computerization and employment annotations with regard to the relationship between technology,...

259

SOTAC'79 (Part I)

Computerization and Employment * Annotations with Regard to the Relationship between Technology, Productivity and Employment

Ulrich Briefs Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Inst. des Deutschen Gewerksehaftsbundes, Hans Boecklerstrasse 39, D-4000 DuesseMorf, F.R. Germany

This paper deals with the impact of computerization on employment on the macro level, that is total employment, and on the micro level, that is the specific jobs. On the macro level the problem is mainly the quantitative aspect of the impact of computerization, which is difficult to distinguish from other tendencies in the process of economic development. On the micro level the problem is mainly the qualitative aspect.

The author's main argument is, that job degradation is expanding and especially - as something new - introduced in intellectual work. The result is, that for small elitist groups, work will be more challenging and inspiring and give more autonomy to these groups, while the big majority of semi- skilled workers will get more boring routine jobs with less autonomy and less demands for qualifications.

The point is, that if future development will not be changed, the qualification gap between the elite and the mass will grow. Thus we need better work planning under democratic control. But first of all the computerized systems must be designed for more human modes of production and more human use of human capabilities. The future perspective should be a true "humanization of work" by the workers themselves.

Keywords: Computerization, employment, technological unemployment, economic growth and stagnation, information production, needs for qualifications, qualification gaps, job degradation, elite and mass, autonomy of elitist groups, humanization of work.

* [See Computers in Industry, Vol. 2, Nr. 1 for more recent information from Ulrich Briefs on this topic.]

North-Holland Publishing Company Computers in Industry 2 (1981) 259-266

0 1 6 6 - 3 6 1 5 / 8 1 / 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 / $ 0 2 . 7 5 © North-Hol land

1. Prel iminary remarks

The w o r l d - or at least the technological ly and

economical ly most advanced part o f it - i s present ly

witnessing what has been called a new technical and

scientific r e v o l u t i o n - t h e in format ion revolut ion.

New technologies are emerging, unpreceden ted pro-

duct ivi ty gains can be o b s e r v e d - but at the same

t ime major parts o f the industrial ized world are con-

f ronted to substantial u n e m p l o y m e n t and a growing

number o f voices can be heard warning o f a long-

term perspective o f u n e m p l o y m e n t and of a degrada-

t ion o f work due substantial ly at least to these new

technologies.

The spreading of electronics and compute r iza t ion

is an essential part o f the general applicat ion o f these

"new technologies" . Fur the rmore it could be con-

sidered as one o f the core moments or as sort o f a

basic t echnology for this " technica l r evo lu t ion" .

Dr. Ulrich Briefs, Diplom-Volkswirt, has completed studies in Economics, Business Administration, Social Sci- ences and Languages at Munich, Ber- lin, Cologne and Tunis Universities. He holds a diploma's degree in Eco- nomics from Cologne University and a doctoral degree in Social Sciences from Osnabriick University. He worked in the Planning Department of a Steel Manufacturer and after further training, in a Programming De-

partment and Computer Center of an international EDP Manufacturer. In 1972 he joined the Institute for Economic and Social Research (WSI) of the German Trade Union Con- federation (DGB) in Disseldorf, working mainly in the area of: white-collar work, "new technologies" (especially information technologies), and workers' self-management and co- determination. In 1980 his book "Arbeiten ohne Sinn und Perspektive? - Gewerkschaften und "neue Technologien .... was published. From 1980 to 1982 he lectured at several universities (among them at Paris Dauphine and Villetaneuse universities as a Visiting Professor in Informatics).

260 SOTAC'79 (Part I) Computers in Industry

As a matter of fact especially computer systems by their "use value" as means of substitution of intellectual human work, by their applicability for complex control systems in many quite diversified fields of technological, economic, and social activities, by their purely logical and formal manipulative powers, and by their therefore very universal applicability seem to contribute to quite gloomy perspectives for human work and - at least - for the mass of workers.

On the other hand we have the particular other and very positive aspects of "use values" produced and incorporated by computer systems: more information, under specific conditions more transparence of complex technical, economic and social systems, more and better coordination and control of processes otherwise very difficult to regulate, the possibility to get a better insight into the internal structures and processes of very complex phenomena like the weather or the traffic in a "megalopolis". The fundamental problem with regard to the relationship between computerization, productivity and employment thus seems to be: how to conserve as much as possible of the positive effects of the new technologies without producing the adverse impacts on human work?

