connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale...

24
Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 1 Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths for ultrasonic wave characterization of micro-cracked material L. R. Rakotomanana Institute of Mathematics, University of Rennes I -France Abstract. Macroscopic failure of material is attributed mostly to the initial presence of micro-cracks and micro-voids and is governed by physical mechanisms at different length- scales. In order to include discontinuity mechanisms in the material deformation and its consequence on the energy dissipations during micro-crack kinetics, a theoretical model of micro-cracked continuum is derived in this paper. The model describes a micro-crack density in terms of CARTAN constants of structure and explicitly connects the macroscopic scale to the mesoscopic discontinuities. This approach contrasts to the usual method in continuum mechanics that seeks a phenomenological description by introducing an internal variable in the constitutive laws. An illustrative example of the model application is presented for the linear ultrasonic wave propagation test. The result highlights the importance of rigorously revisiting the dynamic equation in micro-cracked solid. Keywords – A micro-cracking, B inhomogeneous material, B stress waves, C nondestructive evaluation. Introduction Brittle materials as glass, ceramics and polymers always contain more or less great amount of micro-cracks and crack-like flaws (~1μm to 10μm), which are unintentionally introduced during processing or surface machining. Toughness and strength of these materials are strongly dependent of the amount and structural orientation of internal micro-cracks. Although global failure of brittle material is usually attributed to a single macroscopic crack propagation, dense sets of micro-cracks appear around the single crack, resulting from dynamic instability e.g. (Sharon and Fineberg, 1996). Creation of micro-cracks surrounding the propagating macro-crack

Upload: others

Post on 09-Jul-2020

18 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 1

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths forultrasonic wave characterization of micro-cracked material

L. R. RakotomananaInstitute of Mathematics, University of Rennes I -France

Abstract. Macroscopic failure of material is attributed mostly to the initial presence ofmicro-cracks and micro-voids and is governed by physical mechanisms at different length-scales. In order to include discontinuity mechanisms in the material deformation and itsconsequence on the energy dissipations during micro-crack kinetics, a theoretical model ofmicro-cracked continuum is derived in this paper. The model describes a micro-crackdensity in terms of CARTAN constants of structure and explicitly connects themacroscopic scale to the mesoscopic discontinuities. This approach contrasts to the usualmethod in continuum mechanics that seeks a phenomenological description by introducingan internal variable in the constitutive laws. An illustrative example of the modelapplication is presented for the linear ultrasonic wave propagation test. The resulthighlights the importance of rigorously revisiting the dynamic equation in micro-crackedsolid.

Keywords – A micro-cracking, B inhomogeneous material, B stress waves, C nondestructive

evaluation.

Introduction

Brittle materials as glass, ceramics and polymers always contain more or less great amount of

micro-cracks and crack-like flaws (~1µm to 10µm), which are unintentionally introduced during

processing or surface machining. Toughness and strength of these materials are stronglydependent of the amount and structural orientation of internal micro-cracks. Although global

failure of brittle material is usually attributed to a single macroscopic crack propagation, densesets of micro-cracks appear around the single crack, resulting from dynamic instability e.g.

(Sharon and Fineberg, 1996). Creation of micro-cracks surrounding the propagating macro-crack

Page 2: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 2

is thought to be responsible for limiting the crack speed to about 50% of the theoretical limit of

Rayleigh surface wave speed, by dissipating energy. At the extreme, microcracking in thevicinity of macroscopic crack edge has been shown advantageous in controlling and even in

arresting a single macroscopic crack propagation e.g. (Clegg, 1999). Material failure is thussimultaneously governed by different mechanisms on different length-scales.

Size effects in micro-cracked material

At least three length-scale levels are present to approach the micro-cracking phenomenon:

macroscopic scale (~100µm), mesoscopic scale (~0.1µm to 10µm) and microscopic (atomistic)

scale (~10-10 m). Until recently, the size scaling was neglected due to the early use of averagestress (force per surface unit) and strain (no dimension). The limits of macroscopic approach are

reached when facing the cause of true material weakness as micro-cracks. Indeed, neworientation of technology development has brought new interest in connecting mesoscopic scale

to macroscopic scale beyond the macroscopic continuum description. Micro-engineering

devices, electronic devices and micro-electromechanical systems, for which the entire size maybe less than 10µm, may exhibit size dependence. For problems with crack lengths ranging from

fraction of 1µm to 10µm, current macroscopic description misses the size effects. Connectionbetween scale levels description is of central interest. This is particularly true for solid materials,because solids introduce a new length scale other than the lattice spacing (~1Å to 10Å), namely,the size of micro-cracks. Hierarchical modeling was suggested as one of the efficient method to

connect continuum cracking, dislocation dynamics and atomic-scale simulation as moleculardynamics or lattice static e.g. (Tadmor et al., 2000). Mesoscopic scale has been proven to well

connect with molecular dynamics approach by using very large-scale mechanistic simulationsduring crystal plasticity (100 million atoms) (Butalov et al., 1998). Very large-scale molecular

dynamics also appears more and more able to bridge the atomistic scale to macroscopic

experiments and description of continuum plasticity of material (10 million atoms) e.g. (Holianand Lomdahl, 1998). For more than forty years, the theory of strain gradient was proposed in

various forms to bridge mesoscopic scale to macroscopic scale for elastic material deformatione.g. (Toupin, 1964) or when internal micro-slips occurred in crystal solids e.g. (Fleck and

Hutchinson 1997). These theories involve strain (metric) for describing macroscopic deformation

and strain gradient for mesoscopic mechanisms. Such an approach has been already intensively

Page 3: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 3

discussed in the past, namely for non-local elasticity due some basic conceptual flaws e.g. (Dunn

and Serrin, 1985). In fracture mechanics the bridging of phenomenological approach(macroscopic) to mesoscopic physics that governs the dynamics of micro-cracks is far from clear

either experimentally or theoretically e.g. (Blumenfeld, 1998). Seek of an efficient description ofmaterial whose dimensions fall between macroscopic continuum and dislocation mechanics

remains a valuable motivation for developing an intermediate scale theory.

Ultrasonic techniques for micro-cracking detection

An immediate application of mesoscopic scale theory would be the non-destructive testing and

monitoring of micro-devices with cracks. For most materials ultrasonic techniques have beendeveloped to characterize the internal degradation by measuring the attenuation of ultrasonic

waves. Various theoretical models have been developed for explaining and predicting empiricalcorrelation found between attenuation and the presence of micro-cracks e.g. (Vary, 1988).

