COMPLEX SENTENCEEVERYTHING ABOUT COMPLEX SENTENCES…

…IN A SINGLE CLASS

CLASS #1: APCLASS #2: AP/AdvPCLASS #3: AdvP, PPCLASS #4: PPCLASS #5: ADVERBIALSCLASS #6: ADVERBIALSCLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW

CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #11: PHONETICS OVERDOSE (NO GEJ)CLASS #12: GEJ2 OVERDOSE: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

MIDTERM

SCHEDULE FOR THE REMAINING CLASS(ES)

We have 1 (without this one) classes remaining! May 30: TWO GEJ2 LECTURES > WE

START AT NOON (WE’LL TALK ABOUT COMPLEX SENTENCES).

June 6: TRAINING FOR THE WRITTEN EXAM (examples from previous exams + hints) & TRAINING FOR THE ORAL EXAM (several question combinations from the oral exam + hints, tips and tricks)

COMPLEX SENTENCE

IN A SINGLE CLASS

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

Based on the number and type of clauses in a sentence, there are three types of sentences:

SENTENCE

SIMPLE COMPOUNDCOMPLEX

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

SIMPLE SENTENCE = SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE, all sentence elements are realized as phrases:[The members] [did not know] [the scope of the problem]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP)

COMPLEX SENTENCE = ONE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE AND AT LEAST ONE DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, at least one sentence element is realized as a clause:[The members] [know] [that the problem has a wide scope]. S (NP) V (VP) O (clause)[The members] [knew] [the answer] [when the chairman asked]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) (A) (clause)

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

COMPOUND SENTENCE = AT LEAST TWO INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSES:[She] [took] [the test] [in June] and [she] [passed] [it] [easily].

S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) A (PP) CONJ. S(NP) V (VP) O (NP) (A) (AdvP)

[Mary] [likes] [dogs] but [she] [doesn’t like] [hamsters].S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) CONJ. S(NP) V (VP) O (NP)

LINKERS

LINKERS are syntactic items which link two syntactic element.

Depending on the type of syntactic elements which are linked, linkers can be classified into two groups:

CONJUNCTS – they link SENTENCES, e.g.He studied hard. However, he didn’t pass the exam.

CONJUNCTIONS – they link CLAUSES, and according to their function they can be further divided into: Coordinators (and, but, or) Subordinators (if, although, that, when, etc.)

SUBORDINATION vs. COORDINATION

Both SUBORDINATION and COORDINATION are processes of linking of at least two syntactic units.

However, they are different HIERARCHICALLY: SUBORDINATION: syntactic units being linked are

NOT on the same syntactic level. COORDINATION: syntactic units being linked ARE

ON THE SAME syntactic level. Why do we talk about SYNTACTIC UNITS and

not CLAUSES? Because, both CLAUES and PHRASES can be

COORDINATED (but, phrases CANNOT be SUBORDINATED)

SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES

SUBORDINATION (← OR →) is a non-symmetrical relation holding between 2 clauses in such a way that one is a constituent of the other (MAIN/MATRIX CLAUSE has SUBORDINATE CLAUSE as ITS CONSTITUENT).

They think that she can succeed if she tries hard enough.

S V Oconj. S ------V------ -------------(ADV)---------- conj. S V -----

(ADV)-----THIS MEANS THAT SUBORDINATION IS RECURSIVE:

A subordinate clause itself can have as its constituent another subordinate clause (that she can succeed if she tries hard enough).

SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES

The relationship of subordination can be represented graphically with a TREE DIAGRAM:

They think

that she can succeed

if she tries hard enough

COORDINATION

COORDINATION (↔) is a symmetrical relation holding between 2 clauses which are of EQUAL STATUS.

Why do we mention EQUAL STATUS? Because, the two coordinated clauses

can be either two MAIN/INDEPENDENT clauses (=COMPOUND sentence), or two SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT clauses.

COORDINATION

Coordination of two MAIN/INDEPENDENT clauses:

She took the test and she passed it.

This structure is actually a COMPOUND SENTENCE.

It too, just as a complex sentence, can be represented graphically.

S V ----O---- Conj./Coord. S V O

COORDINATION

SHE TOOK THE TEST SHE PASSED IT

AND

COORDINATION

Coordination of two SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT clauses:

He said he was worried and that they had to talk.

