenged, a foreign state claiming
sovereign rights over it needs to prove those rights by showing at what precise moment and
by what legal means they were acquired.
Neutral & independent status
From 1911 to 1950, Tibet successfully avoided undue foreign influence and behaved, in
every respect, as a fully independent state. The 13th Dalai Lama emphasised his country's
independent status externally, in formal communications to foreign rulers, and internally, by
issuing a proclamation reaffirming Tibet's independence and by strengthening the country's
defences.
Tibet remained neutral during the Second World War, despite strong pressure from China
and its allies, Britain and the USA. The Tibetan Government maintained independent
international relations with all neighbouring countries, most of whom had diplomatic
representatives in Lhasa.
The attitude of most foreign governments with whom Tibet maintained relations implied
their recognition of Tibet's independent status. The British Government bound itself not to
recognise Chinese sovereignty or any other rights over Tibet unless China signed the draft
Simla Convention of 1914 with Britain and Tibet, which China never did.
Human Rights violations in Tibet
Torture and Abuse in Prison
In addition to the fact that arrest and imprisonment in Tibet are frequently carried out as a
result of peaceful dissident activity--in violation of international human rights law--there are
serious abuses following detention. Incidents of severe beatings at the time of arrest,
torture during incarceration, and severe beatings of inmates already sentenced have been
reported with sufficient frequency and from a number of credible sources as to put the issue
beyond doubt and, moreover, to demonstrate that these abuses are not isolated incidents
but rather the product of a policy for dealing with political dissidents. Such reports continue
to emerge.
To date, the Chinese government has been evasive in responding to European Union and
NGO questions about the Drapchi protests, but it is clear that the imposition of arbitrary
extensions to their sentences is a further abuse affecting Tibetan political prisoners. Only
last week in fact, nine Tibetan prisoners in Kandze, an important town in the eastern
reaches of the Tibetan Plateau, were reported to have had their five-year prison sentences
for participating in a peaceful protest in October 1999, increased to ten-year terms.
The Chinese authorities have also been unresponsive to concerns expressed by the United
Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention about the cases of three Tibetans who had
their sentences extended for staging a peaceful political protest during the Working Group's
visit to Drapchi in October 1997. To date, Chinese authorities have refused to adequately
explain their actions. Nor have they explained their failure to release Ngawang Choephel,
the well-known Tibetan musicologist who was arrested while doing research in Tibet in
1995, and whose detention the Working Group has formally declared to be in contravention
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Making Religion Serve Politics
The issues of the Panchen Lama and "patriotic education" are closely bound up with each
other, since it was the Dalai Lama's announcement of the recognition of the incarnation of
the 11th Panchen Lama that precipitated the campaign of "patriotic education." When the
Dalai Lama formally recognized the Panchen Lama in May 1995, the Chinese authorities
reacted by virulently denouncing him and by taking harsh measures against the child whom
he had recognized. The boy and his family have been kept in effective isolation from the
outside world, and government representatives and human rights monitors have not been
allowed independently to verify their conditions, in spite of many attempts to do so.
The Panchen Lama is generally considered to be just below the Dalai Lama in stature within
their particular sect of Tibetan Buddhism and as such has great prestige within Tibet. China's
actions are designed to exert unquestioned state control over religion, to the point, in this
case, of dictating whom Tibetans may revere as a religious hierarch. In other instances the
state has assumed a visible presence in certifying certain incarnations and in harshly
suppressing those who dissent. In the case of the Karmapa Lama, the head of the Karma
Kagyupa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, the restrictions on his movement made it impossible for
him to receive proper teachings from his traditional mentor; as a result he had no choice but
to flee Tibet. He arrived in India at the beginning of this year.
More recently, the Chinese government alone managed the search for another important
incarnation within the Dalai Lama's sect, Reting Rinpoche. By all appearances, this is part of
a continuing effort to control such searches in order ultimately to stage manage the
discovery and enthronement of the next Dalai Lama.
No right to protest
Tibetans are not free to protest or openly speak about their situation. Even peaceful
demonstrations are met with heavy handed, military crackdowns. n 2008, thousands of
Tibetans staged the largest protests in Tibet for over 50 years. Demonstrations swept across
the entire Tibetan plateau. Chinese authorities arrested an estimated 6,000 protestors, of
which the fate of about 1,000 still remains unknown. The upsurge in self-immolations and
other protests since 2011 has led the Chinese authorities to step up security and attempt to
impose even tighter control over Tibet.
Political prisoners tortured and killed
Prisons in Tibet are full of people detained for simply expressing their desire for freedom.
People have been arrested and sentenced to prison for peaceful acts, such as:
a. waving the Tibetan flag
b. distributing leaflets
c. sending information about events in Tibet abroad
The Chinese deem these acts as ‘splittist’ or ‘subversive’. Many Tibetans are imprisoned on
unclear or unspecified charges, their families not informed of their whereabouts. Released
prisoners report of having been subjected to beatings, electric shocks, and being deprived of
food and drink. A 2008 UN report found that the use of torture in Tibet was ‘widespread’
and ‘routine’.
Restricting information
China attempts to control all information in and out of Tibet. TV, radio, printed media and
the internet are subjected to strict monitoring and censorship. Access is blocked to TV and
radio broadcasters based outside China, which provide news services in Tibetan languages.
Foreign journalists are rarely allowed entry into Tibet, and when they are, they are closely
chaperoned by Chinese officials. Reporters Without Borders ranked China 175 out of the
180 countries on its Press Freedom Index 2014. Professor Carole McGranahan has also
stated that there are more foreign journalists in North Korea than Tibet.
Lack of Religious freedom
Buddhism is central to Tibetan life and monasteries and nunneries are kept under tight
surveillance. Police stations are often situated nearby (or inside). Monks and nuns have
been beaten, jailed and tortured. They are regularly subjected to ‘patriotic re-education
programmes’, for weeks at a time. During these programmes, they are forced to read
‘patriotic’ literature denouncing the Dalai Lama. Those who refuse to take part, or fail the
programme, often have their rights to practice as monks and nuns taken away.