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Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Small Ruminant Research

journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /smal l rumres

omposition of goat and sheep milk products: An update�

. Raynal-Ljutovaca,∗, G. Lagriffoulb, P. Paccardb, I. Guilleta, Y. Chilliardc

Institut Technique des Produits Laitiers Caprins, Avenue Francois Mitterrand, BP49, 17700 Surgères, FranceInstitut de l’Elevage – Comité National Brebis Laitières, INRA Toulouse, BP52627, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, FranceInstitut National de Recherche Agronomique, INRA, Unite Recherches 1213 Herbivores, Site de Theix, F-63122 St Genes Champanelle, France

r t i c l e i n f o

eywords:iochemical compositionheep milkoat milkheeseechnologyutrition

a b s t r a c t

The aim of this study is to update the values concerning nutritional components for sheepand goat dairy products. The bibliography examines first the main biochemical constituentsof sheep and goat milk products but also the more specific components with potential nutri-tional impact and lastly it gathers information on the relationship between cheese andmilk compositions and the impact of technologies. Since the composition of French smallruminant cheeses is not well established, with composition tables being old and lackinginformation, recent studies have been conducted in France to investigate the nutritionalcharacteristics of sheep and goat milks and cheeses on a large scale. Goat milk cheese sam-pling was representative of French production, taking into account the variability linked togeographic origin, dairy or on-farm transformation and type of cheeses. Fresh lactic cheesesmade with raw (6 samples) or pasteurised (6) milk, ripened lactic cheeses made with raw(11) or pasteurised (6) milk, spreads (4), soft ripened cheeses (6 “Chèvre Boite or “Brique”type cheeses) and 4 bulk raw milks were sampled twice in a summer–autumn period. These86 samples were analysed for their nutritional value. The impact of the technological pro-cess was assessed with, for example, its effect on mineral and vitamin B content. Withrespect to sheep, 5 representative samples of milk were collected, just before cheese mak-

ing, in the 3 main French traditional areas of dairy sheep production. The sampling wascarried out 4 times in the year. The objective was to explore the variability of the nutritionalcharacteristics of the original milk. The cheeses made with these milks were analysed afterripening with a double objective: to specify their nutritional content and to assess the rela-tionship between milk and cheese content. Some preliminary results are given concerningfatty acids.

. Introduction

Sheep and goat milk products can provide a profitablelternative to cow milk products owing to their spe-ific taste, texture, typicity and their natural and healthy

� This paper is part of the special issue entitled 5th International Sym-osium on The Challenge to Sheep and Goats Milk Sectors Guest Edited byntonio Pirisi, André Ayerbe, Giovanni Piredda, George Psathas and Yvetteoustre.∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 5 46276983; fax: +33 5 46376989.

E-mail address: ketsia.raynal@itplc.asso.fr (K. Raynal-Ljutovac).

921-4488/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.07.009

© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

image. Nevertheless, consumers are requesting more andmore information concerning the hygienic quality andnutritional composition of these products. All these charac-teristics can be influenced by several factors, such as breed,genetic, physiology, feed, environment and technology.

Some major reviews exist concerning the biochemicalcomposition of goat and sheep milk and their variation

(Jenness, 1980; Remeuf et al., 1991; Chandan et al., 1992;Alichanidis and Polychroniadou, 1996) but data concern-ing specific molecules with nutritional properties, e.g. fattyacids and their variability, cholesterol, oligosaccharides,are scant. Moreover, milk yields have increased and milk

58 K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Table 1Composition of goat milk according to breed and country (adapted from Albenzio et al., 2006; Psathas, 2005; Pirisi et al., 2007)

Country Breed Total solids (%) Fat (%) Proteins (%) Caseins (%) Lactose (%) Ash (%)

United Kingdom British Saanen 11.6 3.48 2.61 2.30 4.30 0.80United Kingdom Nubian – 4.94 3.60 – 4.51 –Francea Alpine/Saanen 3.6 3.2Italy Sardinian 5.1 3.9 0.71Greece Local 14.8 5.63 3.77 3.05 4.76 0.73Cyprusb Damascus 13.2 4.33 3.75 2.97 – 0.83Spain Murciano-Granadina 4.09 3.21

a Pirisi et al. (2007).b Psathas (2005).

composition has changed in Western Europe (Pirisi et al.,2007) owing to an intensification of breeding systemsincluding feeding and genetic selection.

Such bibliographic works do not exist for cheeses, forwhich the task is more complicated owing to the variabil-ity of the milk composition itself (intensive or extensivebreeding systems, breeds. . .) but also, above all, the type ofcheese making, one type of cheese generally correspondingto one study.

Composition tables for goat and sheep milk productsexist in many countries but most of the time are eitherincomplete or contain old data as is the case for Frenchgoat and sheep milk cheeses. Actually, despite regular re-editing, values concerning goat milk cheeses are thoseestablished by Favier and Dorsainvil (1987).

The aim of the present work is first to update the reviewof the composition of milks and dairy products from smallruminants in order to appreciate the impact of cheese mak-ing on the major compounds of nutritional value of thesemilks. Within this context, a new French national pro-gram is presented, aiming at characterising French goat andsheep dairy products.

2. Milk composition

Milk composition varies according to several factors,such as animal, feed and environment. An example is givenin Table 1 for goat milk, depending on the breed and breed-ing system encountered in each country and data has beencompiled by Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b) for sheepmilk (Table 2).

Milk composition is in constant evolution with produc-tion becoming more intensified, but this is also in relation

to the quality criteria of milk payment. For instance, anaverage annual increase of +0.86% for protein content and+0.68% for fat content between 1994 and 2004 has beenobserved for goat milk in France (Poitou Charentes area)(Pirisi et al., 2007).

Table 2Average composition of sheep milk (data compilation of 86 references from 1973

Number of data Total solids (%) (n = 36) Fat (%) (n = 68) Pr

Mean 18.1 6.82 5.Min 14.4 3.60 4.Max 20.7 9.97 7.2

2.1. Proteins

Dairy products are a reliable source of high quality pro-teins, which are well balanced in amino acids. Variationof total protein content is now well known. For goat milk,it depends on genetic polymorphism of �s1 casein. ForFrench Alpine and Saanen breeds, total casein content andtotal protein are about 22 and 27 g/l, respectively, for milksfrom animal with low alleles FF and 27 and 32 g/l for milkfrom animal with strong alleles AA (Grosclaude and Martin,1997). Generally, goat milk contains less �s1 casein thanother ruminants’ milk. Depending on the allele frequencyexisting for �s1 casein in each breed, total protein maydepend indirectly on the breed (Grosclaude and Martin,1997). Total protein content may vary from 2.6 g/l to 4.1 g/lfor goat milk (Table 1) and from 4.7 g/100 g to 7.2 g/100 gfor ewe milk (Table 2). The main non-individual factors ofprotein content variation are the stage of lactation, season,age and feeding.

