content approach to motivation of employees in …
TRANSCRIPT
567
International Journal of Institutional Leadership, Policy and Management
Volume 2, Issue 3, pp. 567-583. 2020
ISSN: 2735-9220
www.ijilpm.com.ng
CONTENT APPROACH TO MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES
IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
Jairus Ochege UKO
Department of Educational Management
Ignatus Ajuru University of Education, Nigeria
Bartholomew IHEBOM
Department of Educational Management
Faculty of Education
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Nigeria
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ABSTRACT
The study centered on motivation with particular emphasize on content approach to motivation of employees
in tertiary institutions. The need for this study stemmed from the fact that employees attitude towards work is
based on joy and happiness derived while doing the work which can come from behaviour modification re-
enforcement and motivation by the managers and administrators of various organization. One of the major
problems confronting manager of various organization as well as the administrators of the school is that of
motivating their workers to perform assigned tasks to meet or surpass predetermined standards because
majority of the administrators and managers are bereft of how to identify employee‟s needs and the ways of
helping them to achieve such needs. Also, improving the quality of organization is through the diversification
of contents and methods and promoting experimentation, innovation, diffusion and sharing of information
and best practices as well as policy dialogue are the strategic objectives of organizations. In reinforcing these
objectives, administrators and managers need to apply the principle of behaviour modification so that the
human performance will increase. Study on employees and tertiary institution was discussed, employee‟s
motivation and leadership perspective was also discussed. Four theories under the content approach to
motivation such as Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs and its five categories, observation on the theory, historical
importance of the theory and Clayton Alderfer‟s Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory as well as the
comparison between Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs and Clayton Alderfer theory was discussed, David
McClellan acquired needs, two-factor theory by Fredrick Hertzberg, the pitfalls in Fredrick Hertzberg, the
similarity between Fredrick Hertzberg and Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs theory was also discussed after
which conclusion was made as well as suggestion on the importance of employees‟ motivation in tertiary
institution which is seen as the key to the success of tertiary institutions in every Nation.
Keywords: Content, Approach, Motivation, Employees Tertiary Institutions.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows:
Uko, J. O., & Ihebom, B. (2020). Content approach to motivation of employees in tertiary institutions.
International Journal of Institutional Leadership, Policy and Management, 2(3), 567-583.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copyright © IJILPM 2020.
568
INTRODUCTION
Content is a Medieval Latin word „contentum‟ meaning “things contained”, it also means the
amount of a particular constituent occurring in a substances or the list of items or sections given
at the front of a book or periodical. It is also list of things that held or included in something.
Approach on the other hand refers to the strategies or methods of doing something or the
process of going towards something, whereas, motivation simply means the encouragement or
strong reason for action. One of the major problems confronting management is that of
motivating workers to perform assigned tasks to meet or surpass predetermined standards. It is
variously defined and conceptualized by different people in a different way expressing the same
thing. It is defined as something that course, coerce or force an action. It also refers to something
that energizes behaviour towards a given direction. It can also be seen as a factor that starts and
sustains an action toward the accomplishment of goals (Agi & Adiele, 2015).
According to Denga (1996), motivation is that inner force that ignites, propels, pokes,
spurs or energizes directs and sustains behaviour towards goal achievement. While Robert-Okah
(2002) stated that motivation can either be positive or negative. Positive motivation, also referred
to as „anxiety reducing motivation‟ or the carrot approach offers something valuable to the
individual being motivated. For example, pay rise, reward for outstanding performance,
prospects for promotion, etc. Negative motivation on the other hand, otherwise referred to as
stick approach uses threat of being sacked or fired, demotion where there is under performance.
Motivation is an important aspect of personnel management due to the fact that the productivity
of the teachers depend on it to some extent because the is no doubt agreeing to the saying that a
happy employee is the productive employee and that what is good for the organization is also
good for the worker (Nwideeduh, 2004). A motivated employee always display matured
behaviour in carrying out the duties assigned to them while the revise is the case on unmotivated
employee that displayed childish character and lack of interest in performing a task because
he/she has no goal to attain. According to Denga as stated in Robert-okah (2002), truancy,
idleness, absenteeism, frequent request for excuse duty and deliberate laziness are signs of
inadequate motivation. This is in line with Daft (2003, p. 546) who state that motivation is very
important and central to the management of any organization and also agrees that studying
motivation helps the heads of organizations to understand what prompt people to initiate an
action, and also influences their choice of action and why they persist.
Human behaviour is motivated when it is goal directed and a motivated behaviour has
three major characteristics, which are:
It is sustained;
It is goal-directed;
It results from a felt need.
Motivation can either be intrinsic or extrinsic. While intrinsic motivation refers to the inner
driving force that push, coerces a behaviour toward a particular direction and where a job to be
done is arranged in such a way that is interesting, challenging and fulfilling, which provide
rewards extrinsic motivation on the other hand, is external driving force that push an action
towards a particular direction which involves the uses of external rewards such as increased
wages, promotion and praise to enhance better performance on the part of employees.