Or to put it more bluntly: how can we get the positive effects of computerization without at the same time getting the negative consequences for employment?

2. Computerization and Economic Development

Computerization as a mass application process started in the US in the mid 60s, in ;Vestern Europe by the end of the 60s. When it started the western economies were in a booming phase of rapid growth and expansion.

So quite a few problems with regard to computerization and its impact on employment which princi- pally were visible already then could be neglected in view of the more or less existing full employment.

This situation has now entirely changed. The highly developed industrialized countries of the western world presently are in adeep economic crisis with a perspective made especially gloomy by the prospects of long-term stagnation.

The basic set of conditions under which computerization is going on and - this has to be seen clearly - under which it is still gaining momentum is a coincidence of economic crisis and apparent long-term stag-

nation with high-level productivity increases. To cite the example of the FRG [in 1979]:

• the average annual growth rate of real gnp (gross national product) of the West-German economy dropped from 8 percent throughout the 50s and 5 percent in the 60s to slightly above 3 percent the years 1975-1979. This clearly indicates a long- term tendency of stagnation:

• 1975 was the first year in the after-war period not only without growth, but even with a real net decline of gnp by -1 .7 percent:

• at the same time we have an annual increase in the average productivity per hour or worker by 3 to 5 percent.

This process has l e d - within only two years and apparently unexpected in spite of quite a few computerized econometric models in operation to mass unemployment more than one and a 'half million jobs have been abolished in this process in the FRG - by the way: the bulk of these jobs has been abolished in the industrial sector!

Furthermore: for the first time in the after-war period white-collar workers especially from the industrial sector are fully hit by this unemployment.

At the same time we have to see that: • EDP systems and their applications are rapidly

spreading; the computer industry is presently witnessing an unprecedented growth: in the FRG in 1977 the industry's sales rose by far more than 20 percent :

• EDP has rapidly become a major field for investment; the annual expenditure in the FRG in 1979 is at more than 6 billion US-Dollars of which about one half is software expenditure! The accumulated value of EDP investment in 1979 is more than 30 billion US-Dollars. which nearly entirely have been invested from the beginning of the 70s [ l ];

• EDP investment accounts partially but substantially for the fact that the share of annual "rationalization investment", i.e. investment aiming at increasing productivity without necessarily expanding production, in total annual investment has con- siderably increased from the beginning of the 70s;

• EDP is gaining momentum in terms of the number and complexity of applications at a time when technological innovations decrease unit costs-- this not only for core-memories and switching- circuitry but also for peripheral devices:

• EDP organization is leaving the phase of "trial and

Computers in lndustry U. Briefs / Computerization and Employment 261

error" heading towards a new sort of firmly established efficient "professionalism", i.e. the "learning curve" with regard to organizational pat- terns in edp seems to approach rapidly its low horizontal branch. If we put these trends together we have to con-

clude, that if computerization by its "use value" of substituting human work contributes and will increasingly contribute to gloomy perspectives for the mass or workers, this has to be seen in very close con- nection with overall economic development which is apparently characterized by long-term stagnation and economic crises.

The coincidence of this economic situation with a flow of more or less continuous high-level productivity gains has increasingly to produce pressure on the labour-market and on the workers.

Computerization largely contributes to the high- level productivity development, it contributes a major element to the shift of investment towards labour- saving technologies, on the other hand it contributes by its booming expansion to a stimulation of growth.

It is in this contradictional pattern that edp has to be looked at if one wants to find measures to relieve workers and human work from these pressures of unemployment and threatening (further) degradation of work.

But there is, of course, one other point which has to be considered: the internal relationship between the structure of technological development and economic growth; here the basic fact is that edp by its labour-saving use under conditions of already existing tendencies towards stagnation has to contribute to the perpetuation and accentuation of this very stagnation.

Every worker made redundant is a drop-out with regard to effective demand, to the production of goods and services and to the production of profit - if he is not employed productively anywhere else. This is valid for EDP technology as well as for others technologies. Former technologies, however, opened up new realms for growth in production in fields where up to then productivity was low. EDP, however, is on one side a massively labour saving technology, on the other side it is somewhat dubious whether it opens up new realms for growth and development in terms of "use values".

So it all comes up to the problem: how production can be e x p a n d e d - and this in a reasonable w a y - and how computerization can contribute to a reasonable economic expansion.