Small ruminant specificity also rests on casein micelleorganization and mineralisation, and both goat and ewemilk micelles are highly mineralised and the size of caprinemicelle is significantly higher than bovine or ovine milk(Remeuf et al., 1991; Pellegrini et al., 1994). This is in directrelation to their specific technological behaviour but thenutritional impact of these characteristics is not known.

Total protein is one of the main quality criteria appliedto goat and sheep milk payment in many countries (Raynal-Ljutovac et al., 2005; Pirisi et al., 2007). Nevertheless, theratio of casein (main constituent of cheese network) in totalprotein may also vary among species and according to ani-mal and lactation stage (Barrucand and Raynal-Ljutovac,2007). Whey proteins may impair cheese making (cheeseyield and whey draining, especially for heat treated milks)

but their amino acid profiles are of interest with a high levelin essential amino acids (e.g. tryptophane and lysine).

Some isolated studies deal with more specific pro-teins. For instance, variability of goat milk lactoferrinwas observed according to lactation stage (Rampilli and

to 2005, by Paccard and Lagriffoul)

oteins (%) (n = 67) Caseins (%) (n = 18) Lactose (%) (n = 30)

59 4.23 4.8875 3.72 4.110 5.01 5.51

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ortellino, 2005). Two studies showed bacteriostatic poten-ial of caprine lactoferrin, one on a specific breed (Lee et al.,997) and another one for which data are not reliable sincepresence of lysozyme in the mixture may have induced

rroneous results (Recio and Visser, 2000). Another studyhowed similar content in carnitine for cow milk and goatilk and a slightly higher concentration for sheep milk

Woollard et al., 1999). Lastly, Patton et al. (1997) demon-trated the presence of prosaposins (neurotrophic factor,ecessary for membrane renewal) in human, cow and goatilks.Bioactive peptides may be produced from goat or sheep

ilk proteins since their primary structures are close tohose observed for bovine proteins. For example, caprine �actorphin was obtained after pepsin hydrolysis of � lac-albumin (Bordenave, 2000). Studies are in progress butocus mainly on peptides released from acid goat wheyy yeast–lactobacilli associations isolated from cheesesDidelot et al., 2006).

Nucleosides and nucleotides, which are part of theon-protein nitrogen fraction, are greatly in evidence inolostrum, with their level being lower in mature milks.evertheless, small ruminant mature milks are rich inucleotides (Table 3) and in ribonucleosides (Schlimme etl., 1991). Ruminant milks principally contain UMP, AMPnd CMP but sheep and goat milk also contain UDP. Con-ersely, according to Jaubert (1997), orotic acid level isower in goat milk and especially ewe milk than in cow milk

ith at least half the value observed for cow milk. However,he level varies in cow milk according to breed, feeding, cli-

ate (Akalin and Gonc, 1996) and lactation stage (Gil andanchez Medina, 1981). The different nucleotide patternsight be linked to specific secretory mechanisms in each

pecies. As part as nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), they maylso contribute to cell renewal or restoration, especially inntestinal mucosa (Schlimme et al., 1991). Potential appli-ations, such as infant formula supplementation (allowedy the European Commission), also owing to the inducednhanced antibody response to viruses, were reviewed bychlimme et al. (2000). CMP and AMP may decrease underasteurisation but orotic acid content does not change (Gilnd Sanchez Medina, 1981).

Finally, concerning free amino acid in goat milk, tau-ine is the most abundant with 9 mg/100 ml (Grandpierret al., 1988). This molecule comes from cysteine andethionine catabolism: 0.30, 0.02, 0.30 �mole/100 ml for

oat, cow and human milks, respectively (Mehaia andl-Kanhal, 1992). Considered a non-essential free amino

cid in normal conditions (produced in the human bodyrom cysteine), it might play a role in vision, cerebralnd heart functions, detoxification and fatty acid assimila-ion.

able 3evels of nucleotides: 5′monophosphate nucleosides (AMP, GMP, CMP and UMP)00 ml) determined by enzymatic method (Gil and Sanchez Medina, 1981) for 2 m

AMP GMP CMP UMP

oat 6.73 – 5.4 14.5heep 7.5 – 8.7 19.2ow 2.03 – 1.9 –

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 59

2.2. Fat

Fat content is the more quantitatively and qualitativelyvariable component of milk, depending on lactation stage,season, breed, genotype and feeding. This last importantfactor has been studied in depth and the main findingsconcerning the impact of feeding, basic roughage and lipidsupplementation, on quantitative and qualitative variation(either fatty acids of nutritional interest such as rumenicacid C18:2 cis9 trans11, omega 3 or presumably negativefatty acids such as trans fatty acids) of both ewe and goatmilk fat were reviewed by Sanz Sampelayo et al. (2007).Recent studies on sheep milk showed high CLA and omega3 content in high altitude milks (Collomb et al., 2006) andothers have focused on the ways of naturally increasingCLA and omega 3 contents with lipid supplementation ingoat feeding. Chilliard et al. (2003, 2006a) showed that goatresponse to lipid supplementation is different from whatis generally observed for cows with increased fat contentand no decrease in protein content for goat milk. Cheesesmade with such naturally enriched milks (cow, ewe or goatmilk) are currently being studied for their potential effectson human health (BIOCLA European Program). Further-more, the genetic polymorphism at the �s1 casein locushas important effects on goat milk fat and its FA composi-tion, with lower medium-chain FA (8:0–12:0) and higher�-9 desaturation ratios for the low �s1 casein genotypes(Chilliard et al., 2006b).

Nevertheless, the main characteristic of small ruminantmilk fat is the high content in short- and medium-chainfatty acids (MCFA), especially in goat milk fat, which hasat least twice as many C6–C10 fatty acids as cow milk fat:8%, 12% and 16% total fatty acid for cow, ewe and goatmilk fat, respectively (from Chilliard et al., 2006a; Paccardand Lagriffoul, 2006a,b). These fatty acids have a differentmetabolism from that of long chain fatty acids (Gurr, 1995;Bach et al., 1996). MCFA could indeed be released fromtriglycerides in the stomach by gastric lipase and duode-num pancreatic lipase to be absorbed directly by intestinalcells, without esterification, and transported mainly viaportal vein (depending on their chain length and initialposition on triglycerides) to the liver, where they are rapidlyoxidised. Thus, they constitute a rapid energetic supply,especially for subjects suffering from malnutrition or fatmalabsorption syndrome. For instance, MCFA have beenused since 1960 for pre-term newborns in specific ratiowith long chain fatty acids (Telliez et al., 2002). They couldalso be used in a geriatric diet.