569
Study on Tertiary Institution and its Employees
Tertiary institution is the eight section of the National Policy on Education (NPE) (FRN, 2014), a
policy designed to have functional education in Nigeria. The policy document articulates the
control plan to use education as an instrument for transforming Nigeria into a self-reliant and
technological developed nation. The document was published in 1977 and revised in 1981, 1998
and 2004.
The policy document defined tertiary education as the education given after secondary
education in universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including those
institutions offering correspondence courses.
As started in the National Policy on Education (NPE) (FRN, 2014), tertiary institution
have the following as the goals:
To make sound contribution to national development through high level relevant
manpower training;
Develop and inculcate proper values for the survival of the individual and society;
Develop the intellectual capacity of individuals to understand and appreciate their local
and external environments;
Acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-
reliant and useful members of the society;
Promote and encourage scholarship and community service; and
Forge and cement national unity and promote national and international understanding
and interaction.
In achieving the above goals, tertiary institutions shall pursue it through teaching, research and
development, various staff development programmes, general and dissemination of knowledge,
variety of modes of programmes including full time, part time, shock release, day-release,
sandwich etc. the achievement tertiary institution goals can also be pursue through access to
training funnels such as those provided by the industrial training fund (ITF), student industrial
work experience scheme (SIWES), maintenance of minimum educational standards through
appropriate agencies, inter-institutional co-operation and to dedicate services to the community
through extra-moral and extension services.
The policy states that all teachers in our tertiary institutions shall be encouraged to
undergo training in the methods and techniques of science. It also states that to supplement
funding, universities and the tertiary institutions are encouraged to explore other sources of
funding such as endowments, consultancy services and commercial ventures.
As contained in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2014) document, tertiary
institutions comprises of flour sub-sections such as university education, teacher, polytechnic
education and monotechnical education. It was also stated in the document that university
education shall make optimize contribution to national development through intensifying and
diversifying its programme for development of high level manpower within the context of the
needs of the nation, making professional courses contents to reflect our national requirements
and as well making all students as part of a general programme of all round improvement in
university education to offer general study courses such as history of ideas, philosophy of
knowledge and nationalism.
570
The policy document also started that teacher education programmes shall continue to be
given major emphasis in all educational planning and development. The Nigeria Certificate in
Education (NCE) was approved as the minimum qualification for entry into the teaching
profession and at the Nigerian certificate in education and degree levels, education programmes
shall continue to be expanded to also carter for the requirements of technical, business and
special education. It is also stated in the document that in-service training shall be develop as an
integral part of continuing teacher education and shall also take care of all inadequacies, promote
opportunities shall be created to all for professional growth at each level.
Polytechnic on the other hand according to National Policy on Education (FRN, 2014),
has the following as its specific goals:
Polytechnic shall provide full-time or part-time course of instruction and training in
engineering, other technologies applied science business and management, leading to the
production of trained manpower;
Polytechnic shall provide the technical knowledge and skills necessary for agricultural
development, industrial, commercial and economic development in Nigeria;
Polytechnic shall also provide training and impact technologies and other skilled
personnel who shall be enterprising and self-reliant;
Another goal of polytechnic education shall be to train people who can apply scientific
knowledge to solve environmental problems for the convenience of man;
Lastly, polytechnic education shall give exposure on professional studies in the
technologies.
While pursuing the above mention goals, government shall adopt the following measure:
To develop and encourage the ideas of polytechnic education through students industrial
work experiences;
To improve immediate and long-term prospects of polytechnic graduates and other
professionals with respect to their status and remuneration.
The policy document (2004) also describe monotechnic as single-subject technology institutions
for specialized programmes such as agriculture, fisheries forestay, surveying accountancy,
nursing, mining, petroleum etc. the structure and status of their programmes shall be equivalent
of those of polytechnics. The objectives and mode of operation of monotechnics shall be the
same as in the polytechnics
The employees in any organization are the most valuable asset of the organization
because the success or the failure of any organization to achieve it predetermined goals and
objectives depend on the employees with positive values. They are the human resources, the
manpower of an organization (Ololube, 2019). Therefore, it is very crucial that their selections,
recruitment must be done with carefulness by human resource manager (HRM). Furthermore,
human resources are human beings working in every organization, be it firms, industries,
factories, companies, schools, colleges, etc. which must be selected, recruited on the basis of
their skills, knowledge and experiences for better productivity in an organization. These skills,
knowledge and experiences that are of great important to the socio-political and economic
development of the various organizations may have been acquired from educational training in
schools, colleges and universities (Ololube, 2019).