Basically, attenuation is a collective effects of four contributions e.g. (Prosser, 1996). Diffraction

is a beam spreading that is the dominant source near the crack (wavelength is same order ascrack length). Far from the crack, absorption (conversion of sound energy to heat) has an

exponential relationship of attenuation with distance. Scattering is the dissipation due togeometric dispersion of wave into adjacent media or into non-homogeneity within the material

itself. Velocity dispersion induces a signal loss provoked by the different velocities for different

frequencies involved in the wave. Despite its importance in ultrasonic measurement, mostmodels do not account for attenuation in the initial wave equation. It is often assumed and added

ad hoc for the sake of theory fitting with the experimental results e.g. (Breazeale et al., 1981;Vandenbossche et al., 1996). Furthermore, there is currently no consensus on the form of the

wave equation that governs the combined macroscopic and mesoscopic mechanisms.

Numerous nonlinear ultrasonic techniques have been proposed to characterize the fatigue micro-cracking damage. Two basic nonlinear effects are usually proposed: acoustic-elastic effects

(stress dependence on the attenuation) and higher harmonic generation. Wave attenuation has

been measured on the basis of Taylor expansion of the sound velocity cL = c0 + c1εext + c2εext2 +…

where εext is the pre-strain level. This technique appeared to succeed in early detection of micro

cracking for polymers and brittle polymers whereas failed for PVC and Nylon e.g. (Nagy, 1998).

Page 4: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 4

Probably scattering losses were more important than adsorption losses for those materials.

Similarly, higher harmonic generation was used to capture material degradation by assumingnon-linear stress-strain law σ = Eε 1 + βε +…( ) e.g. (Jhang and Kim, 1999), E being the Young’s

elastic modulus. The second harmonic parameter β was proposed to characterize the material

degradation. However, β values augmented as the excitation frequency increased and there

remained a doubt if this second harmonic parameter was an intrinsic effective parameter for the

material degradation. Indeed, the stress-strain law of micro-cracked material could be linear,

although with a lower modulus than intact material. In a same way, large strain theory andnonlinear stress-strain law were combined to derive nonlinear wave theory in order to measure

non-homogeneous micro-cracked material. The material properties were determined on the basisof non-linear wave accounting for third-order elasticity e.g. (Ravasoo, 1999). The second-order

coefficients of nonlinear terms (gradient of strain and cross terms) depended on the macroscopic

LAMÉ elastic constants λ, µ( ) and their spatial derivatives. Therefore these nonlinear and non-

homogeneous approaches were not able to detect the presence of uniform distribution of micro-

cracks with uniform macroscopic material density.

Experimental analysis of wave propagation in micro-porous ceramics (pores ~1µm) showed

strong attenuation and cut-off of frequency e.g. (Craciun et al., 1998). A sudden decrease in the

velocity at high porosity values was shown but could not be explained in the light of existingmacroscopic models of wave propagation. The ability of classical wave propagation to model

very micro-porous media was then questioned and the authors assumed that the strongattenuation was due to the wave scattering from the sample geometry disorder than due to the

sound adsorption mechanisms in the porous ceramics. Cut-off frequency phenomenon was also

observed in macroscopic fractured material, which exhibited distinct frequency bands withenergy transmission (pass bands) and with near-zero energy transmission (stop- band with cut-

off frequency) e.g. (Nakagawa et al., 2000). Corresponding discrete theory has been developedin 1D situation. Although experimental measurement techniques are becoming ever more

accurate and sophisticated, the list of theoretical models describing microcracking detection is

still far from complete. Due to the shortness of these micro-cracks characteristic length (~1µm to10µm) than the usual wavelength used in ultrasonic techniques, homogeneous linear wave theory

has often not sufficiently sensitivity to apprehend material degradation at the mesoscopic level.

Page 5: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 5

Theoretical models should be developed not only for improving the measurement processes as

for ultrasonic inspection techniques but also and mainly for better interpretation of the measureddata.

The aim of this paper is twofold. First, a bridging theory between mesoscopic scale andmacroscopic continuum scale is proposed for modeling the micro-cracks. The concept is based

the presence of the mesoscopic discontinuities of scalar and vector fields. The second part of the

paper is devoted to the derivation of macroscopic wave propagation equation accounting formicrocracking mechanisms of material in order to provide supportive model for characterization

of micro-cracked material.

Connection of macroscopic scale to mesoscopic scale

Macroscopic deformation

At the macroscopic level, the deformation is described by the metric, which measures the length

change of any small fiber embedded within material. Projected on a local vector basis e1,e2,e3( )

deforming with the material, the metric tensor writes g = gab ea ⊗ eb . The strain components are

defined as εab = 12 (gab −δ ab ) , where δab are the Krönecker symbols (equal to 1 if a = b and null

otherwise). For small deformations, the strain tensor may be also defined in terms of the

displacements ua in the usual manner, that is εab = 12 ∇aub +∇bua( ) . Symbol ∇ denotes the

connection used for calculating all derivatives with respect to space (gradient of tensor). Theconnection implicitly used in current macroscopic classical physics theory, including continuum

mechanics, is basically the LEVI-CIVITA connection, which must a priori satisfy thefundamental equation ∇g ≡ 0 . It is worthwhile to notice that the nullity of the strain gradient

should not be confused with homogeneity of strain. The macroscopic deformation theory is the

same for the three bridging approaches below.

Mesoscopic mechanisms: Internal variable theory

The first approach for bridging macroscopic scale to mesoscopic scale was historically thecontinuum damage mechanics, which introduced internal variables for describing the internal

micro-cracking. Most continuum mechanics models of micro-cracked solids seek aphenomenological description by assuming macroscopic variables to capture the distribution of

Page 6: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 6

micro-cracks e.g. (Vakulenko and Kachanov, 1971, Chaboche, 1988, He and Curnier, 1995).

Nevertheless, the existence of numerous theoretical models of brittle micro-cracked materialbased different choice of damage variables merely showed the missing of consensus in this

domain e.g. (Rabier, 1989; He and Curnier, 1995).

It has been recently proposed that any stiffness degradation of elastic material could be described

by a eight order damage tensor relating the intact eight order modulus tensor with the damaged

one (Cauvin et al., 1999). This approach allowed to describe various damage symmetry as fullanisotropy, orthotropy, tetragonal symmetry, hexagonal symmetry, transverse isotropy and

isotropy. Up to now, the choice of internal variables was rather dictated by an inductive logic, inwhich generalization of particular observations remained the basic concept underlying the choice

of internal variables. Most previous theories were based on effective stress (strain) e.g.

(Chaboche, 1988) or on the hyper-elasticity energy approach e.g. (He et al, 1995). In thosemodels, internal variables were used to simulate the change of material properties and did not

have any influence on the formulation of the conservation laws.