Owing to this favoured pathway, they may contributeto lower total circulating cholesterol and especially LDL(Seaton et al., 1986; Kasai et al., 2003). Fat deposits in adi-pose tissues would be avoided (Tsuji et al., 2001) despite

, 5′diphosphate glucose, 5′diphosphate galactose and orotic acid (�moleonth milks

UDPglucose UDPgalactose Orotic acid

19.6 17.2 10.230.4 25.1 3.3– – 26.8

ll Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Table 4Mineral composition of goat, sheep, cow and human milk

Goata Sheepb Cowa Humana

Calcium (mg) 1260 1950–2000 1200 320Phosphorus (mg) 970 1240–1580 920 150Potassium (mg) 1900 1360–1400 1500 550Sodium (mg) 380 440–580 450 200Chloride (mg) 1600 1100–1120 1100 450Magnesium (mg) 130 180–210 110 40Ca/P (mg) 1.3 1.3–1.6 1.3 2.1Zinc (�g) 3400 5200–7470 3800 3000Iron (�g) 550 720–1222 460 600Copper (�g) 300 400–680 220 360Manganese (�g) 80 53–90 60 30Iodine (�g) 80 104 70 80Selenium (�g) 20 31 30 20

Nd: not determined.

60 K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Sma

a possible elongation into long chain saturated fatty acids(Hill et al., 1990). The rapid metabolism induces a postpran-dial thermal expenditure (Hill et al., 1990; Bendixen et al.,2002) and might be applied to human weight regulation,especially in overweight men (St Onge and Jones, 2002).

The other characteristic of small ruminant milk fat istheir globule size. Few studies carried out that deal withthis topics showed a higher proportion of small globulesfor small ruminant milks compared to cow milk (Mehaia,1995; Attaie and Richter, 2000). This property supports thehypothesis that goat milk fat is more easily digested. Somestudies have demonstrated a relationship between caprine�s1 casein genotype and fat globule size (Neveu et al., 2002)with smaller globules for null allele (OO) than for strongones (AA). The genetic relationship to globule size alsoagrees with the recent findings for cow milk (Couvreur etal., 2006) and older findings concerning changes accordingto breed and season (Walstra, 1995). Moreover, a researchteam is studying the different forms of triglyceride incaprine milk and more generally the structural form ofanhydrous goat milk fat (Ben Amara-Dali et al., 2005).

Both fat globule size and the MCFA content of goat milkare thought to have a beneficial effect on fat assimilationand energy supply in rats (Alferez et al., 2001), pigs (Fevrieret al., 1993) and malnourished children (Razafindrakoto etal., 1993; Hachelaf et al., 1993). On the other hand, lowercirculating triglycerides and cholesterol were found in rats(Lopez Aliaga et al., 2005) and a lower fat deposition underthe skin or in adipose tissues was shown in pigs (Mourot etal., 1993; Camara et al., 1996; Murry et al., 1999).

2.3. Carbohydrates

Lactose is the main carbohydrate in milks: about 44% ingoat milk and 49% in sheep milk. Its concentration does notvary excessively (Grandpierre et al., 1988; Le Jaouen, 1990;Lopez et al., 1999). However, goat milk lactose content isoften largely increased by dietary plant oil supplementa-tion in contrast to cow milk (Chilliard et al., 2005).

Oligosaccharides, 3–10 monosaccharide residues, whichcan be considered as soluble fibre, are either acid contain-ing N acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid) or neutral. Theyrepresent the 3rd fraction (13 g/l) of human milk com-pounds, behind lactose (68 g/l) and fat (39 g/l) (Kunz et al.,2000). Oligosaccharides promote bifidobacteria growth inthe neonate and play a role as intestinal mucosa cell pro-tectors against pathogens. Finally, they may play a rolein neonatal brain development (Gopal and Gill, 2000).Ruminant milks are far from being the richest milks inoligosaccharides but according to many authors (Vivergeet al., 1997; Sarney et al., 2000; Chaturvedi and Sharma,1988, 1990) the diversity found in caprine oligosaccharidesis important. Puente et al. (1996) found 4 times as muchsialic acid in goat milk (about 230 mg sialic acid/kg freshmilk) as in cow milk (60 mg sialic acid/kg fresh milk). Itseems that this content does not change according to the

season (Puente et al., 1996). More recently, Baro Rodriguezet al. (2005) isolated by membrane techniques and identi-fied 25 oligosaccharides in Murciano-Granadina goat milk.Other compounds such as growth factors were also iso-lated during this investigation. Other Spanish researchers

a Data compilation from Guéguen (1997) (per l).b Data compilation from Guéguen (1997), Haenlein and Wendorff

(2006) (per kg) and Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b) (per kg).

found the anti-intestinal inflammatory potential of goatmilk oligosaccharides in a rat model (Lara-Villoslada et al.,2006; Daddaoua et al., 2006). Gangliosides, which are sialicacid containing glycosphingolipids located on the outersurface of mammalian cells as well as fat globules, may actagainst enterotoxins and infections in newborns. Puenteet al. (1996) found six times less gangliosides (expressedas �g of lipid-bound sialic acid/kg milk) in goat and ewemilk (70–80 average) than in cow milk (200–300 average).Their content changed according to season (positively cor-related with changes in fat content). According to Puenteet al. (1996), pasteurisation has no effect on sialic acids andgangliosides.

2.4. Minerals

Data concerning the main minerals are available for goatand sheep milks (Table 4). Sheep milk presents the highestdry matter. Goat milk is distinguished by its high chlorideand potassium content. Repartition of calcium, phosphorusand magnesium between the soluble and colloidal phasesof milk are similar for cow and goat milks; sheep milk,however, has far lower solubility (Holt and Jenness, 1984).

As far as contaminant metals are concerned, concentra-tions are highly variable according to studies and sampling(feeding, geographic areas, pollution. . .) and it is thereforedifficult to compare species and breeds.

Direct information concerning the bioavailability ofminerals is lacking. Most of the existing studies were con-ducted in vitro, except for calcium, for which bioavailabilitywas shown on rats (Buchowski et al., 1989). The authorsshowed a bioavailability of goat milk calcium similar to thatof calcium chloride and thus as high as in cow milk (Shenet al., 1995). Iron contents in cow and goat milk are similar,with ewe milk being the highest (Guéguen, 1997). It seemsthat iron bioavailability is higher in goat milk than in cowmilk (Park et al., 1986) due to higher nucleotide content

contributing to better absorption in gut (Schlimme et al.,2000; Mc Cullough, 2003). As for zinc bioavailability, Shenet al. (1995) found higher values for human milk, lowervalues for sheep milk and average values for goat and cow

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Rumin

Table 5Vitamin content of goat, sheep and cow raw whole milks (per 100 g)

Goata Sheepb Cowa Humana

Fat soluble vitaminsA

Retinol (mg) 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.06Beta carotene (mg) 0.00 0.02 0.02

D (�g) 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.06

ETocopherol (mg) 0.04 0.11 0.11 0.23

Water soluble vitaminsB1

Thiamin (mg) 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.02

B2Riboflavin (mg) 0.14 0.35 0.17 0.03

B3Niacin (PP) (mg) 0.20 0.42 0.09 0.16

B5Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.31 0.41 0.34 0.18

B6Pyridoxin (mg) 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.01

B8Biotin (�g) 2.00 nd 2.00 0.70

B9Folic acid (�g) 1.00 5.00 5.30 5.20

B12

mibmorfmhesascpedm

2

bLc(vw

Cobalamin (�g) 0.06 0.71 0.35 0.04Ascorbic acid (mg) 1.30 5.00 1.00 4.00

a Data compilation according to Jaubert (1997).b Data compilation according to Paccard and Lagriffoul (2006a,b).