571
Employees in education also simply refer to the pool of human unit in education who are
selected, recruited based on the need of education system to work towards achieving the
predetermined goals and objective of educational system in accordance to the educational
system policy as stated in the national policy of education. It also means the members of
education staff who carry out direct educational and training activities in accordance to education
act. This comprises of the human personnel working in the education system, the cleaners,
school securities, gardeners, teachers, Lecturers, both teaching and non-teaching or academic and
non-teaching staff, education ministries staff. They are not limited to particular sector of the
school system, it comprises of primary secondary and higher education personnel.
Motivation of Employees in Tertiary Institutions and Leadership Perspectives
Motivation of employees in education is of paramount important because it forms the nucleus of
education success of any nation. This study limits its discussion on section to only schools
setting, specifically tertiary institutions. The motivation of employees in the school system
depends on school leaders who are saddled with the responsibilities of educational management.
According to the study, Motivation simply means an encouragement of strong reason for action
which can either be positive or negative. Ofojobe and Ezugoh as cited in Osarenmunata (2019)
contest that teachers, feel highly motivated when they are consulted about a decisions concerning
their work which comprises of conducive working environment, the up to date facilities in the
schools.
Akindutire as cited in Asareumunata (2019) expressed that conducive environment
motivate the performance of staff. According to this study, motivation of employee in education
can be done in the following ways:
The ability of the school leader to be able to identify employee‟s needs, determined their
needs and finds a way of sustaining their needs and as well as make their goals part of
organizational goals;
Provision of reward to staff with amazing performance which must not just be the words
of appreciation but a little token no matter how small;
Given awards to staff with outstanding performance;
Provision of conducive offices to staff with all the necessary facilities;
Appraising the staff and promote them when necessary;
Encouragement of staff development, growth achievement recognition;
Given staff the opportunity to make mistake and get them corrected.
Higher education leader must be approval not base on politics but on professionalism, somebody
who is not just academically qualified but a trained professional who has a thorough knowledge
of leadership style to apply at a particular point in time, somebody who is intelligence, possess
leadership skills, knowledge and experience, somebody who is financially buoyant, self-
motivated, who can work with the mined to lead the followers, who have the ability to plan,
direct, organize, and coordinate the affaire of the institution and institute a very strong prevalent
culture in the institution in order for the institution to compost or be among the top higher
institution in the world (Whitt, 2006).
572
Studies on Content Approach to Motivation
Content approach to motivation refers to the needs theory that lay emphasis on basic needs that
push or coerce behaviour or an action toward a particular thing. This basic needs include, need
for food, (shelter, love relationship, money reward and achievement. The needs become internal
driving force that motivates the individual towards satisfying it.
A need creates tension in the individual who moves in a certain direction in order to
achieve the desired objective which reduces the tension. A satisfied need does not motivate;
conversely, an unsatisfied need motivates.
Content approach to motivation or needs theory comprises of the following:
Abraham Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs;
ERG theory by Clayton Alderfers;
Acquire Need Theory by David McClellan;
Two-Factor Theory by Frederick Hertzberg.
The above mention content approach to motivation or Needs theory can be discus as follow:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A hierarchy of needs theory which is one of the content approaches to motivation was advocated
by Abraham H. Maslow in 1949, a clinical psychologist and once president of American
Psychological Association (APA). According to him, these needs of the man arise classified in a
hierarchy order starting from the basic needs to the higher order needs once a particular need is
satisfied, it cease to be a motivator of behaviour and another need emerges.
Abraham Maslow identified five types of needs arranged in an ascending order. The
theory suggests that people are motivated by five categories of needs, namely:
Physiological;
Safety;
Belongingness;
Esteem and
Self-actualization.
This can be represented in the pyramid diagram below for more clarity.
573
Apex
Higher Order Needs
[board minded]
Base Lower Order Needs
Figure 1: Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs.
From the diagram above, physiological, safety and belongingness needs are the base or the lower
order needs that can be achieve by majority of people while self-actualization is the apex or the
higher order needs according to Maslow hierarchy of needs. The higher order needs is not for
everybody but for few who are bold enough to make decision on what they think they would be
and take the responsibility of their decision to achieve their dreams. Maslow noted that human
behavior are guided by needs and wants, which are rather complex, but ordered in hierarchy of
preponderant. According to Nwideeduh (2004), some basic assumption are inherent in the theory
which are:
Human needs differ from individual to individual in terms of complexity and multifarious
nature. The degree of needs influences the behavior of an individual‟ to a large extent at a
particular point in time;
Needs are arranged according to their hierarchy of importance to human being ranging
from basic physiological needs to the higher level of needs which is the apex;
A satisfied need is no more a motivator of behaviour but unsatisfied needs;
Human beings have different way of satisfying higher order needs than the lower order
needs.