Alternative method for internal variable theory proposes strong discontinuity across the cracklips. Physically, micro-cracks are displacement and/or velocity discontinuities in an otherwise

intact material. Indeed, to be close to the physical phenomenon, some micro-mechanics modelsare based on the physical discontinuity of matter and then assume the description of micro-cracks

with contacting lips with dry (or viscous if any) friction at these lips. Each micro-crack is then

included into a cell, which is its direct neighborhood and is the smallest unit that allows bulkmaterial properties to be quantified after homogenization. The most important properties of the

basic cell is the ability to describe the relative translation of contacting lips (cohesion-decohesion) e.g. (Broberg, 1997). The crack opening modes (relative displacements of the crack

lips) are the internal variables for these models e.g. (Maugin, 1992, Oliver et al., 1999).

Numerous models are based on the discrete distribution of micro-crack within otherwise intactmaterial e.g. (Capuani and Willis, 1999; Maugin, 1992; Oliver et al., 1999; Ramaniraka and

Rakotomanana, 2000). Across each crack face, the displacement field u needs not be continuousand the internal variable is the displacement jump across the crack lips denoted by u[ ] . The

displacement field is decomposed into a macroscopic field and a jump field u = u + HΩ u[ ] .

Vector u is the continuum displacement in the absence of crack and HΩ the unit ramp function

Page 7: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 7

(null at one lip of the crack Ω− , equal to 1 on the adjacent lip Ω+ and linear between them) e.g.(Oliver et al., 1999). The strain tensor may be extended the to account for the displacement jump

εab =12 ∇au b +∇bu a( ) + 1

2 HΩ ∇a ub[ ]+∇b ua[ ]( ) + 12 δ Ω( ) ua[ ]nb + na ub[ ]( ) , where δ Ω( ) is the Dirac

delta function placed in the crack Ω , equal to 1 for any point of the crack and null elsewhere.

Vector n denotes the unit normal vector orthogonal to the crack surface. In this approach,mesoscopic mechanisms are connected to the macroscopic deformation by expanding the

displacement and strain into a continuous part and unbounded part (discontinuous). For a finite

size material piece, these models require the mathematical technique of homogenization, whichmay be cumbersome and practically difficult to apply in presence of randomly distributed micro-

cracks.

Mesoscopic mechanisms: Strain gradient theory

The second approach defined a smooth strain gradient as supplementary variable. For bridgingthe macroscopic level to the mesoscopic level, continuum models were proposed, in which thestrain gradient ηabc ≡ ∇a∇buc was implicitly assumed to be additional variables for describing the

change of internal microstructure e.g. (Toupin, 1962; Gurtin, 1965; Fleck and Hutchinson, 1997).Numerous works proposed the second gradient of the displacement as internal variable for

determining the material length scale during plastic deformation of small devices e.g. (Aifantis,

1992; Fleck and Hutchinson, 1997; Gao et al., 1999; Shizawa and Zbib, 1999; Huang et al.,2000). The effective strain measure of these recent theories was defined in e.g. (Fleck and

Hutchinson, 1997) to include both the strain and its gradient:

Ee2 ≡ 2

3 ′ ε ab ′ ε ab + d1 ′ η 1abc ′ η 1abc + d2 ′ η 2abc ′ η 2abc + d3 ′ η 3abc ′ η 3abc .

The prime sign indicates the deviatoric part of the strain and the strain gradient. Tensors ′ η iabc are

three mutually orthogonal third tensors according to ′ η abc = ′ η 1abc + ′ η 2abc + ′ η 3abc e.g. (Fleck and

Hutchinson, 1997). The three lengths d1,d2, d3( ) are the new constitutive parameters in the

theory. Experimental indentation test, torsion and bending tests gave estimation of these new

parameters e.g. (Fleck et al., 1994; Stölken and Evans, 1998; Begley and Hutchinson, 1998).Their value ranges from fraction of 1µm to 10µm. Strain gradient based theories provided the

linking between the macroscopic cracking to the mesoscopic slipping which were not well

Page 8: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 8

described by conventional plasticity theories. The coherence of macroscopic continuum physics

theory precluded the dependence of stress on higher gradients of strain e.g. (Dunn and Serrin,1985) if corresponding higher order stress tensors were not introduced. High-grade material

models, and therefore the specified theories deduced from them, may be incompatible with theusual form of macroscopic thermodynamics laws e.g. (Gurtin, 1965; Dunn and Serrin, 1985).

The Fleck-Hutchinson theory of micron scale plasticity includes the higher order continuum

theories of elasticity of sixties e.g. (Toupin, 1962; Gurtin, 1965) or more recent theories ofplasticity e.g. (Gao et al., 1999; Popov and Kröner, 1999; Huang et al., 2000). To satisfy the

Clausius-Duhem inequality, higher order stress was moreover defined by means of the work-conjugacy with the rotation and the stretch gradient, which are included in the strain gradient.

The strain gradient plasticity is a description at the mesoscale length level of the more detailed

dislocation dynamics occurring during crystal plastic deformation (Gao et al., 1999). However,an unclear point remains in the use of the gradient of the metric i.e. strain gradient as variable

measuring the mesoscopic mechanisms. The connection implicitly used in strain gradient theory

remains basically the LEVI-CIVITA connection, which has to satisfy the fundamental relation∇g ≡ 0 .

Mesoscopic mechanisms: Connection theory

As for crystal solid with defects (Kröner, 1981, Le and Stumpf, 1996), the deformation of micro-

cracked material is not sufficiently described by only measuring length change of embeddedfiber (strain) at the macroscopic level. Physically, each micro-crack results in a discontinuity of

the deformation either between atoms (microscopic scale length ~10-10m) or between grains

(mesoscopic level ~ 1µm to 10µm) in the material. Bridging between various length scale levelsshould account for this discontinuity. At the microscopic level (characteristic length 1Å to 10Å),

typical approach for crystals was given by means of crystal connection ∇ e.g. (Bilby et al., 1955;Noll, 1965; Kröner, 1981), allowing relating a basic lattice cell to its neighborhood. Crystal

connections were defined by considering regions of interest much greater than lattice spacing,

and where the lattice has density of dislocations that is small compared with the lattice size, butlarge enough so over regions of interest the dislocations can be described by a continuous density

(~ 10Å to 50Å). For bridging macroscopic level to mesoscopic level, we adopt a similarapproach to seek additional variables by assuming physical mesoscopic discontinuity of vector

Page 9: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 9

and scalar fields, as temperature and displacement. A previous work permitted us to show that

assuming scalar and vector fields discontinuity is more advantageous than assuming localizeddiscontinuity of matter, that involves mechanics of contacting crack lips at the mesoscopic level

(Ramaniraka and Rakotomanana, 2000).

