computer evolution performance

SC 3220 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION 9 of 489

PIYABUTE FUANGKHON UPDATE: 6/5/2009

Chapter 2

Computer Evolution & Performance



Objectives

• To know a brief history of the development of computer from their mechanical ancestors to present-day system.



Computer Generations

• The first generation: Vacuum Tubes o ENIAC, IAS, UNIVAC

• The second generation: Transistors • The third generation: Integrated Circuits (IC) • Later generations: Large Scale Integration (LSI), VLSI, and ULSI



The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

• ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. • It is the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer. • It was designed by Eckert and Mauchly at University of Pennsylvania. • It was used to compute range and trajectory tables for ranged weapons.



ENIAC

• Eckert (1919-1995) and Mauchly (1908-1980) developed ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) at the Moore school of the University of Pennsylvania.

• It is the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer. • It was used to compute range and

trajectory tables for ranged weapons.



ENIAC

• It is a decimal system (not binary system). • It contains 20 accumulators, each capable of holding 10-digit

decimal number. • A ring of 10 vacuum tubes represents each digit. • It is programmed manually by switches.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (10-digit decimal number requires 1 accumulator.)

• It contains around 18,000 vacuum tubes. • It computes 5,000 additions per second.



von Neumann / Turing Machine

• It is a binary system. • Von Neumann introduced stored program concept.

o Main memory storing both program and data. • Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) operates on binary data. • Control unit interprets and executes the instructions in memory. • Input and output (I/O) equipment is operated by the control unit. • Von Neumann and his colleagues (Princeton Institute for Advanced

Studies) began the design of a new stored program computer referred to as the IAS computer. (Completed 1952)



Structure of von Neumann Machine



IAS Computer Details

• 1,000 × 40-bit words o Binary number o 2 × 20 bit instructions

• Set of registers (storage in CPU) o Memory Buffer Register o Memory Address Register o Instruction Register o Instruction Buffer Register o Program Counter o Accumulator o Multiplier Quotient



IAS Memory Formats



IAS Instruction Set

• Data transfer: Move data between memory and ALU registers or between two ALU registers.

• Unconditional branch: Change the sequence of instruction execution. • Conditional branch: Change the sequence of instruction execution

depending on a condition. • Arithmetic: Operations performed by the ALU. • Address modify: Permit addresses to be computed in the ALU and

then inserted into instructions stored in memory.



IAS Instruction Set



IAS Instruction Set (continue)



UNIVAC I & II

• In 1947, Eckert-Mauchly formed Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation and designed UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer).

• It was commissioned by US Bureau of Census. • It could compute matrix algebra, statistical problems, and logistical

problems. • The company finally became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation. • Late 1950s, UNIVAC II was developed:

o Higher performance (faster) than UNIVAC I. o Greater memory capacity than UNIVAC I.



UNIVAC I



UNIVAC II



IBM

• IBM designed punched-card processing equipment. • In 1953 - IBM 701

o IBM’s first stored program computer. o Perform a scientific calculation.

• In 1955 - IBM 702 o Mainly used in business applications.

• Lead to 700/7000 series



Punched Card and Punched Card Reader



IBM 701



IBM 702



Example Members of the IBM700/7000 Series



The Second Generation: Transistors

• It was invented in 1947 at Bell Labs. • It replaced vacuum tubes. • It has smaller size. • It has cheaper price. • It produces less heat dissipation. • It is a solid state device (made from silicon).



The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit

• In 1950s, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete component (transistors, resistors, and capacitors).

• Later, more than 10,000 transistors were required! o Very expansive and slow manufacturing process.

• In 1958, integrated circuit was invented (silicon technology). • Fabricate the circuit used in 2nd generation in a tiny piece of silicon

rather than assemble discrete components made from separate pieces of silicon into the same circuit.

• Produce many transistors at the same time on a single wafer of silicon.



Wafer, Chip, and Gate



Wafer



Chip and Package



IBM 360 Series

• In 1964, IBM announced the System/360. • It is incompatible with older IBM machines (700/7000). • It is the industry’s first planned family of computers.

o A program written for one model should be capable of being executed by another model in the series, with only difference in the time it takes to execute.

• The characteristics of a family: o Similar or identical instruction sets o Similar or identical operating system o Increased speed o Increased number of I/O ports o Increased memory size o Increased cost



Key Characteristics of the System/360 Family



Moore’s Law

• Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel. • A number of transistors on a chip will double every year. • Since 1970’s, a number of transistors doubles every 18 months. • Cost of a chip has remained unchanged but the cost of computer logic

and memory circuitry has fallen at a dramatic rate. • Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, increasing

operating speed. • Smaller size computer increases flexibility. • There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements. • Fewer inter-chip connections increases reliability.



Growth in CPU Transistor Count



Later Generations:

• Semiconductor Memory • Microprocessors



Semiconductor Memory

• In 1950s and 1960s, computer memory was constructed from tiny rings of ferromagnetic material. o Each ring (called a core) represented either one or zero.

• In 1970s, Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory. o Smaller size than a core. o Each chip could hold 256 bits of memory. o More reliable and much faster than core.

• Since 1970, semiconductor memory has been through 10 generations: o 1K, 4K, 16K, 64K, 256K, 1M, 4M, 16M, 64M, and now 256M bits

on a single chip.



1970s and 1980s Microprocessors



1990s and 2000s Microprocessors



Designing for Performance

• Branch prediction: Processor looks a head in the software and predicts which branches are likely to be processed next.

• Data flow analysis: Processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on each other’s results, or data, to create an optimized schedule of instruction.

• Speculative execution: Processor executes instructions ahead of their actual appearance in the program execution, holding the result in temporary locations (keeping CPU busy).

• Homework: Hyper-Threading technology • Homework: Multicore technology

• On CPU cache: L1, L2, On board: L3 • Pipelining: Many instructions are in the CPU at different stages. • Superscalar: Many instructions are executed in parallel.



Performance Balance

• Processor speed has been increased very quickly. • Memory capacity has been increased very quickly. • Memory speed lags behind processor speed!



Evolution of DRAM and Processor Characteristics



Solutions

• Increase number of bits retrieved at one time (data bus width). o Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper”

• Reduce frequency of memory access o Install multi-level cache memory

• Increase interconnection bandwidth o Higher speed buses (100/133/333/400/533/800 MHz) o Hierarchy of buses (System Bus/AGP/PCI)

computer evolution performance

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