Physiological Need
This refers to the basic need of people that are seen as the strongest in a man life and must be
satisfied before other needs. These needs are also refers to as basic biological or tissue needs for
sustaining human life. These needs are strongest in man‟s life and must be satisfied before other
needs. This need can be satisfied with money. The need for food, water, shelter, air, rest, sleep,
sexual satisfaction and activity. These needs have dominating influence than any other need at
Self
Actualization
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Self esteem
574
this stage of a teacher‟s career as they are required to maintain the body in a state of equilibrium.
The major preoccupation at this stage is to ensure that these needs are substantially satisfied.
Teachers in all school organizations are extremely sensitive to the deprivation of these needs.
They cannot wait to go on strike should these basic needs be denied them. School administrators
should realize that every incentive meant for the teacher means much for them. Once the
physiological need is satisfied, it ceases to operate as a prime motivator of behaviors then, the
next higher order need, safety is activated. This is an unlimited process in individual‟s life time.
Safety Need
This refers to higher need of a man next to physiological needs. As soon as the physiological
needs are satisfied, safety need appears. An individual safety becomes very important to him.
Questions like what happen to me when I get sick? How can I be protected from organizational
hazard? Become his major concern. Safety needs has to do with protection against bodily harm,
danger, loss of employment, deprivation or threat. An employee is often concerned about the
safety of his employment, protection against accidents, and security of his environment. These
needs are often satisfied in educational institutions by such programme as fringe benefits,
medical/health services, job security and safe working environment. An employee likes to know
that his employment is permanent. The loss of his job could induce him to seek ways of
satisfying his job physiological need. To encourage productivity, management may threaten him
with the possibility of loss of employment. The organization should help to solve a person‟s
dependency need. The employee gets worried if he is not a confirmed staff or is subjected to
discrimination or arbitrary managerial action. Safety need could indeed be very strong in an
individual.
Social Need/Belongingness Needs
This referred to needs for loved, belongingness, acceptance and friendship participation in social
activities which remain fundamental to teachers or student adjustment at work or in learning
environment. These needs are satisfied by belonging to group giving and receiving friendship
and informal grouping at school, developing close friendship with others and finding life love is
crucial. Esteem needs, and self-actualization are secondary needs because they can be satisfied
with money. Satisfying these needs in an organization reduces the level mental illness, high level
absenteeism, poor performance, low satisfaction and emotional breakdown.
Esteem Needs
This referred to need for individual recognition, self-image, attention, accomplishment,
achievement, appreciation and the need for self-respect. At this stage of human beings the
individual love to take responsibilities and prove himself. The esteem need is the “ego” need.
Here, the individual wants his contributions to be recognized and appreciated by the management
and co-workers.
The feeling of independence, professionalism and confidence is highest at this stage. It is
important for management to recognize and reward him for his contributions to the
organizational effort. Here, the individuals develops desire for fame, reputation and acclaimed
respect and esteem from the admirers and non- admirers. When people who work with him and
575
management appreciated him by helping to build up his ego, self-esteem, confidence, power and
prestige, needs are satisfied. Self-esteem needs triggers self-confidence and sense of social
importance. Nwideeduh in Robert-Okah (2010) noted that factors that contribute towards
satisfaction of self-esteem needs or ego needs in educational institutions include job title and
responsibilities, praise, merit, pay increase, peer/ supervisory recognition and competent
management. He also stated that non achievement of self-esteem needs may leads to feeling of
discouragement in an individual‟s life.
Self-actualization
This is the last human needs in Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs, which he referred to as fulfillment
need. This is the need for an employee to reach his highest potential at work place or in
conquering his environment. The need for self-actualization manifests itself in many ways in
people‟s life. For instance, peoples like to be seen and referred to as professionals, chief or
Alhaji as the case may be. A teacher who holds Ph.D. likes to be referred to as “Doctors”, those
who do not become ashamed of being called “Mr” and opt for “professor”, professionals like to
be called Engineer. Architect…Barrister…Even women who have carried these titles like to be
addressed as Dr. Mrs. Barister…etc.
Maslow believes that an average citizen satisfies perhaps 84% of his physiological needs, 70% of
his safety needs, 50% of his self-actualization needs. He was succeeded in classifying human
needs at least as an aid in thinking for management. What is being disputed in Maslow‟s theory
is the issue of successive saturation. One can easily see the interrelatedness in human needs. In
fact, by satisfying one need, the other needs are apparently receiving attention for the dignity of
human beings is predicated on the satisfaction of all the needs. According to Maslow, needs or
goals are the drives that create the tension that are fulfilled by goal oriented behaviour should a
need remain unfulfilled as the lower part of the coop skills, new tension is created and new goal
oriented behaviour is made to satisfy the need. If the need is satisfied as in tension is released
and a new goal emerges and tension is created and failure to achieve an objective gives rise to a
series of defensive behaviour such as aggression, withdrawal, depression and projection.