The use of path integral-like method e.g. (Schouten, 1954), allowed obtaining mathematical

variables to describe the mesoscopic jump fields within a continuum: torsion tensor of an affine

connection for discontinuous scalar field, and the torsion and the curvature tensors (not nullsimultaneously) for discontinuous vector field (Rakotomanana, 1998). An affine connection is

not a tensor variable but may be characterized by the torsion ℵ and curvature ℜ tensors, whichare the additional variables for describing micro-cracked continuum:

ℵ= Γabc − Γba

c( ) −ℵ0abc[ ] ea ⊗ eb ⊗ ec ,

ℜ = eb Γdac( ) − ea Γdbc( ) + Γdae Γebc − Γdbe Γeac −ℵ0ab

e Γedc[ ] ea⊗ eb⊗ ed ⊗ ec ,

Where Γabc = ec ∇ea eb( ) and ℵ0ab

c ec ≡ ea ,eb[ ] are respectively the coefficients of the affine

connection and the constants of structure of Cartan. Symbol , [ ] denotes the classical LIE-

JACOBI bracket. Deformation of micro-cracked continuum includes the transformation of g

(metric change for macroscopic mechanism) and the transformation of ∇ (topology change for

mesoscopic mechanisms), the both deformations are projected onto an embedded basis

e1,e2,e3( ) , which deforms with the material.

In practice, the micro-crack disorder (1µm to 10µm) during deformation may be described by the

CARTAN’s structural constants ℵ0abc , which measure the failure of the closure of an initial

parallelogram designed on the material during the deformation. Failure of closure is due to

micro-crack. Constants of structure defined by ℵ0abc ec ≡ ea ,eb[ ] (a and b vary from 1 to 3) include

the three modes of each crack opening. In the present study, instead of using a strain gradient

variable, macroscopic deformation and mesoscopic physical mechanisms are described with

metric and constants of structure respectively, which may resumed into the co-vector ℵ0 =ℵ0 abb ea

(a co-vector field can be assimilated as a normal vector of a surface). This co-vector, which was

originally proposed in the general relativistic mechanics e.g. (Cartan, 1986) was applied in

Page 10: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 10

mechanics of material (Rakotomanana, 1998). The main difference with the strain gradient

theory is that connection theory introduces separately the affine connection, which is not agradient of the metric but rather independent variables.

Wave attenuation and dissipation in micro-cracked solids

The intent of this section is to present conservation laws formulation to highlight the difference

between these approaches.

Macroscopic wave propagation

The material is assumed to have isotropic symmetry, undergoes elastic small strains and contains

frozen micro-cracks e.g. (Noll, 1965; Wang, 1967). For material satisfying the HOOKE stress-strain law σ = λtr ε( )i + 2µε , NAVIER mathematical description of isotropic solid (1821) was

corrected by CAUCHY (1822), by introducing the LAMÉ coefficients λ, µ( ) to obtain the

equation of motion in the absence of body force. This motion equation relates solid particle

acceleration with the elastic internal force by using of longitudinal velocity cL = λ + 2µ( ) ρ

and transversal velocity cT = µ ρ of sound:

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ divu( ) + cT2Δu .

For the three approaches, the macroscopic wave propagation holds. The difference between the

three methods would be in the definition of the divergence operator, in the averaging of the

displacement vector and by the way the stress field and in the constitutive stress-strain law.

Mesoscopic wave scattering: internal variable theory

The internal variable theory is based on the use of a new macroscopic tensor field as for

capturing the evolution of internal micro-cracks. The medium is assumed to be homogeneous,

isotropic and linearly elastic with LAMÉ’s constants depending on the internal variable, reducedto a scalar field ℵ0 for the sake of simplicity. Therefore, the wave equation may be rewritten as

follows:

Page 11: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 11

∂ 2u∂t2 = cL 0 + cL1ℵ0 +…( )2

− cT 0 + cT1ℵ0 +…( )2( ) ∇ divu( ) + cT 0 + cT1ℵ0 +…( )2Δu

Where the elastic constants are expressed on the basis of Taylor expansion of the sound velocity

cL = cL0 + c1ℵ0 + c2ℵ02 +… , in which ℵ0 denotes the damage level. Similar expansion holds for

the transversal sound velocity. Such theoretical model had been used successfully in earlydetection of micro cracking for polymers and brittle polymers e.g. (Nagy, 1998). From this

equation of motion, it is nevertheless evident that the wave characteristic is not fundamentally

changed by the amount of micro-cracking but the overall stiffness. Moreover, the metricconnection used for calculating the divergence and Laplacian operators is not modified by the

presence of micro-cracks distribution. Characterization of materials at the mesoscopic scaleseems to be beyond of the scope for such model.

Mesoscopic mechanisms: displacement jump method

Alternative version of internal variable theory considers the jump of displacement field at

discrete distribution of crack as bridging variable. In a series of papers, (Capuani and Willis,1999) introduces the wave propagation within discrete models of cracks within otherwise virgin

matrix. By considering a random distribution of discrete micro-cracks, and by averaging the

crack effects, the equation of wave propagation can be written as follows:

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ divu( ) + cT2Δu +κ

Where an extra-body force κ in the virgin matrix, due to the presence of micro-cracks

distribution appears. Details of the formulation of this extra-body force may be found elsewhere(Capuani and Willis, 1999). For one-dimensional propagating wave, in which unit normal vector

of cracks is assumed to be along the dimension and where the displacement vector u = u1,u2 ,u3( )

is depending only on x1 = x and on t , further simplification gives (Capuani and Willis, 1999):

∂ 2u1∂t2

= cL2 ∂

2u1∂x 2

− cL2νπrΩ

2 ∂ u1[ ]∂x

, ∂2u2∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u2∂x2

, ∂ 2u3∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u3∂x2

.

Page 12: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 12

In which ν , rΩ are the Poisson’s ratio of the material and the radius of the micro-crack

respectively. The second term connects the mesoscopic jump of displacement to the macroscopic

wave propagation.

Mesoscopic wave scattering: strain gradient theory

Conservation laws associated to the strain gradient model have been mostly derived from the

Principle of Virtual Power (Germain et al., 1983; Fleck and Hutchinson, 1997; Shizawa and

Zbib, 1999) or Lagrangian method e.g. (Popov and Kröner, 1999). Based on the principle ofvirtual power, the wave motion equations take the form:

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ divu( ) + cT2Δu +κ ∇u,∇ ∇u( )( ) .