3. Productivity of Computer Systems

The impact of computerization on employment largely depends on its positional value and contribution in the context of economic growth and productivity. Here we have to ask: what is the product of computer systems and its contribution to growth?

EDP's product is, of course, "information". But what does that mean? What is the relationship

between the phenomenon "information" and other phenomena in human life?

I think that we have to get rid of the notion that "information" (at least information of the computer- produced type) is very much of a value in itself, that the production and productivity of systems hence can be unlimited, leading us into some sort of an "information society", comprising 80 percent or so of "information" production and only a minor rest of material production.

It is not too astonishing that the illusionary idea, that the expansion of the so-called "tertiary sector" (essentially public and private services) would compensate for the loss of employment in material production had to be left these very years. The FRG has witnessed a very marked shrinking of its industrial sector without any compensation by an expansion in the "tertiary sector" these last years.

Information simply is something which is comple- mentary to human action and other phenomena of human life, to something which is much more complex than just "information" is. Information has a dimensional character, it is just one aspect of other things.

For instance, if we produce less diversified, more uniform material "use values", as we actually do in many lines of activities, where should the need for more information come from? If we restrict the deployment of human labour by unemployment and by restrictive working condi t ions-would that not reduce the need for information, too, at least in the long run?

We therefore have to start from the notion that there is an optimal information level with regard to human activities - and the optimum point is possibly even decreasing due to standardization and uniformi- sation of social life.

Computer systems can be very useful. They apparently even tend to be indispensable for the attain- ment of this optimum level. But the need for their product "information" clearly is not unlimited.

On the contrary, we have to see in quite a few


fields that we probably have too much information, not too little.

But here again computer systems can come in, in a very productive way: they permit to filter information more efficiently, to single out what information may be essential, to look behind the more phenome- nal aspects of things.

And this clearly indicates the other major positive contribution of edp systems to production: it is its contribution to more logical (consistent) and mean- ingful information, hence to a more efficient organization of things or "use values" which do already exist or can be produced by human labour using other technologies. The "formal" character of in- form-ation expresses itself in this aspect of computerization. This, however, also indicates that the particular "use value" of EDP systems may be of a more qualitative than of a quantitative nature.

With regards to overall production and conse- quently also to employment this very nature of computer systems, the limitational character of their product with regard to other things in life and their predominantly qualitative contribution to growth and welfare, however, means: • the contribution of EDP to the real expansion of

material economic growth in terms of "goods and services" has to be limited;

• the specific productivity of EDP is of a formal character, it is something which may increase the effi- ciency and ameliorate the quality of production, but it does this "only" as part of other "productive systems";

• the productivity of computer systems hence is dependent on the productivity of the other "productive systems". But in spite of the formal character of edp's productivity, it may nevertheless substantially increase the productivity of other given productive systems [2]. These basic properties of EDP system's products

and productivity have to be kept in mind when one considers the impact of computerization on employment: • all hopes to compensate for the massive loss of

lobs forcibly due to computerization - the bulk of similar processes still ahead - by an increased production of "information" are illusionary;

• the use of the truly positive and productive properties of EDP largely depends on the use of other technologies and on the forms of organization of "productive systems";

• only if social organization of production and of

technological development permits full employment of all productive forces the full potential of EDP technology as a productive resource can be deployed in a positive way.

4. The Impact of Computerization on Employment

The basic problems raised by computerization with regard to employment can be viewed in two directions [3 ]: • the problems caused for employment in its quanti-

tative aspects, i.e. the problems caused for employment by the tendency of technology to "create" unemployment by abolishing jobs in the industrial as well as in the services' sectors:

• the problems caused for employment in its qualitative aspects, i.e. the problems caused by the degradation of work induced by computerization (and by this technology probably more than by any other of the technological innovations of our time). The quantitative employment issue the menace

to provide work for all people capable and willing to work - depends on the internal economic mechanism described above: it is the gap between real growth and productivity which has contributed to mass unemployment, and which will maintain this situation - most probably even increase the pressure on the labour market and on the workers.

Computerization is one of the main moments of both: of growth by creating quite a number of new jobs and of productivity development - as described above. The very impact of computerization on growth and productivity due to its character of an organization technology and the limitational relationship between "information" and "activities" m society - have to make it. however, under the conditions of economic stagnation and crises, a major fac- tor of unemployment. The bulk of these impacts. however, are still shead of us.