Observations on the Maslow’s Theory
The relative-intensity problem: There is no statement in the theory as to know how
intensely a person will feel a need;
Prediction-of-movement problem: The theory does not describe “how much” satisfaction
will cause a person to start feeling needs at the next stage/level;
Missing needs: The need for power clearly drives some people, but it is not found in the
theory, many other needs are also missing;
The order problem: Some people experience these needs in a different order; for instance,
the starving artist who forsakes safety and security in search of self-actualization;
Empirical support: Research indicates individuals have both biological and psychological
needs, but the theory itself not been supported by other finding;
Prediction of behaviours: There is no statement as to how a given person will attempt to
satisfy a particular need; one may seek security by having good job, another by
576
purchasing a gun. However, the theory has been widely accepted because of three basic
facts;
The level in the hierarchy are not rigidly fixed, this means the boundaries are rather
dynamic, hazy and overlapping;
An act is likely to be caused by several needs.
Historical importance of Maslow’s: Theory of needs. It was one of the first theories
that analyze human motivation.
Humanism: The theory present people as being basically good which tends to
contradict the classical theory that portrays people as being basically lazy,
unmotivated and is very prone to behaviour.
Common sense validity: The theory has common sense validity. It makes source to
believe that an average human being must first satisfy his basic need-hunger-before
attempting even to recognize other needs. Thus, the hierarchy makes sense in content
theory.
Clayton Alderfer ERG Theory
Existence-Relatedness-Growth theory by Clayton Alderfer is another content theory of
motivation. This theory resembles Maslow‟s hierarchy theory as it makes case for physical,
psychological and social needs.
Aldferfer‟s Existence Needs are the basic needs for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a
secure and a save environment. This category is the equivalent of Maslow‟s physiological and
safety needs. In the school, the availability of pay or remuneration to provide for the basic
necessities of life and save working condition will satisfy this category.
Alderfer‟s Relatedness needs emphasized on the need to have good interpersonal
relationship with people by sharing thoughts and feelings and to have adequate communication.
To meet this need, the principal or the education authorities should ensure interpersonal
relations, feedback for performance and communication among teachers and others. This
category is the equivalent of belongingness needs of Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer‟s
Growth needs: This referred to the need for self-development creativity and productive work
needs. The growth needs are equivalent of Maslow‟s esteem and self-actualization needs. To
satisfy these needs, school should allow teachers and other workers to improve their skills and
abilities. They would also be given the opportunities to engage in meaningful work to help them
actualize themselves.
The high point of this theory is that satisfied lower needs motivate a person to satisfy
higher level needs. Ability to satisfy higher level needs increased the motivation to continue to
work to satisfy lower level needs.
Table 1: Comparison of between Alderfer‟s Theory and Maslow‟s Theory
Alderfer Needs Maslow Needs
1 Growth 1 Self actualization and esteem
2 Relatedness 2 Belongingness and love
3 Existence 3 Safety ,Security and Physiological
577
Alderfer‟s theory has been criticized the same way as Maslow‟s theory. They are considered as
“armchair theories”.
David McClellan Acquired Need/manifest Need Theory
Closely related to Maslow‟s hierarchy or needs is Acquired Needs theory by McClelland. The
major concern of this theory is that certain types of needs are acquired during individual lifetime
(Daft 2003). It means that people are not born with this needs but learn them. This refers to needs
for achievement.
According to McClellan, some people achieve more than others because they have a
greater desire to achieve more than others. McClellan and his colleagues discovered that those
who had a greater need for achievement were neither high risk takers, nor low risk takers. They
appeared to be realistic about their goals and set moderate challenges for themselves. They were
motivated by achievement and save money as measure of their progress, so were status and
power which were not by themselves needs but were socially accepted measures of success in
the satisfaction of the need to achieve.
A supervisor who has a need for recognition among his peers or colleague will strive for
status and recognition. All people who have n-achievement are constantly interested in feedback
as to the extent that they are realizing their objectives. McClelland states three basic model needs
as follows:
Need for power = n pow: This needs has been interpreted by McClellan as the desire to
be influential and have authority and control over others.
Need for affiliation = n Aff: This refers to the needs to develop and maintain personal
relationships, avoid conflict and have rewarding friendships.
Need for achievement = n Ach: According to (Daft, 2003), needs for achievement refers
to the desire of an individual to attain high standard of success, master complex tasks and
perform better than others.
According to McClellan, the four basic models is important in the study of organizational
behaviour especially as they relate to leadership studies compliance and discipline. He went
further to state the characteristics of high achievers as:
They take moderate risks (not low or high);
They prefer immediate feedback;
They value accomplishments over money and material rewards;
They become preoccupied with the task at hand;
They are likely to become independent entrepreneur due to disenchantment with firm;
They are prone to street-related problems.
These characteristics are important to management especially in the attainment of organizational
efforts as they are a list of potential needs people feel, therefore, in the school setting, the school
authorities should direct all these needs in the individuals to meaningful goal achievement for the
school. Teachers perceived to exhibit the needs mentioned above should be encouraged to take
greater responsibilities and functions.