In which, the extra-body force κ ∇u,∇ ∇u( )( ) depends both on the strain and on the strain

gradient. The exact form of this force is derived from the Helmholtz free energy of the materialφ ε,∇ε( ) from which the third order stress (“double stress”) due to mesoscopic mechanisms is

obtained by derivative τabc ≡ ∂φ ∂ηabc . The extra-body force is deduced accordingly

κ a ≡ ∂2τ abc ∂xb∂xc. Indeed, the strain gradient theory assumes that a material point carries a

second order stress tensor σ and a third order stress tensor τ in order to satisfy the Clausium-

Duhem inequality. Particular form of the wave propagation was not developed in those works

since they were exclusively devoted to quasi-static plasticity and applied to indentation testing ofmaterials. Alternatively, (Popov and Kröner, 1999) recently developed a dynamic theory of

elastic-plastic model including microstructure, where they mainly considered dislocations at themicroscopic level. The equations of motions they derived were based on the kinetic energy of

macroscopic movements in the continuum and the microscopic mechanisms caused by

dislocations along three mutually orthogonal sets of glide planes. The stress was decomposedinto three components σ = σ macro + σ meso +σ micro . Then by considering the pseudo-gradient of

displacement, which was a non integrable tensor when discontinuities occurred locally, the

dislocation density was defined by αab ≡ ecda∇c ∇dub( ) with ecda equal to 1 for cyclic permutation

of 1, 2, 3, equal to -1 for anti-permutation and null otherwise. The wave propagation equationsderived by (Popov and Kröner, 1999) may be rewritten to give the following:

Page 13: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 13

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ divu( ) + cT2Δu +κ .

Where the extra-body force writes κ = −cT2α , which shows that it is proportional to the density

of dislocations. In terms of constants of structure, the equation further simplifies, when the

inertial rotation effects are again neglected (Popov and Kröner, 1999):

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ divu( ) + cT2Δu + cT

2ℵ0 .

For the particular case where the displacement vector u = u1,u2 ,u3( ) is depending only on one

coordinate x1 = x and on the time t , further simplification gives:

∂ 2u1∂t2

= cL2 ∂

2u1∂x 2

+ cT2ℵ0 , ∂

2u2∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u2∂x2

, ∂ 2u3∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u3∂x2

.

Mesoscopic wave scattering: connection theoryAs for disordered crystal solids where the length-scale is of the order of several lattice constants(10Å – 50Å) (Blumenfeld, 1998), the divergence of a vector field should also account for the

material structural flaw at the mesoscopic level. The divergence of a vector may be split into

macroscopic contribution and mesoscopic contribution of micro-cracks divv = Divv +ℵ0 v( ) , in

which Divv denotes the macroscopic divergence. The operator Divv reduces to the usual

material divergence, which is extensively used in the framework of elastic large deformation of

continua without micro-crack. The Laplacian is accordingly deduced Δv = Δ v +∇vℵ0( ) where

Δ v is the macroscopic Laplacian. The wave propagation equations in micro-cracked solid are

directly obtained:

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( )∇ Divu( ) + cT2Δ u + cL

2 − cT2( )∇ℵ0 u( )[ ] + cT

2∇u ℵ0( ) .

The two last additional terms represent the configuration forces due to the mesoscopicmechanisms. The wave equation projected onto a Cartesian frame gives (summation for index a):

∂ 2ub∂t2

= cL2 − cT

2( ) ∂ 2ua∂xb∂xa

+ cT2 ∂

2ub∂xa

2 + cL2 − cT

2( )∂ ℵ0aua( )∂xb

+ cT2ℵ0a

∂ua∂xb

.

Page 14: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 14

The continuous distribution of micro-cracks implies a coupling between the wave propagation

along the three directions. For the particular case where the displacement vector u = u1,u2 ,u3( ) is

depending only on one coordinate x1 = x and on the time t , further simplification gives:

∂ 2u1∂t2

= cL2 ∂

2u1∂x 2

+ cL2ℵ0a

∂ua∂x

+ cL2 − cT

2( )∂ℵ0a

∂xua , ∂

2u2∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u2∂x2

, ∂2u3∂t2

= cT2 ∂

2u3∂x2

.

The first equation governs the longitudinal wave propagation and the two last ones describe the

transverse wave propagation. The existence of continuously distributed micro-cracks implies acoupling between the wave propagation along the three directions. The first equation looks like a

linear damped KLEIN-GORDON waves equation e.g. (Kneubühl, 1997). Solving of the two last

equations is straightforward under some boundary conditions and gives transverse waves. Thefirst equation is more complicated but could be easily solved after separating the variables (valid

only under some boundary conditions).

Examples of wave propagation with the connection method

The macroscopic-mesoscopic wave model could find its main application in measuring the lossin an ultrasonic signal due to propagation trough a sample device, which ideally is a plate of

thickness d . Sensitivity analysis could be performed by means of non-dimensional ratio ofwavelength to plate thickness λ d e.g. (Kautz, 1996). For the sake of simplicity, we consider a

mono-dimensional problem where the displacement u is depending only on one coordinatex1 = x (perpendicular to the plate) and on the time t . The micro-crack distribution reduces to a

scalar ℵ01 =ℵ0 (co-vector directed by the plate normal vector). If properties are furthermore not

coordinate-dependent (uniform distribution of micro-cracks) in the plate, the wave equationdrastically simplifies:

∂ 2u∂t2

= cL2 ∂

2u∂x2

+ cL2ℵ0

∂u∂x

.

For physical interpretation, a characteristic crack opening length is defined as dℵ ≡ 2ℵ0 and the

defect circular frequency as ωℵ ≡ cL dℵ , which allows giving the relation ω ωℵ = 2πdℵ λ . The

quantity ℵ0 2 (inverse of defect length dℵ ) is the acoustic absorption coefficient e.g. (Breazeale

et al., 1981). Suppose that the plate is subjected to the steady-state displacement boundary

oscillatory condition u 0,t( ) = u cos ωt( ) at the left boundary and the plate is bonded to a fixed

Page 15: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 15

support at the right boundary. The steady-state wave depends on the excitation frequency. Whenωℵ ≥ ω , the steady-state wave writes:

u x,t( ) = u sinh − 1 −ω 2 ωℵ

2 x − d( ) dℵ( )sinh 1 −ω 2 ωℵ

2 d dℵ( )e−

xdℵ cos ωt( ) .