ilk. Data regarding selenium show similar bioavailabil-ties of this mineral in goat and human milk (seleniumeing essentially bound to proteins) but lower for sheepilk (Shen et al., 1996). Barrionuevo et al. (2003) showed

n rats a higher bioavailability (apparent digestibility andetention) of copper and especially zinc and selenium forrozen dried goat milk diets compared to frozen dried cow

ilk diets. Authors argue it may be linked either to theighest medium-chain fatty acid content or to the high-st soluble protein ratio in goat milk. Actually, mineralsuch as iron, zinc and copper of ruminant milks are mainlyssociated with casein in contrast to human milk (linked tooluble proteins), implying lower assimilation for ruminantompounds. Rutherfurd et al. (2006) found a very similarattern of mineral retention in 3-week-old piglets fed withither adapted cow or goat milk infant formula: the minorifferences between the two diets were due to the differentineral contents of both formulas.

.5. Vitamins

There are few references concerning vitamins. A reviewy Jaubert (1997) for goat milk and by Paccard andagriffoul (2006a,b) for sheep milk demonstrated the high

ontent in B vitamins especially niacin for both milksTable 5). Nevertheless, goat milk is poor in folic acid anditamin E. Both goat and sheep milk are lacking � carotene,hich is entirely converted into retinol.

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 61

3. Impact of cheese making on compounds ofnutritional value: new French results

As milk composition (breeding systems) has changedover the last 20 years, cheese composition may now alsodiffer from the old data of composition tables, wheresome valuable components are missing. Moreover, analyt-ical methods have also improved.

Therefore, taking into account literature from 1990,it appears that most of the studies concerning smallruminant milk cheeses, principally Spanish, Italian andsometimes Greek hard or semi-hard cheeses, dealt mainlywith gross composition (fat, protein, lactose). Gross compo-sition depends mainly on the type of cheese (hard cheeses,soft cheeses, whey cheeses. . .) and can be classified accord-ing to the dry matter (Tables 6 and 7). As small ruminantmilks are rarely standardised for cheese making, content inmilk fat and proteins according to breed and feeding sys-tems seems to be also important. Actually, Pizzillo et al.(2005) found a link between composition of Ricotta and thecomposition of milk from 4 goat breeds: Girgenta, Siriana,Maltese and Local. Nevertheless, the effect may have beenlowered due to the high heat treatment of the whey (90 ◦C),inducing higher entrapment of fat in whey cheese, no mat-ter the breed. Other traditional cheeses such as Tulum(Guven and Konar, 1996) in Turkey have very fluctuantcompositions, according to production areas and produc-ers know how. Concerning composition in organic acids,Park and Drake (2005) analysed soft lactic cheeses. Besideslactic acid (10.2 mg/g cheese), they found (mg/g cheese) tar-tric acid (0.93), formic acid (2.22), malic acid (1.18), oroticacid (0.04), acetic acid (3.15) and citric acid (0.71).

Other studies aimed at following ripening (proteoly-sis, lipolysis and sensorial scores) or at establishing cheeseyields.

More recently, research has focused on developing waysto improve milk fatty acids in small ruminant milks andcheeses but few data deal with vitamins, minerals, theirbioavailability, oligosaccharides in cheeses, etc.

Studies concerning impact of technology (cheese mak-ing) on behaviour of nutrients other than fat and proteinsare scarce. It is particularly true for French cheeses forwhich the main studies are those of Bordet (1990) on SteMaure de Touraine cheese and Lucas et al. (2006a,b) onRocamadour. Data relative to the composition of the moststudied cheeses (Spanish or Italian fresh or ripened pressedcheeses) are not representative of French production. Themain characteristic of French goat and sheep milk cheesesrests on the process of their cheese making. Most ewemilk cheeses are either uncooked blue-veined hard cheeses(Roquefort cheese) or pressed cheeses (Ossau-Iraty cheese)and goat milk cheeses are soft ripened cheeses or soft lacticcheeses, either fresh or ripened. Few available data con-cern these types of cheese in the literature and the existingbut old composition tables for goat milk cheeses (Favierand Dorsainvil, 1987) and sheep milk do not give any indi-

cation about breeding system or technological parametersenabling the study of the impact on cheese making.

So the recent French program had two objectives. Thefirst one was to deepen understanding of composition andits variation, with the aim to update the composition tables

62K

.Raynal-Ljutovacet

al./SmallR

uminant

Research79

(2008)57–72

Table 6Gross composition of some goat milk cheeses (%)

Product Type of cheese/age foranalysis

Studycountry

Total solids Fat Proteinsa Lactose Lactate Ash Salt References

Manchego type Fresh Spain 59 34 22 4 1.5 Cabezas et al. (2005)Semi-mature Spain 65 36 23 5 2.2 Cabezas et al. (2005)Long ripening Spain 71 36 25 4 1.9 Cabezas et al. (2005)

Cheddar type USA 58 27 30 1.4 Park (2000)Cheddar type Hard, 6 months USA 62 28 22 Fekadu et al. (2005)Colby type Washed curd, 6

monthsUSA 54 21 18 Fekadu et al. (2005)

Soft latic Soft lactic USA 34 16 13 Soryal et al. (2005)Soft Soft lactic USA 40 23 19 Park (2000)Servilletta Slightly pressed Spain 38 18 14 Sendra and Saldo (2004)Domiati Egyptian soft cheese,

freshUSA 38 15 12 Soryal et al. (2004)

Cacioricotta Fresh, 1 week Italy 47 17 17 3.0 Albenzio et al. (2006)Apulian Cacioricotta Fresh soft rennet

cheeseItaly 36 17 14 2.3 0.02 1.7 0.3 Pasqualone et al. (2003)

Ricotta Whey cheese, 1 day Italy 31 21 7 2.9 0.9 Pizzillo et al. (2005)

Brocciu Sweet whey cheese France 29 17 6 Guerrini et al. (1997)Mixed whey cheese France 25 13 6 Guerrini et al. (1997)

Babia Laciana Spain 71 Fresno et al. (1995)Vadeteja 27 days Spain 73 43 26 – 1.0 4.5 2.1 Carballo et al. (1994)Armada Pressed rennet type

cheese, 120 daysSpain 79 57 37 – 1.2 3.0 1.7 Fresno et al. (1996)

Ibores Pressed, 60 days Spain 59 31 23 2.5 Mas et al. (2002)Travnicki cheese White brined cheese

30 daysBosnia 53 29 20 0.6 Saric et al. (2002)