This structure is actually a COMPLEX SENTENCE.

It too can be represented graphically.

S V ----------------------------- O ------------------------------S V ----Cs---- Conj./Coord. Sub. S -------

V--------

COORDINATION

He said

and

he was worried

that they had to talk

SUBORDINATORS

SUBORDINATORS (i.e. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are FORMAL INDICATORS of SUBORDINATION.

They introduce subordinate clauses and are classified into the following groups:

that, if, although, as, because, since, when, while, etc.

in order that, provided that, as soon as, as though, etc.

no sooner…than, hardly…when, … the moment, once,… 0, Did you …, Had he done…

SINGLE WORD SUBORDINATORS

MULTI-WORD SUBORDINATORS

CORRELATIVE SUBORDINATORS

MARGINAL SUBORDINATORS

ZERO SUBORDINATORS

COORDINATORS vs. SUBORDINATORS

I like Mary.

Mary likes me.

AND BECAUSE

Mary

likes

me

NP

VP

NP

NP

I

like

Mary

VP

NP

déjà vu?

CLAUSES

CLAUSES

Every complex sentence consists of two types of clauses: MAIN/INDEPENDENT/SUPERORDINATE CLAUSES DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

SUBORDINATE clauses are CONSTITUENTS of larger syntactic units (PHRASES or SENTENCES)

Clauses in phrases: NP: [His hope that things will improve] is unfounded. AP: He is [sure that things will improve]

Clauses in sentences: I know [that things will improve].

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Structural classification is based on the STRUCTURE OF THE VERB ELEMENT IN A GIVEN CLAUSE

Dependent

clauses

FINITE NON-FINITE

Infinitival

Participial

VERBLESS

FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSE

A FINITE CLAUSE is a clause which has a finite VP as its V element. In other words: the VP agrees with the SUBJECT (there is CONCORD between S and V).

He told me that he was studying hard for the exam. *He told me that he were studying hard

for the exam. I can’t go out because I’m studying.

*I can’t go out because I’s studying.

NON-FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES

When the V element is a non-finite VP, there are several possibilities:

I expected her to quit. (NOTE: I expected them to quit.) The only solution would be for her to quit. All I did was push the red button. Rather than Paul do it, I will. Leaving the camp, they dented their RV. With all his friends having been wounded, Rambo was

in a desperate situation. Having been in a similar situation before, he knew what

to do. Rambo left Cambodia, his job finished. Convinced that somebody at the court wanted to

poison him, the king didn’t eat anything.

TO INFINITIVE

BARE INFINITIVE

-ING PARTICIPLE

PAST PARTICIPLE

VERBLESS DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Angry, he reached for his baseball bat. Too angry to think about consequences, he

grabbed his shotgun and started shooting. When ripe, bananas tend to look rotten from

the outside. With that problem now out of our way, we

can focus on what is really important. VERBLESS CLAUSES:

have NO V element they are usually ellipsis of be and the subject both the verb and the subject are recoverable

from the context

STRUCTURAL DEFICIENCIES OF NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

Non-finite and verbless clauses differ syntactically from finite clauses in several important respects: In non-finite clauses there is NO SUBJECT-VERB

AGREEMENT: For him [to do] such a thing is unbelievable. For them [to do] such a thing is unbelievable. They [do]/ [ *does] unbelievable things.

Because they contain a non-finite VP, non-finite clauses CANNOT express TENSE, MOOD and MODALITY

Non-finite clauses often contain NO SUBORDINATOR: Determined to do it, they jumped.

STRUCTURAL DEFICIENCIES OF NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

Non-finite clauses are often subject to SYNTACTIC COMPRESSION (no subordinator, no subject, no auxiliary verb): (Because they were) Determined to do it, they jumped.

The SUBJECT is either IMPLIED (a) or OVERT (b): A) To reach the summit, the climbers had to risk a lot. B) Lunch finished, the guests left. For him to do such a

thing is unimaginable. Non-finite clauses can cause AMBIGUITY:

We met him leaving the room. When we were leaving the room? When he was leaving the room?

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

[He did the right thing.] I know [that he did the right thing]. She will be happy [providing he did the right

thing]. [The fact [that he did the right thing]] is

undisputable. The public pressed him [so hard [that he did

the right thing]].