This solution includes various contributions for attenuation. It is observed in all case that the

wave attenuates exponentially with distance, which typically conforms to the usual absorption

contribution e.g. (Breazeale et a., 1981; Posser, 1996). For very low frequency excitationω ωℵ << 1, the ratio of the crack length to the wavelength is much less than unity and we have

small scattering-like effects. In principle, RAYLEIGH theory on wave scattering is applicable inthis case. There is a resonance when ωℵ =ω , which occurs when wavelength and crack opening

length is comparable in magnitude. Whenωℵ ≤ ω , the steady-state wave is given by:

u x,t( ) = u sin − ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1 x − d( ) dℵ( )sin ω2 ωℵ

2 −1 d dℵ( )e−

xdℵ cos ωt( ) .

Resonance peaks occur when ωn = n2π 2 cL2 L2 +ωℵ

2 , n = 1,2,... . For the extreme case where the

ratio ω ωℵ >> 1, the wave behavior should be comparable to reflection and refraction at locally

planar interfaces. Moreover, energy peaks in this pass-band are transmitted through the medium.For all cases, attenuation of waves depends on the frequency and on the amount of micro-cracks

parameters. This cut-off frequency would be a starting point for experimental measurement of

the micro-cracks distribution. For fully three-dimensional samples, material is supportingcompression and shear waves and the situation becomes much more complicated.

Considering another example of elastic micro-cracked plate subjected to the steady-statedisplacement boundary condition u 0,t( ) = u cos ωt( ) at the left end and free at the right boundary,

the steady-state wave take the following forms according to the value of frequency excitation.Whenωℵ ≤ ω , the steady-state oscillatory wave is given by:

u x,t( ) = u ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1cos ω 2 ωℵ2 −1 x − d( ) dℵ( ) + sin ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1 x − d( ) dℵ( )ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1cos − ω 2 ωℵ2 −1d dℵ( ) + sin − ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1d dℵ( )e−

xdℵ cos ωt( ) .

The (infinite number) resonance frequencies are calculated with the relationship:

Page 16: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 16

ω2 ωℵ2 −1 = tan ω 2 ωℵ

2 −1d dℵ( )For low frequency ωℵ ≥ ω , the solution reduces to:

u x,t( ) = u 1 −ω 2 ωℵ

2 cosh 1 −ω 2 ωℵ2 x − d( ) dℵ( ) + sinh 1 −ω 2 ωℵ

2 x − d( ) dℵ( )1 −ω 2 ωℵ

2 cosh − 1 −ω 2 ωℵ2 d dℵ( ) + sinh − 1− ω 2 ωℵ

2d dℵ( )e−

xdℵ cos ωt( ) .

Attenuation curves and frequency spectral curves of these steady-state waves are reported onFigures 3 and 4. The wave equation underlying these particular solutions is similar to the wave

equation governing the longitudinal motion of the plate with a variable cross-section (linear

variation) or with a variable Young’s modulus across the plate. Although starting with differentphysical situations, all of them result into scattering waves.

Nucleation and growth of micro-crack

For completeness, the evolution laws for micro-crack distribution is sketched below. Thenucleation and growth of micro-cracks are characterized by the evolution law ℵ0 , which is

considered as constitutive variable. Hypothesis of normal dissipation mechanism restricts theclass of constitutive laws although remaining a relatively general framework to continuum

models satisfying the second principle of thermodynamics. For normal dissipative materials,constitutive laws of the continuum with field discontinuity may be entirely reconstructed from a

free energy and a potential of dissipation e.g. (Germain et al., 1983) φ = φ ε,ℵ0( ) and

ψ =ψ ζℵ0( ) , where ζℵ0is the objective rate of the micro-cracks density (Rakotomanana, 1998).

Most mechanical behaviors are obtained by choosing special functions for the free energy and

for the potential of dissipation. The simplest example is the linear isotropic elastic solid with

micro-crack density, defined by the quadratic potential φ = 12 λ ℵ0( )tr2 ε( ) + 1

2 µ ℵ0( )tr ε2( ) . For a

plastic material characterized by the existence of a stress threshold, material response depends on

the history of external applied forces. At first approximation, on can observe macroscopicallythat the behavior of such a material changes abruptly when the intensity of applied forces

overpasses a certain critical value. This brusque variation requires a non-continuously

differentiable model. The conjugate dissipation potential is defined by the partial Legendre-

Fenchel transform e.g. (Rakotomanana, 1998) ψ * Jℵ0( ) ≡ Supζℵ0 Jℵ0 ÷ζℵ0 −ψ ζℵ0( )[ ] . The

Page 17: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 17

evolution law of the density of micro-cracks is therefore calculated by means of the sub-gradient

of the discontinuous dissipation potential:

ζℵ0∈∂ψ * Jℵ0( ) .

This evolution law expresses the nucleation and the growth of region where dense sets of micro-

cracks appear in the defected material. To compute the micro-crack density evolution, it is

convenient to define first a set C , which is a convex set of the dual space Jℵ0{ } , where there is

no evolution of the rates of micro-crack density. Set C contains the null tensor. For dual

variables Jℵ0{ } in the interior of C , the density of micro-cracks remains constant whereas for

those on the boundary, the density increases. Then, it is convenient to introduce the indicator

function of the set C defined by:

IC Jℵ0( ) ≡ 0+∞

if Jℵ0{ }∈Cif not

By analogy to classical dry friction and rate-independent plasticity theory (Moreau, 1970), the

dissipation potential may be identified as the conjugate of the indicator function of the set C as

ψ ζℵ0( ) = I *C ζℵ0( ) . Details and proofs supporting this identification for evolution laws with

threshold may be found in e.g. (Maugin, 1992; Rakotomanana, 1998). By applying theLEGENDRE-FENCHEL transform, it is straightforward to derive:

I *C ζℵ0( ) = Sup Jℵ0{ }∈C Jℵ0÷ζℵ0

− IC ζℵ0( )[ ] .We then deduce the dissipation potential ψ ζℵ0( ) = I *C ζℵ0( ) = Sup ζℵ0{ }∈C Jℵ0 ÷ ζℵ( ) . The

dissipation potential includes a homogeneous function of degree one in terms of micro-crack

density rates ψ = Supζℵ0{ }∈C Jℵ0

÷ζℵ0( ) . The last terms in brackets are positive and represent the

internal dissipation due to micro-cracks. Experimental investigations on the determination of

practical form of the convex set C or alternatively the form of yield stress function should beundertaken for each material. In this way, bone biomechanics study e.g. (Zioupos et al., 1995)

seems promising by discovering the classical Tsai-Wu criterion as candidate yield function foranisotropic material.