578
McClellan argued that the high need for social power is the most important motivator for
successful managers. This means that successful manager tend to be high in this type of needs
for power. High need for achievement can also be important, but it sometime results in too much
concern for personal success and not much for the employers‟ success. The need for affiliation
contributes to managerial success only in those situations where the maintenance of warm group
relations is as important as getting others to work toward group goals.
The implication of McClellan research is that organization should try to place people
with high need for social power in managerial jobs .It is critical, however, that those managerial
jobs allow the employee to satisfy the need for power through social power acquisition.
Otherwise, a manager high in need for power may satisfy this need through acquisition of
personal power, to the detriment of the organization. McClellan showed that high achievers work
hard to achieve set goals, which are more challenging at work, however, they did not see reward
as the suitable tool for their motivation but feedback on performance. McClellan concluded by
saying that, improving motivation begins with the ability of the manager to identify what
employee really wants for them to match them with their needs.
Two-Factor Theory of Motivation by Frederick Hertzberg et al.
Frederick Hertzberg two dimensional theory of motivation and dissatisfies have received enough
publicity in the area of motivation. These two-factor theories have been called motivation
maintenance theory”, “motivation hygiene theory”, or Dual factor theory” these two-factor
theory contributed a lot to worker behaviour at work. According to Fredrick Herzberg et al
(1967). motivators‟ factors, which are recognized as high level needs are:
Achievements;
Recognition;
Responsibility;
Advancement;
Work itself;
Growth
These are factors that will induce an individual to put forth adequate effort in the
accomplishment of organizational goals because their presence make workers highly motivated
and satisfied, however, their absence keep workers indifferent at work.
Hygiene factors or dissatisfies: These factors can identified as:
Relationship with supervisors;
Working condition;
Relationship with pears;
Personal life;
Compensation;
Status;
Security;
Relationship with subordinates
579
Frederick Hertzberg observed that an improvement in the hygiene factors (company policies and
administration, supervision, working condition, inter-personal relations, personal life, money,
status and security) would serve to remove the impediment to positive work attitudes. When
these factors deteriorate to levels below that which the employee considers acceptable, then job
dissatisfaction ensures. However, the reverse is the case when job context can be characterized as
optimal, we will not get dissatisfaction, but neither will we get much in the way of positive
attitudes.
Hertzberg did not advocate the elimination of hygiene factors; instead he feels that they
are “housekeeping chores‟ that must be done. If they are absent, motivators will not work as
employees will complain and find necessary faults.
To encourage motivation, it is advocated that employer must encourage job enrichment.
This involves making job meaningful to the job holder so as to enable him derive satisfaction
from the work. Good job design helps the employee to device recognition, a sense of
achievement, growth and responsibility.
The two- factor theory, has been describe as useful because it explain the place of such factors as
achievement, recognition, challenging work, trust and responsibility as highly relevant in making
people pursue organizational goals. Thus, in the school system, teachers who are regularly
recognized for their achievement and often given high responsibilities are expected to show more
commitment to school goals than those who simply do not show dissatisfaction with the system
because hygiene factors are readily available ( Peretomode, 2008).
It is noteworthy for administrators to realize that hygiene factors such as pay, condition
of service, job security, supervision, school policies and existing interpersonal relationships do
not motivate teachers. Most teachers desire to have challenging work or responsibilities to be
appreciated and recognized for work done and given opportunity for professional growth,
advancement as well as job enrichment.
Hygiene factors are not directly related to the work itself (job content). Rather, hygienes
refer to job context factors (pay, working conditions, supervision, and security). Herzberg et al.
(1967) also refers to these factors as “dissatisfiers” because they are frequently associated with
dissatisfied employees. These factors are so frequently associated with dissatisfaction that
Herzberg claims they never really provide satisfaction. When they are present in sufficient
quantities, we avoid dissatisfaction, but they do not contribute to satisfaction.
Furthermore, since meeting these needs does not provide satisfaction, Herzberg
concludes that they do not motivate workers. Motivator factors involve our long-term need to
pursue psychological growth (much like Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs).
Motivators relate to job content. Job content is what we actually do when we perform our job
duties. Herzberg considered job duties that lead to feelings of achievement and recognition to be
motivators. He refers to these factors as “satisfiers” to reflect their ability to provide satisfying
experiences. When these needs are met, we experience satisfaction. Because meeting these needs
provides satisfaction, they motivate workers. More specifically, Herzberg believes these
motivators lead to high performance (achievement), and the high performance itself leads to
satisfaction.
The unique feature of Herzberg's theory is that job conditions that prevent dissatisfaction
do not cause satisfaction. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are on different "scales" in his view.