Od

(A)

Inside NP

Inside

AdvP

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent clauses can function as: SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS

NOMINAL CLAUSES (functioning as S, O, C) ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (functioning as

ADV(erbial)s) PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES

(postmodification of NP, postmodification of AP, complement of PP, postmodification of AdvP) e.g.: Relative clauses Comparative clauses

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION – PART I:DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS

NOMINAL CLAUSES: functioning as S (SUBJECT):[That Chuck Norris is unkillable] is a well known fact.[To annoy Chuck Norris] is a suicide. functioning as Oi (INDIRECT OBJECT):Chuck Norris gave [whoever was there] a kick in the butt. functioning as Od (DIRECT OBJECT):I know [that Chuck Norris hangs up on Olja Beckovic]. functioning as Cs (SUBJECT COMPLEMENT):The problem with Chuck Norris is [that bullets are afraid of him]. functioning as Co (OBJECT COMPLEMENT):I didn’t imagine Chuck Norris [wearing white socks with his black shoes and his black belt], but I didn’t dare call him on it.

NOMINAL CLAUSES: STRUCTURAL classification

STRUCTURES OF NOMINAL CLAUSES: THAT-CLAUSE / DEPENDENT DECLARATIVE CLAUSE:[That Chuck Norris is unkillable] is a well known fact. DEPENDENT WH-INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE:I cannot imagine [what made him offend Chuck]. He must be suicidal. DEPENDENT YES-NO INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE:Chuck Norris does not care [if his car breaks down or not]. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSE:[What Chuck Norris is looking for] is a good fight. TO-INFINITIVE NOMINAL CLAUSE:[To kill Chuck Norris] is impossible. ING-PARTICIPIAL NOMINAL CLAUSE:[Making fun of Chuck Norris] is the most lethal thing in the world.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES only function as A((dverbial)s): ADJUNCTS:[When Chuck Norris does a pushup], he is not lifting himself up, he is pushing the Earth down. DISJUNCTS:[Speaking in all honesty], I can inform you that Chuck Norris does not style his hair: it lays perfectly in place out of sheer terror. CONJUNCTS:[What is more], some people claim that there is no theory of evolution, but just a list of beings that Chuck Norris allows to live.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: detailed SEMANTIC classification

SEMANTIC TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME:[When I last saw him], he tried to pull a practical joke on Chuck Norris. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PLACE:The Taliban are hiding [where Chuck Norris does not want to go]. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONCESSION:[Although he had not eaten for months], Chuck Norris is still alive. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION:[If you don’t believe me what I am telling you about Chuck Norris], what can I do? You’re already dead. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF REASON OR CAUSE:[Since we live near Chuck Norris’s house], we enjoy a life a safety. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CIRCUMSTANCE:[Seeing that Chuck Norris moved to our neighborhood] we shall be able to live the rest of our lives in ultimate safety.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: detailed SEMANTIC classification (2/2)

SEMANTIC TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (continued): ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PURPOSE:[To stop the global warming], Chuck Norris started beating up all CO2 molecules. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF RESULT:Many households put life-size pop-up boards of Chuck Norris at their porches [so that by the next day the crime rate had dropped to zero]. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF MANNER AND COMPARISON:If you meet Chuck Norris, you must do exactly [as he tells you to].Chuck Norris hunted the terrorists [as a tiger stalks his prey]. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PROPORTION:[As the lane got narrower], (so) the overhanging branches made it more difficult for the terrorists to keep sight of Chuck Norris chasing them.[The narrower the lane got], [the more difficult] the overhanging branches made it for the terrorists to keep sight of Chuck Norris chasing them. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PREFERENCE:[Rather than travel by air], Chuck Norris would prefer a week on a big liner all by myself.

A brief digression on condition and concession:

Adverbial clauses of concession denote that in the light of the circumstances in the dependent clause, the main clause is surprising, and they are introduced by ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, WHILE, WHEREAS, EVEN THOUGH: [Although he had offended Chuck Norris], he

survived, albeit rather physically deformed. Sometimes they are introduced by ZERO

SUBORDINATOR (inversion, etc.): [Unarmed as/that he was], Chuck Norris braved an

armed assault by 10 000 terrorists.