Page 18: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 18

DiscussionMacroscopic continuum mechanics has had great success in providing macroscopic information,which is essential for the mechanical shape design of engineering devices. The dislocation

dynamics theory is particularly suited to understand the interaction of large numbers ofdislocations and the pattern formation at the mesoscopic level, which is important for the

structural design of materials. The atomistic theory is necessary to give the basic information at

the lattice level of crystals at the microscopic level, in which the theory of molecular dynamicsplay a increasing role in the mechanistic simulation of dislocation motions. Technology

development and constraint to design smaller and smaller devices suggest in many problems ofmaterial mechanics the use of multiple scales e.g. (Blumenfeld, 1998; Tadmor et al., 2000). The

present work focuses on connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale levels. Starting with

macroscopic continuum level, the mesoscopic level disorder (~ 1µm to 10µm) is accounted forby introducing the local discontinuity of field (micro-cracks effects). The model is constructed

on the elementary mechanisms rather than “curve fitting” by merely imposing some non-linear

behavior. This would facilitate the building of hierarchical models in the sense that models at onescale level would provide rational arguments to develop the models at another scale level.

Namely, the use of strain gradient macroscopic theory does not have any implications in thebasic wave propagation equation, whereas considering the physical mesoscopic mechanisms has

a major consequence on the wave equation.

An immediate application of the connected macroscopic-mesoscopic model is the quantitativenon-destructive evaluation of materials, which combines wave propagation theory and the

technology as ultrasonic technique. Up to now, the basic science behind the more and moresophisticated ultrasonic technology remains the macroscopic wave propagation within linear or

nonlinear stress-strain law. Experimental evidence of strong attenuation and cut-off of frequency

in micro-porous ceramics (Craciun et al., 1998; Wanner, 1998) and pass band effects in fracturedsteels plates (Nagakawa et al., 2000) could not be fully explained in the light of only

macroscopic models of wave propagation. Such phenomenon could be well approached with themodel connecting macro-phenomenon to mesoscopic scale discontinuities. In a general manner,

theoretical models should still be developed not only for improving the measurement processes

as for ultrasonic inspection techniques but also and mainly for better interpretation of the

Page 19: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 19

experimental data. The present work proposes a macroscopic-mesoscopic model, which is linear

and therefore closed-form solutions is easily obtained for simple situations. The reality ofevanescent waves in a micro-cracked solids seems to be interesting in regards of controlling and

better understanding internal damping in engineering material as ceramics or polymers, inearthquake propagation science and in characterizing hard biological material as bone tissue.

Moreover, theory of wave propagation with mesoscopic mechanisms could be efficient for better

helping the monitoring of in situ degradation of materials and the reliability of in situ micro-devices.

References1. Aifantis EC. On the role of gradients in the locations of deformation and fracture, Int. J. Eng.

Science 30(19), 1992, pp 1279-1299.

2. Begley MR, Hutchinson JW. The mechanics of size-dependent indentation, J. Mech. Phys.Solids 46 (10), 1998, pp2049-2068.

3. Bilby B.A., Bullough R., Smith E. Continuous ditributions of dislocations: a new application

of the methods of non-Riemannian geometry, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A231, 1955, pp 263-273.4. Blumenfeld R. Dynamics of fracture propagation in the mesoscale: Theory, Theoretical and

Applied Fracture mechanics 30, 1998, pp 209-223.5. Butalov V, Abraham F. F., Kubin L., Devincre B, Yip S. Connecting atomistic and

mesoscale simulations of crystal plasticity, Nature, 391, 1998, pp 669-672.

6. Breazeale M.A., Cantrell J.H. Jr., Heyman J.S. Ultrasonic wave velocity and attenuationmeasurements. In Methods of experimental physics vol 19: Ultrasonics, Edmonds P.D.

Editor, Academic Press, Orlando, 1981, pp 67-135.7. Broberg KB. The cell model of materials, Computational Mechanics 19, 1997, pp 447-452.

8. Capuani D, Willis JR. Wave propagation in elastic media with cracks. Part II: Transient

nonlinear response of a cracked matrix, Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids 18, 1999, pp159-175.9. Cartan E. On manifolds with affine connection and the theory of general relativity,

Bibliopolis, edizioni di filosofia e science, Napoli, 1986.10. Cauvin A, Testa RB. Damage mechanics: basic variables in continuum theories, Int J Solids

Structures 36, 1999, pp 747-761.

Page 20: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 20

11. Chaboche JL. Continuum damage mechanics: part I – general concepts. J Appl Mech 55,

1988, pp 59-64.12. Clegg WJ. Controlling crack in ceramics, Science 286, 1999, pp 1097-1098.

13. Craciun F, Guidarelli G, Galassi C, Roncari E. Elastic wave propagation in porouspiezoelectric ceramics, Ultrasonics 36, 1998, pp 427-430.

14. Dunn JE, Serrin J. On the thermodynamics of interstitial working, Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal.,

17, 1985, pp 95-133.15. Fleck NA, Muller GM, Ashby MF, Hutchinson JW. Strain gradient plasticity: theory and

experiment, Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 42, 1994, pp 475-487.16. Fleck NA, Hutchinson JW. Strain gradient plasticity. In Adv. In Applied mechanics 33, ed.

Hutchinson JW & Wu TT, 1997, pp 295-361.

17. Frémond M, Nedjar B. Damage, gradient od damage and principle of virtual power, Int. J.Solids Structures 33(8), 1996, pp 1083-1103.

18. Gao H, Huang Y, Nix WD, Hutchinson JW. Mechanism-based strain gradient plasticity-I.

Theory, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 47, 1999, pp 1239-1263.19. Germain P, Nguyen QS, Suquet P. Continuum thermodynamics, J. Applied Mech., Trans

ASME, vol 50, 1983, pp 1010-1020.20. Gurtin ME. Thermodynamics and the possibility of spatial interaction in elastic materials.

Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 19, 1965, pp 339-352.

21. He QC, Curnier A. A more fundamental approach to damaged elastic stress-strain relations,Int J Solids Structure 32 (10), 1995, pp 1433-1457.

22. Holian B.L., Lomdahl P.S. Plasticity induced by shock waves in nonequilibrium molecular-dynamics simulations, Science 280, 1998, pp 2085-2088.

23. Huang Y, Gao H, Nix WD, Hutchinson JW. Mechanism-based strain gradient plasticity-II.

Analysis, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 48, 2000, pp 99-128.24. Hutchinson JW. Plasticity at the micron scale, Int. J. Solids Structures 37, 2000, pp 225-238.

25. Jhang KY, Kim KC. Evaluation of material degradation using non-linear acoustic effect,Ultrasonics 37, 1999, pp 39-44.

26. Kautz H.E. Acousto-ultrasonic decay in metal matrix composite panels, Res. Nondestr. Eval.

8, 1996, pp 39-50.27. Kneubühl FK. Oscillations and waves, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 1997.