Hygienes can cause dissatisfaction if they are not present in sufficient levels. Thus, an employee
can be dissatisfied with low pay. But paying him more will not cause long-term satisfaction
unless motivators are present. Good pay by itself will only make the employee neutral toward
580
work; to attain satisfaction, employees need challenging job duties that result in a sense of
achievement. Employees can be dissatisfied, neutral, or satisfied with their jobs, depending on
their levels of hygiene‟s and motivators. Herzberg's theory even allows for the possibility that an
employee can be satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time - the "I love my job but I hate the
pay" situation!
Herzberg's theory has made lasting contributions to organizational research and
managerial practice. Researchers have used it to identify the wide range of factors that influence
worker reactions. Previously, most organizations attended primarily to hygiene factors. Because
of Herzberg's work, organizations today realize the potential of motivators. Job enrichment
programs are among the many direct results of his research. Herzberg's work suggests a two-
stage process for managing employee motivation and satisfaction. First, managers should address
the hygiene factors. Intense forms of dissatisfaction distract employees from important work-
related activities and tend to be demotivating.
Thus, managers should make sure that such basic needs as adequate pay, safe and clean
working conditions, and opportunities for social Interaction are met. They should then address
the much more powerful motivator needs, in which workers experience recognition,
responsibility, achievement, and growth. If motivator needs are ignored, neither long-term
satisfaction nor high motivation is likely. When motivator needs are met, however, employees
feel satisfied and are motivated to perform well.
One major implication of Herzberg‟s motivator-hygiene theory is the somewhat
counterintuitive idea that managers should focus more on motivators than on hygiene‟s.
Contradiction arises in an organization where manager misinterpret hygiene factors to motivator
due to the high demand of employee seeking for high payment to satisfy their needs which make
organizations sees it as a chief motivator for decade and the questions come. Why must
concentrating on motivators give better results? To answer this question, we must examine types
of motivation with reference to self-determination theory. Organizational behaviour researchers
often classify motivation in terms of what stimulates it. In the case of extrinsic motivation, we
endeavor to acquire something that satisfies a lower-order need. Jobs that pay well and
performed in safe, clean working conditions with adequate supervision and resources directly or
indirectly satisfy these lower-order needs. These are external rewards or factors that motivate the
behaviour (Wood et al., 2004).
Factors “inside” the person that cause people to perform tasks, intrinsic motivation, arise
out of performing a task in and of itself, because it is interesting or “fun” to do. The task is
enjoyable, so we continue to do it ever? In the absence of extrinsic rewards. That is, we are
motivated by intrinsic rewards, rewards that we more or less give ourselves. Intrinsic rewards
satisfy higher-order needs like relatedness and growth in ERG theory. When we sense that we
are valuable contributors, are achieving something important, or are getting better at some skill,
we like this feeling and strive to maintain it. Self-determination theory (SDT) as earlier stated
seeks to explain not only what causes motivation, but also how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic
motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
In SDT, extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of-an activity in order to attain
some valued outcome, while intrinsic motivation refers to performing an activity for the inherent
satisfaction of the activity itself. SDT specifies when an activity will be intrinsically motivating
and when it will not. Considerable numbers of studies have demonstrated that tasks are
intrinsically motivating when they satisfy at least one of three higher-order needs: competence,
581
autonomy, and relatedness. These precepts from SDT are entirely consistent with earlier
discussions of theories by McClelland, Maslow, Alderfer, and Herzberg.
SDT takes the concepts of extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation further than the
other need theories. SDT researchers have consistently found that as the level of extrinsic
rewards increases, the amount of intrinsic motivation decreases. That is, SDT posits that
extrinsic rewards not only do not provide intrinsic motivation, they diminish it. Think of this in
terms of hobbies. Some people like to knit, others like to carve wood. They do it because it is
intrinsically motivating; the hobby satisfies needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
But what happens if these hobbyists start getting paid well for their sweaters and carvings? Over
time, the hobby becomes less fun and is done in order to receive extrinsic rewards (money).
Extrinsic motivation increases as intrinsic motivation decreases! When extrinsic rewards are
present, people do not feel like what they do builds competence, is self-determined, or enhances
relationships with others.
SDT theory has interesting implications for the management of organizational behavior.
Some jobs are by their very nature uninteresting and unlikely to be made interesting. Automation
has eliminated many such jobs, but they are still numerous. SDT would suggest that the primary
way to motivate high performance for such jobs is to make performance contingent on extrinsic
rewards. Relatively high pay is necessary to sustain performance on certain low skill jobs. On the
other hand, SDT would suggest that to enhance intrinsic motivation on jobs that are interesting,
don't focus only on increasing extrinsic rewards (like large pay bonuses). Instead, create even
more opportunities for employees to satisfy their needs for competence, autonomy, and
relatedness. That means giving them opportunities to learn new skills; to perform their jobs
without interference, and to develop meaningful relationships with other customers and
employees in other departments. Such actions enhance intrinsic re wards.