4.1. The Quantitative Aspects

The direct impact of computerization on employment up to now is very difficult to estimate. It is especially difficult to establish an account of the positive (job creating) effects and of the negative (job destroying) effects of computerization. Rough esti- mates show - at least for the FRG - that until mass unemployment came up the introduction of EDP systems was only of minor influence.

Computers in Industry U. Briefs / Computerization and Employment 263

To the utmost a rough estimation relying very much on shopfloor experience could perhaps show that until three or four years ago the positive and negative effect probably were balanced.

Since then a lot of voices warn of the devastating effects of computerization on the number of jobs, and we have to add: under the conditions given!

If we sum up these voices, if we add voices of the workers themselves who were or who are affected by computerization, if we believe the voices of systems' planners and EDP managers, and if we resort to own experience, we have sufficient evidence for the fact that edp by its very principle and character is a job destroying technology- probably one of the most powerful labour saving technologies ever invented.

That EDP is a job destroying technology is in my view most obvious to the producers of these technologies and systems: the analysis of the very logic and structure of EDP systems clearly shows that the main tendency is to replace human work. Only a minor fraction of EDP applications really constitutes new activities.

The peculiar new characteristic of computer systems is their capability to replace intellectural human work and thereby to introduce into fields hitherto not accessible to automation, to intrude especially into the realms of administrative work in nearly all sectors.

In the FRG for the first time in the after-war period, as was said before, we now have a substantial unemployment among white-collar workers, the former activities of many of them now being done by computer systems. We have the very gloomy prospects with regard to activities like type-writing (word- processing), qualified clerical work and design activities [4].

If e.g. in the FRG out of 5 million persons employed in word-processing activities only 20 percent are made redundant, this alone would double present unemployment. And do we know how many jobs will be abolished by complex information systems, and mass data systems, by production control systems, by inventory monitoring systems, by EFTS, by POS, by CAD and so on?

Research institutes in the F R G - which are far from the trade unions and the prognoses of which are mostly without special reference to EDP - have made forecasts of two million people unemployed by the mid 80s and 3 million by the beginning of 90s. Some voices are even going further. I have no doubt that EDP will be a major contributor to this development.

By the way, similar unemployment rates have been attained in countries like the US and Canada, which technologically are still somewhat in advance.

Now, what about the argument, that the introduction of computer systems has led to the employment of more persons than were employed before?

However: it this not partially at least due a certain negligence and inefficiency of a management unex- perienced in similar processes? According to our experience similar cases are now much less frequent than 5 years ago.

The sort of "double manning" of activities in the initiation phase - t h e computer doing the job very imperfectly and the worker or the clerk being ready for interference in cases of breakdown - is certainly likewise of a transitory character.

We therefore have - a f t e r summing up all the different tendencies, voices, impressions- to conclude that the new technologies of our d a y s - and computerization is its basic structure - have to constitute a very far-reaching menace to employment and to the workers.

If there will be really massive negative effects of computerization with regard to the labour market, however, they have to be s e e n - though they are

linked to the "essence" of computer systems - in the context of adverse economic conditions and the organization of the social systems.

The labour saving property of edp systems is some kind of a necessary condition, the state of organization of the social system being the sufficient condition for creating the adverse impacts on human work.

4.2. The Qualitative Aspects

The replacement of living human labour by more and more automated systems based on computer application has several contradictory consequences [5]: • it qualifies and it dequalifies; • it creates challenging tasks and it creates boring

jobs; • it gives the worker more autonomy and it reduces

autonomy; The problem, however, is t h a t - by l a r g e - com-

puterization brings higher qualifications, more challenging tasks, less routine work and more autonomy only for small groups of "priviledged" workers, elites, who, however, are subject to increased pressure to acquire new knowledge. For them the famous "life long learning" means being under permanent qualifi-

264 SOTAC'79 (Part I) Computers in lndustry

cation pressure throughout their lives! For the large majority of workers we will have ten-

dencies towards a dequalification, boring jobs, more routine work and less autonomy - t h e y will become more or less "marginal" elements in complex man- computer-systems, predominantly performing marginal functions within large-scale bureaucratic systems -re l ieved of any possibility to interfere with the functioning of the systems they are part of. For them the "life long learning" will mean to adapt themselves more or less permanently to rapidly changing structures within these systems by learning trivial opera- tions without logical continuity.