Feta type 21 days S. Africa 41 17 15 4.1 Pitso and Bester (2000)Pressed Pressed, 3 months Greece 69 38 1.9 Kondyli and Katsiari (2001)Pressed Pressed, 45 days Spain 67 37 0.17 1.8 Trujilllo et al. (1999)Mato Fresh Spain 33 16 12 1.5 Capellas et al. (2001)Paneer type Fresh India 53 20 1.9 Agnihotri and Pal (1996)Rocamadour Soft lactic France 43 23 1.1 Lucas et al. (2006a)Ste Maure 21 days Soft lactic France 49 27 12 Pierre et al. (1999)Ste Maure 58 days Soft lactic France 66 36 16 . Pierre et al. (1999)Valencay Soft lactic France 40 20 16 1.8 2.0 Hosono and Sawada (1995)Crottin de Chavignol Soft lactic France 41 23 15 0.7 2.6 Hosono and Shirota (1994)Fresh cheese 15 days Spain 44 22 16 2.7 0.8 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a)Washed curd 60 days Spain 55 30 20 3.7 1.3 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a)Majorero 90 days Spain 61 32 22 4.5 2.8 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992a)Bastelicaccia Soft ripened, 30 days, France 60 33 2.1 Casalta et al. (2001)Cendrat del Montsec Mixed coagulation, 63

daysSpain 51 31 18 2.2 Carretero et al. (1992)

Lactic Ripened France 51–58 28–32 17–22 0.1 Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) andCIQUAL et al. (2002)

Lactic Fresh France 15 6.1 4.7 1.5 Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) andCIQUAL et al. (2002)

Soft Ripened France 35 18 11 1.2 Favier and Dorsainvil (1987) andCIQUAL et al. (2002)

a Proteins: total nitrogen × 6.38.

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or French goat and sheep milk cheeses (better productnowledge, product labelling. . .) taking into account theutritional aspect. The second objective was to evaluate the

mpact of cheese making on nutritional value.As caprine and ovine productions are well organ-

sed in France (national organisation for goat andegional organisations for sheep milk), two programsere conducted simultaneously for sheep and goat milkroducts.

.1. Protocol

Sampling differed between the two studies according tohe objectives but, finally, the results enabled quite a similaralorisation (composition tables and impact of technology).or sheep milk, the study focused first on the variabilityf milk composition according to the production area andactation stage and subsequently on the nutritional char-cteristics of cheese made from these milks under realonditions (at dairies). The relationship between milk com-osition and cheese quality as well as the evaluation of theechnological impact could be then directly established.he aim with regard to goat milk cheeses was mainly toake into account the diversity of French cheeses in ordero update and complete composition tables. The link with

ilk composition was possible owing to raw bulk milk anal-ses and the role of cheese making on cheese nutrientsould be estimated by query forms including technologicalteps and methods.

.2. Samples

.2.1. Goat milks and cheesesSamples were chosen in order to represent all French

roduction (production areas, types of cheeses) either fromairies or farms. Due to the lactic tradition, sampling mainlyonsisted of lactic cheeses: fresh lactic cheeses made with

able 7ross composition of some ewe milk cheeses (%)

roduct/cheese Breed Age of cheese Total solids

icotta Sarda 30anestrato Pugliese 1–56 days 39anestrato Pugliese 10–12 months 67iore Sardo 70ecorino Romano 65anchego 90 days 63

oft lactic 0–33 days 53anchego Manchega 1–9 months 37

eta 3–240 days 45erra da Estrela 1, 7, 21, 35 daysanchego 66

erena 58alloumi Fresh 65errincho 0–60 days 46ecorino Sarda 1 day/60 days 70anchego Manchega 90 days 70

os Pedroches Merinos 2–100 days 35obiola delle Langhe 1, 11, 28 days 49oquefort 57ssau-Iraty 61

a Proteins = total nitrogen × 6.38.

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 63

raw milk (6 products) or pasteurised milk (6 products),ripened lactic cheeses made with raw milk (11 productsincluding cheeses with Protected Designation of Origin(PDO) such as Sainte Maure de Touraine, Pouligny SaintPierre, Rocamadour, Picodon, Chabichou du Poitou, Valen-cay) or pasteurised milk (6 products), soft goat cheeses(6 “camembert”-type products) or spreads (4 products).In order to have data concerning raw material, four rawbulk milk samples (a mix of at least 10 herd milks) werealso analysed. This sampling was duplicated: 43 productswere sampled in July/August 2005 and 43 in Septem-ber/October 2005. All the cheeses from one category hadthe same age (from the day of rennet addition): 10 daysfor fresh cheeses and 26 days for all ripened cheeses andspreads. This corresponds to the mean consuming use.Products were collected from 20 producers (10 dairies and10 farms). Five geographic areas were represented: Cen-tre; Poitou-Charentes and Vendée, Rhône Alpes, Southeastand Southwest. Product dispatch was scheduled 2 monthsin advance so that transformers could keep samples (4 ◦C)of their production to be able to send products for anal-ysis 1 week before the day of analysis. All the productswere gathered at the laboratory of the Institut Techniquedes Produits Laitiers Caprins (ITPLC) and stored at 4 ◦Cbefore analysis at the ITPLC (for total solids, ash, nitrogenfraction, fat and free fatty acids) or for dispatch to otherlaboratories (for minerals, vitamins, total amino acids, car-bohydrates, total fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol,lactoferrin and free amino acids). Cold conditions wereensured during transport and storage. Mixes of 3 entirecheeses were performed in each laboratory just prior toanalysis.

A query form with information relative to feeding, breedand all technological parameters (from acidification toripening) was filled in by the producer for each sample inorder to establish a relationship between cheese composi-tion, breeding systems and technology.

Fat Proteinsa Ash References

18 Contarini et al. (2002)31 25 Corbo et al. (2001)30 27 Di Cagno et al. (2003)29 2830 27

Fernandez Garcia et al. (1999)26 Hassouna et al. (1996)31 25 Jaeggi et al. (2003)22 18 Katsiari et al. (1997)

8 Macedo and Malcata (1997)7 Marcos et al. (1979)9

32 23 Papademas and Robinson (2000)25 21 8 Pinho et al. (2004)37/36 26 Pirisi et al. (2001)30/42/37 23 Requena et al. (1999)31/33 26 8 Sanjuan (2002)24 18 5 Turi et al. (1997)33 19 6 CIQUAL et al. (2002)32 24 4 CIQUAL et al. (2002)

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64 K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Sma

The main technological steps of the two main classes ofgoat milk cheeses are:

For lactic cheeses: raw or pasteurised milk with addedstarters (commercial or whey from previous cheesemaking), little rennet addition (2–8 ml/100 l milk), slowcoagulation at 18–24 ◦C for 24–48 h, draining in bag (withcurd salting and shaping by extrusion) or in moulds for24–48 h, drying, packaging for fresh cheese or ripening forabout 8–15 days at 12–15 ◦C with surface ripening strains,packaging and finally stored at 4 ◦C (shelf life 45–50 days).For soft cheese (Camembert type): Raw or mainly pas-teurised milk with added commercial starters, morerennet than for lactic cheeses (20–30 ml/100 l milk), ren-neting at 32–36 ◦C for 60 min, curd cutting in cubes (about2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm), draining in moulds, drying and ripen-ing for about 12 days at 12 ◦C with surface ripening strains,packaging and finally stored at 4 ◦C (shelf life 45–50 days).