Page 21: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 21

28. Kröner E. Continuum theory of defects. In Physique des défauts, Nato series Ballian R et al.

ed., North-Holland, 1981, pp 219-315.29. Le KC, Stumpf H. On the determination of the crystal reference in nonlinear continuum

theory of dislocations, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A452, 1996, pp 359-371.30. Maugin GA. The thermomechanics of plasticity and fracture, Cambridge University press,

Cambridge, 1992.

31. Moreau JJ. Sur les lois de frottement, de plasticité et de viscosité, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris A271, 1970, pp 608-611.

32. Nagy PB. Fatigue damage assessment by nonlinear ultrasonic materials characterization,Ultrasonics 36, 1998, pp 375-381.

33. Nakagawa S, Nikei K.T., Myer L. R. Stop-pass behavior of acoustic waves in a 1D fractured

system, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 107(1), 2000, pp 40-50.34. Noll W. Materially uniform simple bodies with inhomogeneities, Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal.

27, 1967, pp 1–32.

35. Oliver J, Cervera M, Manzoli O. Strong discontinuities and continuum plasticity models: thestrong discontinuity approach, Int. J. Plasticity 15, 1999, pp 319-351.

36. Popov V, Kröner E. On the dynamic theory of elastoplastic medium with microstructure,Computational Materials Science 16, 1999, pp218-236.

37. Prosser W.H. Advanced AE Techniques in Composite Materials Research, J. of Acoustic

Emission, vol 14(3-4), 1996, pp S1-S11.38. Rabier PJ. Some remarks on damage theory, Int J Engng Sci 27, 1989, pp 29-54.

39. Rakotomanana L. Contribution à la modélisation géométrique et thermodynamique d’uneclasse de milieux faiblement continus, Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 141, 1998, pp 199-236.

40. Ramaniraka N, Rakotomanana L. Models of continuum with micro-crack distribution, Math.

Mech. Solids (In press), 2000.41. Ravasoo A. Nonlinear waves in characterization of inhomogeneous elastic material,

Mechanics of Materials 31, 1999, pp 205-213.42. Ravi-Chandar K, Yang B, On the role of microcracks in the dynamic fracture of brittle

materials, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 45(4), 1997, pp 535-563.

43. Sharon E, Fineberg J. Microbranching instability and the dynamic fracture of brittlematerials, Physical Review B 54(10), 1996, pp 7128-7139.

Page 22: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 22

44. Schouten JA. Ricci calculus, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1954.

45. Shizawa K, Zbib HM. A thermodynamical theory of gradient elastoplasticity with dislocationdensity tensor. I: Fundamentals, Int. J. Plasticity 15, 1999, pp 899-938.

46. Stölken JS, Evans AG. A microbend test method for measuring the plasticity length scale,Acta Materialia 46, 1998, pp 5109-5115.

47. Tadmor EB, Phillips R, Ortiz M. Hierarchical modeling in the mechanics of materials, Int. J.

Solids Structures 37, 2000, pp 379-389.48. Toupin RA. Elastic materials with couple-stress, Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 11, 1962, pp

385-414.49. Vakulenko A, Kachanov M. Continuum theory of medium with cracks, Mechanics of Solids,

6(4), 1971, pp 145-151.

50. Vandenbossche B., Kriz R.D., Oshima T. Stress-wave displacement polarizations andattenuation in unidirectional composites: Theory and experiment, Res. Nondestr. Eval. 8,

1996, pp 101-123.

51. Vary, A. Concepts for interrelating ultrasonic attenuation, microstructure, and fracturetoughness in polycrystalline solids, Materials Evaluation vol. 46 Issue 5, 1988, pp 642-649.

52. Wang CC. On the geometric structure of simple bodies, or mathematical foundation for thecontinuous distributions of dislocations, Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal. 27, 1967, pp 33-94.

53. Zioupos P, Currey JD, Mirza MS, Barton DC. Experimentally determined microcracking

around a circular hole in a plate bone: comparison with predicted stresses, Phil. Trans. R.Soc. Lond. B 1995, pp 383-396.

Page 23: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 23

Figure captions

1. Figure 1. The three scale length levels are represented. (a) At the lattice level (10Å – 50Å),the crystal connection represents a dislocation in a crystal lattice. A large circuit will have an

error of closure proportional to the number of dislocations that it contains, that is,

proportional to its area. (b) At the mesoscopic level (1 µm –10µm), the circuit crosses amicro-crack which induces a discontinuity of the field (displacement field). The discontinuity

of scalar and vector field across the crack means a non null torsion and curvature tensors ofthe affine connection. (c) At the macroscopic level (≥ 100µm), only a metric tensor is

considered to capture the deformation.

2. Figure 2. Wave amplitude ration through the plate vs. depth. The sample is a free-end plate(left and right ends) submitted to a sinusoidal wave displacement at the left side and free atthe right side. The thickness of the plate is d = 100µm and the characteristic crack length

dℵ = 1µm . Graphics report the wave propagation within the plate at various excitation

frequency ω ωℵ = 2,3,6,7 . The micro-crack distribution characteristics are respectively the

crack length ℵ0 = 2 106m −1 ; circular frequency ωℵ ≈ 6000 106 rds−1; fℵ ≈ 109Hz . The

Debye frequency for this sample is fD ≈1013Hz .

3. Figure 3.Wave amplitude ratio through the plate vs. depth. The sample is a clamped-endplate (right end) submitted to a sinusoidal wave displacement at the left side and clamped atthe right side. The thickness of the plate is d = 100µm and the characteristic length

dℵ = 1µm . Graphics report the wave propagation within the plate at various excitation

frequency ω ωℵ = 2,3,6,7 . (Same characteristics as previous Figure 2).

4. Figure 4. Amplitude ratio at a depth of y = 2µm vs. frequency ω for various samples. The

plate thickness is d = 100µm and the characteristic length dℵ = 1µm . Plates are excited at the

left end with an imposed sinusoidal displacement at frequency ranging from ω = 6 109 Hz to

ω = 7 109 Hz . (a) First column represents spectrum for free end plate at the right side: firstrow plate with micro-cracks, second row virgin plate and third row correlation function of

Page 24: Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale …perso.univ-rennes1.fr/lalaonirina.rakotomanana...Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths L. Rakotomanana 3 discussed in the

Connecting mesoscopic and macroscopic scale lengths

L. Rakotomanana 24

the micro-cracked and virgin plates. (b) Second column represents spectrum for clamped end

plate at the right side: first row plate with micro-cracks, second row virgin plate and thirdrow correlation function of the micro-cracked and virgin plates. (Same characteristics as

previous Figure 2).