The traditional qualified and professional - blue or white c o l l a r - will largely disappear and leave the place to the universal semi-skilled worker who after a broad but shallow training in school will experience no need and no chance to accumulate any material knowledge on "his" working system.

If we add the third category of unemployed workers we wilt thus have a tripolarization of the labour force: • the small elitist groups, systems specialists, organi-

zation and accounting specialists, maintenance workers, and so on, many of them college-trained. But they, too with increasing generalization and rationalization of EDP will be subject to pressure;

• the large majority of semi-skilled workers, the dif- ference between blue- and while-collar work having largely faded away;

• the growing group of unemployed people, many of them more or less permanently unemployed but many also fluctuating between the semi-skilled employed workers' group and the unemployed workers' group.

This process, however, is not an entirely new one. In the FRG in the beginning of the 70s out of a tabour-force of some 22 million about one third were un- or semi-skilled workers, only 40 percent of them, however, had from the beginning renounced to any vocational training and 25 percent of them had a completed vocational training.

Charles Babbage, one of the fathers of EDP, showed that the organization of mechanized production had to lead to similar consequences. Many other voices from different national backgrounds could be added.

Computerization brings this process of degradation now after more than one century of large-scale industrial development into the realms of qualified offuze work and of intellectual activities. Apparently a

growing number of workers as as e.g. the recent strike-movements in the FRG show - are now affected by this impact of computerization.

So there will be a challenging - but, as e.g. the dis- cussions within the international workers' movement show, particularly difficult task with regard to creating new forms of work and protecting workers against monotony and boring tasks, against the destruction of skills and human abilities, againsl the erosion of long-established professions and contents of activities [6].

And one of the lines of production most affected by this process of degradation of work will be the edp activities themselves. The process of introduction of labour saving and work degrading devices has started in EDP, too, already markedly cf. e.g. the present endeavours to automatize device operating activities in data centers and new systems for an easier programming.

One of the traditional answers to mention just one to this problem is to admit that "functional" requirements will decrease whilst "extrafunctional" will increase. But if one looks into the nature of these extrafunctional requirements it has to be stated that they mostly comprise natural and trivial requirements as discipline, regularity, tolerance of frustration and so on in work.

Behind this problem we have therefore to see the fundamental question raised by the new technologies and especially by computerization with regard to the content, the sensefulness, the character of human work - hence the problem of the personality of the worker of the future.

5. Towards New Forms of Human Work?

The development and spreading of EDP systems under the conditions described before increasingly contribute to altering working conditions in productive and administrative activities. The overall process is characterized by a substitution of human labour by work performed by electronic systems and by a re- organization of the remaining activities with the con- sequence of large-scale degradation of work.

EDP here comes additionally in as a powerful tool to plan, to organize and to control this re-organization. Furthermore, it comes in as a means to control the increasingly concentrated, centralized and bureaucratic structures in economic (private and public) organisations. One of the further results in this con-

Computers in lndustry U. Briefs / Computerization and Employment 265

text is forcibly more hierarchization for which EDP furnishes the material basis, [7].

The two basic menaces - mass unemployment and degradation of work - demand answers which are the more difficult to find the more fixed in its structures edp applications become.

Nevertheless we can start from the assumption that edp is a flexible t echno logy- in spite of its increasing complexity - w h i c h can be a very powerful tool as well for a more human mode of production and for a fuller use of human capabilities.

The properties of the new technologies obviously call for an overall control and planning of employment guaranteeing "the right to work" for everyone, [8]. Computerization could come in here again as a powerful tool of co-ordination, of scheduling different demands of offers in the labour market, as a means, too, to look for a long-range perspective for human work by carefully monitoring and planning the process of restructuring the labour-force.

It is very obvious, that this planning process has to be democratically controlled in a radical way in order not to substitute the pressure exerted by apparently unpredictable fluctuations of the markets and new technologies by a new pressure by other alien- ating forces.

A national system of a planned "labour-market" presupposes, of course, the planning of a certain economic framework and the planned development of major technological sectors, too. The planning of technological development in EDP as part of this framework ought, of course, to match with the labour-market planning. The basic idea of such a better system of co-ordination of major decision areas would be to allow for a full deployment of productive forces, even by the substitution of human labour, if the overall process will not lead to unemployment and to degradation of work.