3.2.2. Sheep milks and cheesesAs far as the sheep are concerned, five representative

milk samples were collected, just before cheese making,in the 3 main traditional areas of dairy sheep productionin France: Roquefort (Roquefort cheese), western Pyrenees(Ossau-Iraty cheese) and Corsica island (typical farm-madecheese). The sampling was carried out 4 times throughoutthe year of 2005 in January, February/March, April/May andJune. The cheeses made with these milks were analysedafter ripening: 4 months for the Ossau-Iraty (uncookedpressed semi-hard cheese) and 5 months for the Roque-fort (blue-veined cheese). All the milks and cheeses weregathered at LIAL MC laboratory (transport and storagetemperatures: 4 ◦C). The analysis of the gross components(dry matter, fat and protein content, nitrogen fraction. . .)was done on fresh milks and representative mixes of 3–5cheeses by LIAL MC. Representative samples were dis-patched to the other laboratories involved in the programfor minerals (calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, potas-sium), vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, tocopheroland retinol), lutein, amino acid and fatty acid profiles.

The objective was twofold: to specify the nutritionalcontent and to assess the relationship between milk andcheese content. One of the key points of the study wasto sample milks and cheeses within the cheese-makingprocess of the milk factories. Indeed, it was important tohave the representative results of those dairy sheep cheeseswhich are to be found on the market.

3.3. Analyses

For each nutrient, similar methods were used for bothspecies. An example of the impact of technology is givenfor fatty acid profiles of ovine fat and pyridoxine, folic acid,calcium and magnesium for caprine cheeses.

Ovine cheese FA composition was determined asdescribed by Chilliard et al. (2006b). Hexane was added

to lyophilised milk or cheese followed by 0.5 M sodiummethylate and HCl 12N at room temperature. FA methylesters were separated on a 100 m × 0.25 mm i.d. fused sil-ica capillary column (CP-Sil 88) using a gas chromatographequipped with a flame ionisation detector. Satisfactory sep-

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

arations of cis- and trans-18:1, non-conjugated 18:2, andCLA isomers were obtained in a single chromatographicrun. Correction factors for C4:0 to C10:0 were determinedusing a butter oil reference standard (CRM 164).

Vitamins in goat milk cheeses were determined eitherby HPLC for pyridoxin (internal method Pr NCT) or themicrobiological method for folic acid (AOAC 645.74).Calcium and magnesium were determined by atomicabsorption (JORF Ar 08/09/77). Fat content was measuredby the Gerber butyrometric method (NF 04 210) for milksand by the Heiss method for cheeses. Total solids contentwas determined after drying to constant weight at 102 ◦Caccording to the NF 04 210 norm for milks and NF V04282(ISO 5534) for cheeses.

3.4. Results

Goat and ewe milk French cheeses were profiled indepth and composition tables (INRA/CIQUAL/AFSSA) willbe made available with all the data obtained during thesetwo studies. Moreover, information concerning the impactof technology can be analysed: directly for sheep productsmade with the corresponding milks analysed or indirectlyfor goat milk with all the technology queries filled in byproducers.

3.4.1. Impact of cheese making on fatty acid profilesThe results obtained with the two types of ewe milk

cheeses (Fig. 1a and b) showed that cheese making doesnot change total fatty acid profiles. There is no significantdifference between the percentage of the different types offatty acid obtained from the milk or in the cheese madewith this milk.

Fig. 2 illustrates the strong relationship (R2 = 0.86)between the percentage of vaccenic acid (C18:1trans11) inthe milk fat and the same percentage in the cheese (the 2types of cheese are pooled) made with the correspondingmilk.

The results confirmed, on a manufacturing scale in milkfactories, that the fatty acid profiles of these full creamcheeses are directly related to these of the milk. They cor-roborate findings of previous studies realised at pilot orlaboratory scale such as those of Addis et al. (2005) forewe milk, Martin Alonso et al. (2000) on hard goat milkcheeses, as it was also observed by Ferlay et al. (2005) andChilliard et al. (2006a) for soft goat milk cheeses and differ-ent feeding (either supplemented or not with lipids). C16:0,C18:1trans and C18:3n − 3 ratios (% total fatty acids) weresimilar for the milk and the two types of cheese. If somedifferences appear to be significant (P < 0.05), they remainlow enough to conclude a slight impact on cheese making(Fig. 3). These studies have focused on ways of increasingcontent in fatty acids of nutritional interest (C18:3, CLA. . .)through lipid supplementation in the goat’s diet. However,improvement of the FA profile may sometimes be accompa-nied by an alteration of cheese flavour (Chilliard and Ferlay,

2004; Chilliard et al., 2005, 2006a).

The same findings were recently reported by Lucas et al.(2006a,b) for Rocamadour (PDO goat milk cheese), reach-ing also the conclusions made regarding the absence ofimpact of cheese making on CLA isomer content in hard

K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 65

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ig. 1. Relationship between the proportions of short-chain (C4–C8), men the corresponding cheeses (a) Roquefort; (b) Ossau-Iraty.

oat milk cheeses (Chen et al., 2006) and hard cow milkheeses (Gnädig et al., 2004).

Taking into account this strong relationship betweenilk and cheese fatty acid profiles, small ruminant cheeses,

ontains high levels of short- and medium-chain fatty acidsompared to cow milk cheeses, with all the potential valueescribed previously.

The recent study on four French hard cow milk cheesesnd one soft lactic goat milk cheese “Rocamadour” (Lucas etl., 2006a,b) also showed that other fat soluble compoundsuch as �-carotene (for cow milk cheese), xanthophylls anditamin E did not depend on technology but rather on milkomposition (e.g. breeding systems: hay vs. pasture) foroth species. For vitamin A, it was partially influenced byoth the original milk composition and the cheese-makingrocess (Lucas et al., 2005). Park (2000) studied choles-erol content of some goat milk cheeses sold in the U.S.nd found about 670 mg/100 g fat for plain soft cheese.izzoferrato et al. (2000) found a cholesterol concentration

f 5-month semi-cooked goat milk cheeses directly depen-ent on the breeding system, from 300 mg/100 g fat forrazing to 400 mg/100 g fat for non-grazing. Further anal-sis of the data obtained during our study will completehese observations.

ain (C10–C16), C18 and long-chain (C19–C22) fatty acids in the milk and

Besides the composition in fat soluble compounds itself,the impact of technology on the fat properties (e.g. glob-ule size, free fat or free fatty acids. . .) could play a role innutritional value of the product. During ripening, lipolysisinduces an increase in free fatty acid content. It contributesto cheese flavour development, either directly with 4 ethyloctanoic and 4 methyloctanoic acids, specific fatty acids ofgoat and sheep milks, respectively (Le Quéré et al., 1996), orindirectly with fatty acids metabolized by ripening strainsinto lactones, esters, alcohols and other aroma compounds.The threshold level for 4 octanoic acid being very low(Brennand et al., 1989; Ha and Lindsay, 1991) this acid con-tributes to the specificity of goat milk cheeses and seemto be specifically liberated according to the ripening strain(Gaborit et al., 2001). Bordet (1990) found for soft lacticripened cheese “Sainte Maure de Touraine” that the ratio offree C4–C10, C18:1 and C18:2 (% total free fatty acids) washigher than the ratio of these acids in total fatty acids inmilk. This can be linked to their specific position, principally

on sn-3 in goat milk (Chilliard and Lamberet, 2001) andalso to the specificity of the ripening strain. For instance,C18:1 is preferentially liberated by lipase of Geotrichumcandidum (Boutrou and Gueguen, 2005). Lipolysis can alsooccur before ripening, being either spontaneous in some

66 K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

1) in th

Fig. 2. Relationship between the proportion of vaccenic acid (C18:1trans1cheese).

animals or induced by thermal or physical treatments (dur-ing milking, long cold storage, homogenisation).