Pitfalls in Frederick Hertzberg’s Two Dimensional Theories
Some major pitfalls in the two factor theory by Fredrick Hertzberg according to Peretomode
(2008, pp. 132-133) are as follows:
It is assumed that job performance may not be directly related to satisfaction. This means
that what constitutes satisfaction for one worker may not constitute satisfaction for the
other worker;
People may not be really aware of all that motivate or dissatisfied them;
The technique adopted by Hertzberg and his associates is necessary but the factors gave
unconvincing results;
The concentration is mostly on satisfaction and dissatisfaction as against job itself.
Similarity between Frederick Hertzberg’s Two Dimensional Theories and Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
While the high order needs of Maslow (affection, esteem, and self-actualization) correspond with
Hertzberg motivators. The dissatisfies (Hygiene factors) correspond with Maslow‟s basic needs.
A person who is in need of esteem will be motivated to achieve it, which could be made possible
by amassing wealth and gaining recognition; success breed success and reinforce a person‟s
esteem of his capability to achieve greater success. When a person achieves, he develops a sense
582
of importance and power and get a feeling of self-actualization as he perceive that he has full
control of his destiny or environment and has perhaps achieved all that he is capable of achieving
in life or a feeling of being “the greatest.”
The two theories also believed that, it is through the linkage of performance and reward
that an individual achieves individual motivation. The identification of needs and rewards is a
precondition for achieving sustained motivation and consequently increased productivity. The
above discussion on the similarities between Maslow hierarchy of need and Fredrick Hertzberg
two factor theories can be practically demonstrated in the diagram below.
Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs Hertzberg two factor theory
Figure 2: Similarities between Maslow Hierarchy of Needs and Fredrick Hertzberg Two-Factor
Theories. Sources: Adapted from Nwachukwu (2016).
CONCLUSION
The four motivational theories discussed above are known as content theories or content
approach to motivation or needs theory. They include hierarchy of needs theory by Abraham
Maslow, two factors theory by Fredrick Hertzberg, acquired need theory by David McClellan
and Alderfers ERG theory.
The above mention theories emphasized on the needs to motivate employee behaviour for
greater productivity, therefore, school and education authorities are encouraged to create school
climate that will meet needs and enhance productivity of teachers.
Suggestions for further studies on the needs to motivate and how to motivate
From the study, we are meant to understand that, there is no single motivator for everyone. It is
also equally true that no single force motivates an individual every time. Needs differ and
importance attached to needs by different people also differ. Therefore, researchers suggest the
following for both administrators and managers of various organizations:
It is a must for the administrators and managers of the various organization to know and
understand what motivates employees to work effectively by identifying their needs;
Self-actualization need
Ego or self-esteem need
Social need
Safety need
Physiological need
Achievement
Work itself
Advancement
Responsibility and
Recognition
r
Recognition
Relationship with co-workers
and peers supervision
Company policy
Working condition
Salary/ compensation
583
The school leaders or the administrators should be able to create a challenging job which
will allow a feeling of achievement, responsibility, growth, advancement, enjoyment and
challenging work itself and earned recognition;
They should be conscious of when the employees are frustrated or dissatisfied by the
organizational policy and find a way of helping them by providing their entitlement such
as wages, fringe benefits, seniority rights, etc.;
Lastly, school administrator should consider their employees‟ motivation as a priority
because the achievement of the educational goals depends on the performance and effort
of their employees especially teachers.
REFERENCES
Agi, U. K., & Adiele, E. E. (2015). Educational management. Rodi Printing and Publishing.
Atiomo, A. C. (2000). Practical Human Resource Management. Malthouse Press.
Benjamin & Clayton, (1973). Existence, relatedness and growth. The Free Press.
Daft, R. L. (2003). Management. Thomson South-Western.
Denga, D. I. (1996). Human engineering for higher productivity in industrial and other work
organization. Rapid Educational Publishers.
Frederick, Shane, George Loewenstein, & Ted O‟Donoghue (2002). Time Discounting and Time
Preference: A Critical Review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351-401.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1967). The Motivation to Work 2nd
Edition,
John Wiley and Sons.
Maslow, A. (1953). Motivation and Personality. Harper and Row.
Nwachukwu, C. C. (2016). Management theory and practice. Revised edition. Rex Charles and
Patrick.
Ololube, N. P. (2019). Practical guide to human resources management and organizational
theory. Pearl Publishers.
Peretomode, V. F. (1995). Educational administration: applied concepts and theoretical
Perspectives. Jaja Press.
Robert-Okah, I. (2014). Educational management in Nigeira: A functional approach. Harey
Publication.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Whitt, W. (2006). The impact of increased employee retention on performance in a customer
contact center. Manufacturing and Service Operation Management, 8(3), 235-252.
Wood, J., Wallace, J., Zeffane, R. M., Chapman, J., Fromholtz, M. & Morrison, V. (2004).
Organizational behaviour: a global perspectives, (3rd Ed.). Milton: John Wiley and Sons.