In my view once again this can only be ascertained by a full and efficient democratic control by the population and especially by the workers of such a planning system.

The degrading impact of earlier stages of indus- trialization - and especially of Taylorization - on human work led to three different approaches to new structures: job rotation, job enlargement, job enrich- ment.

These approaches, too, could be used to smoothen some of the work degrading effects of computerization. Somewhat further goes the "humanization of work" approach developed in West-Germany. It corn-

prises in addition to the strategies mentioned above the fixing of maximum norms with regard to stress, minimum norms with regard to pauses etc. and quite a range of re-organization and training approaches. It is up to now not facing the re-structuring of EDP systems.

Quite a few approaches are heading towards more and better training - e . g . the Italian trade unions are demanding on a national basis a 150 hours a year per every worker to be used for his re-training.

Probably the most advanced approach in this field is the polytechnical training and the facilities for learning in the factories provided for in the socialist countries.

With regard to computerization a major advance would be a real life-long learning process which, however, should aim at a broad, consistent, countinuous understanding of essential parts of electronic systems and their functioning as well as at a deep understanding of organizational alternatives to which computerization enables. One of the major new requirements will be to integrate the views of users' and producers' in this process.

Further answers could be the development of wholistic concepts of tasks instead of Taylorized activities devoid of meaning, the permanent involvement of all workers in problem-solving processes with computer assistance, e.g. with regard to the re-organization of their job, the participation in design activities with regard to the system in which they work, the creation of tasks demanding more combinatory capabilities.

Further answers could be sought but that requires other forms of organization of processes in the economic and social sphere by a multiplication of control and co-ordination tasks. This can only be achieved by a radical decentralization and de-hierarchization. One further prerequisite for a more human use of EDP systems could be seen in the tendency to provide for more diversified goods and services.

In a very general sense one could argue that computerization creates the material-technological basis for the production of a larger spectrum of "use values" and for an autonomous democratic decision- making on all levels by the producers of social welfare themselves.

In such a context it probably would be possible to really utilize the full productive potential of computerization.

It may, however, be that such an approach would require too much of the social surplus, more at least


t h a n can be t o l e r a t e d b y an e c o n o m i c sys tem which

is sub jec t to s t agna t ion and crises.

On the o t h e r h a n d , new answers - and t h e y have

s o m e w h a t to be p u s h e d in the d i r ec t ion o f these out -

l ines - have to be f o u n d , i f a perspect ive for h u m a n

work and the worke r s has to be f o u n d .

References

[1] U. Briefs, Vom qualifizierten Sachbearbeiter zum Biiro- hilfsarbeiter - Zu den Auswirkungen der elektronischen Datenverarbeitung auf die Arbeitsbedingungen der Biiro- angestellten, in: WlU-Mitteilungen 2/1978, p. 84-91 .

[2] N. Minc and S. Nora, L'informatisation de la societ6, Paris 1978.

[3] U, Briefs, Systems and workers, in: DATA Ecehange 5/ 1976, p. 4 - 1 2 (in German in: 4/1976, p. 18-27, 42).

[4] U. Briefs, Der Wandel in den Biiros Auswirkungen yon Krise und Arbeitslosigkeit auf die Angestellten und die Bfiroarbeit, in: WSI-Mitteilungen 4/77, p. 223-231: R. Melke. Widerspriiche und Tendenzen kapitalistischer Biarorationalisierung, in: IPW-ttefte 2/78. Berlin, GDR. p. 8 12.

[5] M. Cooley, The Intelligence Workers in the 80s. in: DATA Exchange, 2/1976, p. 80-84 : CFDT: Les d6ghts du progr~s, Paris 1977: H. Braverman. Labor and Mono- poly Capital The degradation of work in the 20th century, New York 1974: Brandt. G.B. Kfindig, Z. Papadimitriou and I. Thomae. Computer and Arbeits- prozess, Frankfurt/New York 1978: N. Minc and S. Nora. op. cit: U. Briefs. Systems and workers, op. cir.: U. Briefs. Vom qualifizierten .... op. cit..

[6] U. Briefs, Neue Technologien als Herausforderung fiir die Gewerkschaften. in: Bl~tter fiJr deutsche und interna- tionale Potitik 10/1978, p. 1179--1197.

[7] U. Briefs, Systems and workers, op. cir. [8] U. Briefs, Neue Technologien .... op. clt.

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