Moreover, the supramolecular structure of fat may influ-ence the functional, sensorial and nutritional propertiesof cheeses. Recently, Lopez (2005) illustrated the differ-ent form of fat in bovine cheeses such as Camembertor Emmental with confocal laser scanning microscopy:fat globules covered with original or reconstituted (withcasein and/or whey protein owing to homogenisation/heat

treatment steps) milk fat globule membrane and free fat.She observed different sizes of fat globule, either small(homogenisation) or coalescent globules (during cookingfor hard cheeses) and for Camembert she found globule sizequite similar to that of the original globules in milk.

Fig. 3. Fatty acid profiles of ripened lactic cheeses (made with raw milk), camemgoat milk according to Ferlay et al. (2005) and Chilliard et al. (2006a).

e milk and in the cheese made with the milk (Roquefort and Ossau-Iraty

3.4.2. Impact of cheese making on vitamins and mineralsWater soluble vitamins are highly present in ripened

goat milk cheeses (Fig. 4), which meets the dietary ref-erence intakes. These vitamins are more heat sensitivethan fat soluble ones and the loss induced by pasteuriza-tion (72 ◦C/15 s) is about: 10–20% for ascorbic acid, around10% for thiamin, 5–7% for pyridoxin, folates and cobal-amin, <1% for riboflavin, 0% for niacin, pantothenic acid andbiotin (Andersson and Öste, 1995). Moreover, water solu-

ble vitamins should be lost in the whey. Nevertheless, thequantities found in cheeses suggest a production by micro-organisms. For instance, folate content was high in ripenedlactic cheeses, which corroborates the finding of Lucas etal. (2006b) who found a high folate content in Rocamadour

bert-type cheeses (made with pasteurized milk) and corresponding raw

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magnesium (Fig. 6b), essentially soluble, are similar forboth milk and fresh lactic cheeses. Camembert-type cheesecontains higher quantities of magnesium and ripened lac-tic cheeses have an average intermediate content. These

ig. 4. Water soluble vitamins content (per 100 g moisture) of French goatheeses according to the technology (a) B6 (mg/100 g moisture) and (b)9 (�g/100 g moisture). Means with different superscripts (a–f) in a rowiffer significantly (P < 0.05) (numbers of samples in brackets).

1010 �g/kg) compared to pressed cow milk cheeses it alsoeets results of findings of Favier and Dorsainvil (1987),ho found a high content especially in the rind of soft lactic

oat milk cheeses. This is of nutritional importance owinghe lack in this compound in raw goat milk. Vitamin datare scarce concerning ewe milk cheeses.

B vitamins may either be produced by lactic acid bacte-ia (LAB) or yeasts (mainly Saccharomyces). Concerning LAB,olate production depends on bacteria strains. For instance,n yogurts, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus aci-

ig. 5. Impact of technology on vitamin B6 (mg/100 g moisture) of ripenedoft lactic cheeses made with raw goat milk. Means with different super-cripts (a–f) in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) (number of samples inrackets).

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 67

dophilus produce folic acid whereas Lactobacillus bulgaricusconsume it (Forssen et al., 2000). As the type of ripeningstrains and ripening parameters (e.g. temperature/time)may differ between each class of products, it may inducevariations in B vitamin contents and especially high folatecontent for raw milk ripened lactic cheeses.

Within one category of products, variation according togeographic areas of production may occur. Such is the casefor most B vitamins in ripened lactic cheeses made with rawmilk, for which the amount is the highest in cheeses fromSoutheast, all made on-farm. The main factor has more todo with the technology used by “on-farm” producers (nouse of commercial starters, different time/temperature dur-ing ripening. . .) than geographic origin. Fig. 5 shows thissignificant difference for pyridoxin.

Concerning minerals, all lactic cheeses have the samecalcium value expressed per 100 g solid non-fat, showingan overall similar demineralisation (Fig. 6a). Conversely,Chèvre boite (Camembert-type cheese) is richer in calciumowing to a lower lactic and more rennet-type coagula-tion. Concentrations (expressed per 100 g moisture) in

Fig. 6. Content in Calcium (a) and Magnesium (b), expressed per gramSolid Non-Fat and mg/100 g moisture, respectively, in French goat cheesesaccording to the technology. Means with different superscripts (a–f) in arow differ significantly (P < 0.05) (number of samples in brackets).

68 K. Raynal-Ljutovac et al. / Small Ruminant Research 79 (2008) 57–72

Table 8Minerals of some goat milk cheeses

Name Caa Pa Naa Mga Ka Znb Cub Mnb Feb References

Ste Maure 21 days 12.7 4.01 Pierre et al. (1999)Rocamadour 2.53 5.07 0.37 3.69 13.1 Lucas et al. (2006a,b)Babia Laciana 1.99 4.19 3.45 0.22 2.99 14.7 2.05 2.42 3.47 Fresno et al. (1996)Bastelicaccia 6.55 Casalta et al. (2001)Vadeteja 6.43 4.40 12.1 0.26 2.61 26.3 1.70 1.02 3.55 Fresno et al. (1996)Armada 8.67 6.47 8.34 0.32 2.21 36.1 1.72 0.89 3.79 Fresno et al. (1996)Fresh cheese 14.1 8.12 10.0 0.63 2.54 34.6 1.68 0.40 4.01 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b)Washed curd 12.4 7.10 7.8 0.55 1.71 36.6 1.34 0.43 4.59 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b)

4

Majorero 13.7 8.18 9.8 0.62 1.62

a g/kg total solids.b mg/kg total solids.

results meets the data compilation (Table 8) showing thatlactic type cheeses such as Rocamadour, Ste Maure andBabia Laciana present low contents of calcium, phospho-rus and zinc, whereas minerals such as potassium andmagnesium are highly represented. The strong and earlydecrease in pH occurring in these types of cheeses duringcoagulation make calcium, phosphorus and zinc (mainlybound to caseins) soluble and are therefore lost in the wheyduring draining. Concentrations in potassium and magne-sium, which are essentially soluble, decrease as dry matterincreases through pressing or aging.

By normalising the value against the moisture contentof cheese, Lucas et al. (2006b) found a lower proportion ofa soluble form of potassium in Rocamadour cheese, whichmay be linked to its lower solubility in goat milk than incow milk. It can also explain its lower losses in whey whencomparing it with French cow milk cheeses (Abondance,Tomme de Savoie, Cantalet and Salers). When comparingcow milk and goat milk cheeses, either in French (Lucaset al., 2006a,b) or Spanish (Fresno et al., 1995) studies, itcan be concluded that mineral content depends rather ontechnology (type of coagulation, draining intensity) thanon animal milk species. Nevertheless, Martin Hernandezet al. (1992b) succeeded to differentiate, cow, ewe andgoat milk cheeses according to their mineral contents butalso concluded to a high impact of technology. Seleniumconcentration depends rather on its availability in soil forassimilation by grass and its further recovery in milk andcheeses; it is then concentrated by the drying (ripening)effect (Pizzoferrato, 2002).

As for the other components, data concerning the min-eral composition of sheep milk cheese are rare. The Table 9presents the results found in 4 typical cheeses from Spainand Italy. The calcium content is about 14 g/kg DM with a

Table 9Minerals of some sheep milk cheeses

Name Caa Pa Mga Ka

Serra da Estrella 10 8 1 1.7Pecorino 14 9 0.8Los Pedroches 11 7 0.9 1.8Canestrato Pugliese 21 10 0.8Roquefort 11 7 0.5 2.1Brebis Pyrenees (like Ossau-Iraty) 12 8 0.5 0.9

a g/kg total solids.b mg/kg total solids.

5.1 2.05 0.37 3.88 Martin Hernandez et al. (1992b)

variation between 10 and 20 g/kg DM. The magnesium con-tent is less variable with an average of 0.8 g/kg DM. Thesebibliographic data will be completed for ewe milk cheeseby the results of our study.

Besides the mineral composition of the products, thebioavailability must be taken into account for a nutritionalapproach. According to Andersson and Öste (1995), HTSTpasteurisation has little impact on calcium and phosphorusbioavailability. Guéguen and Pointillart (2000) reported, forhumans, few differences for absorption coefficient of cal-cium between milk and other dairy products such as hardcheese (Cheddar) or fresh cheeses. Buchowski et al. (1989)found lower bioavailability of calcium of fresh goat cheesesthan this of calcium chloride.

Other soluble compounds such as carbohydrates andsoluble proteins may undergo modification during cheese-making process. Lactose is partly lost in whey and partlytransformed into L lactates by LAB but also into D lac-tate by non-starter LAB or by isomerisation (depending onpH and salt concentration (Trujilllo et al., 1999). Fresnoet al. (1996) also reported the impact of secondary florasuch as lactobacilli, which could convert L lactate (mainlyproduced by lactococci) into D lactate in Armada cheese.Lactose is also transformed into glucose and galactose.These residual carbohydrates found in fresh cheeses dis-appear with increasing ripening time. More data will befurther published from the present study. No data is avail-able concerning oligosaccharide content in sheep and goatmilk cheeses.

Concerning whey proteins, they may be entrapped in the

curd and could contribute to increased essential amino acidsupplies such as cysteine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threo-nine and tryptophane. As far as technology is concerned,Rampilli and Cortellino (2005) found less entrapped

Znb Cub Mnb Feb References

94.3 2.3 1.25 Macedo and Malcata (1997)Pollman (1984)

38 1.4 Sanjuan et al. (1998)Santoro (1992)

64 1.4 0.4 7 CIQUAL et al. (2002)– – – 4.9 CIQUAL et al. (2002)

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actoferrin in acid curd than in rennet curd for Italianheeses. During pasteurisation, whey proteins are denat-rated and a � lactoglobulin–� casein complex is formedHenry et al., 2002), increasing entrapment of denaturedhey proteins (and increased bound water), which may

ead to some minor differences in amino acid profilesetween lactic cheese and soft cheese.

Moreover, proteolysis induced by fermentation andipening process contributes primarily to cheese flavourut could also play a role in nutrition. Proteolysis (eitherrom LAB or ripening strains) induces increased amountsf peptides and free amino acids. In goat cheese, freemino acids are essentially glutamic acid, leucine and lysineBordet, 1990; Casalta et al., 2001). Taurine, initially presentn high quantities in goat milk, should be lost in wheyut some authors found significant concentrations in softennet fresh goat milk Cacioricotta cheeses (Caponio etl., 2000), where milk is subjected to high heat treatment95 ◦C/5 min). Denatured whey proteins, entrapped in curd,ould favour taurine recovery. Actually, Pasqualone et al.2003) found less significant content for this cheese whenhe milk was untreated. Freitas et al. (1998) observed onicante cheese a decrease in taurine ratio (% total free aminocids) along the ripening process due to that fact that tau-ine does not come from proteins.

. Conclusions and perspectives

The update of composition tables ensures a reliableasis for nutritional valorisation and labelling. This studytrengthens the position of goat and sheep milk cheeses asood suppliers of proteins, energy, fat, minerals and vita-ins. Many studies have enhanced the nutritional quality

f milk and fermented milk, and some of these findingsould be easy applied to cheeses. Actually, taking intoccount that cheese fat quality (including not only fattycids but also vitamins A and E) greatly depends on milk fatuality, that soluble vitamins can be produced (B vitamins)uring the process and that main minerals are present at

evels depending on the technology, cow, goat and ewe milkheeses thus contain a large proportion of nutritionallyaluable milk constituents and should be promoted moreigorously. Moreover, apart from their sensorial impact onmall ruminant milk cheeses, short- and medium-chainatty acids may also be of nutritional significance.

The review also made clear that there is a lack ofnformation concerning the impact of cheese making notnly on vitamins and minerals but also on some partic-lar molecules such as oligosaccharides. As for cow milkheeses, the bioavailability of elements is not known formall ruminant cheeses.

The results of these French programmes are to beromoted via French composition tables and other pub-

ications and the technological impact on milk nutrientsill be further deepened for both species with all the data

ollected during the French study.

cknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the French Office de l’Elevagend ANICAP (Association Nationale Interprofessionnelle

ant Research 79 (2008) 57–72 69

Caprine) for their financial support. They would also liketo thank ovine organisations (Confédération Générale deRoquefort; GIS ID64; Interprofession Lait de Brebis desPyrénées; Interprofession Laitière Ovine Caprine de Corse)and all the institutes and companies for their contribution(milk and cheese supplies) to this study. Finally, they wishto thank all members of their steering committee for theiradvice and technical support (sampling, choice of analyticalmethods, etc.).

References

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Baro Rodriguez, L., Boza Puerta, J., Fonolla Joya, J., Guadix Escobar, E.,Jimenez Lopez, J., Lopez Huerta Leon, E., Martinez-Ferez, A., 2005.Composition comprising growth factors. Patent WO 2005/067962 A2.

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