A brief digression on condition and concession:

Adverbial clauses of condition denote that there is a state of dependence of the main clause on one circumstance or a set of circumstances described in the subordinate clause, and they are introduced by IF, UNLESS, PROVIDING THAT, etc.: [If you offend Chuck Norris], you are a dead man.

Sometimes, however, IF introduces ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONCESSION: [If he is spiritually poor], at least Chuck Norris is

honest.

A brief digression on structural properties of non-finite adverbial clauses:

Almost all adverbial clauses can be realized as either FINITE CLAUSES or NON-FINITE CLAUSES, where NON-FINITE CLAUSES can be subject to varying degrees of SYNTACTIC COMPRESSION or ELLIPSIS (dropping the repetitive phrases out of the subordinate clause): [When they saw Chuck Norris approaching], the terrorists

fled. [Having seen Chuck Norris approaching], the terrorists fled. [Chuck Norris approaching], the terrorists fled.

However, there is a limit to what can be dropped out and how compressed the structure may be. *[Approaching], the terrorists fled.

A brief digression on structural properties of non-finite adverbial clauses:

Non-finite adverbial clauses are bound to the rule of SUBJECT RECOVERABLITY (i.e. there should be a suitable subject in the subject position of the main clause). [Persuaded by our optimism], Chuck Norris gladly

contributed time and money to the scheme. However, the SENTENCE MAY BECOME AMBIGUOUS if

the NP with which the understood subject of the non-finite clause should be identified DOES NOT APPEAR AS THE SUBJECT OF THE MAIN CLAUSE. [Flying through the air at the speed of sound], a sudden

thought struck Chuck Norris. [Since leaving her], the whole life has seemed pointless. SUBJECT RECOERABILITY RULE is also knows as

ATTACHMENT RULE.

A brief digression on structural properties of non-finite adverbial clauses:

SUBJECT RECOVERABLITY / ATTACHEMENT RULE is traditionally stated with reference to PARTICIPLES, but it applies just as much to INFINITIVAL and VERBLESS CLAUSES as to participial clauses.

Here’s a gradation of acceptability in terms of subject recoverability: [To climb the rock face], Chuck Norris had to take various

precautions, because he did not want to damage it. ?[To climb the rock face], various precautions had to be taken,

because he did not want to damage it. ??[Though very ill], the medicine cured him in no time. *[A result of the rise in prices], our economy is suffering. **[To climb the rock face], certain precautions are set out

below. The only exception to this rule are verbless clauses with

impersonal reference: I’ll help you, [if necessary]. (i.e. if IT is necessary).

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION – PART II:DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES - NP

NP postmodification: RELATIVE CLAUSE (restrictive):

The book you gave me is terrible. RELATIVE CLAUSE (non-restrictive):

My brother, who is 39, works as a doctor. COMPARATIVE CLAUSE

He bought fewer books than I need. APPOSITIVE CLAUSE

Your assumption, that things will improve, is too optimistic.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES - AP

AP complement: NOMINAL CLAUSE:

I am sure that you will make it. COMPARATIVE CLAUSE

She is as tall as her sister is.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES - AdvP

AdvP complement: COMPARATIVE CLAUSE

She examined the patient more thoroughly than it was necessary.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES - PP

PP complement: NOMINAL CLAUSE

The crash looked terrible from where I was seated.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES AS PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES - SUMMARY

A brief digression on structural properties of non-finite comparative clauses:

Many comparative clauses in the postmodification of ADVERB PHRASES and ADJECTIVE PHRASES can be realized with varying degrees of SYNTACTIC COMPRESSION or ELLIPSIS (similarly to adverbial clauses): Nobody speaks English better [than Chuck Norris]. (i.e. than

Chuck Norris speaks English). However, ambiguity mar arise according to whether the NP

is interpreted as the subject or the object of the original clause. He loves the dog more [than his wife].

However in formal contexts, if a pronoun is used, there is no ambiguity: He loves the dog more [than her]. He loves the dog more [than she].

In informal communication the objective case is used (her), so there can be ambiguity.

Similar: He attacked the government more than we/us.

A brief digression on the comparative item MORE:

The comparative item MORE can have as many as six functions and it is very important to be aware of that in order to avoid errors in syntactic analysis: MORE as QUANTIFIER:

Jack has more girlfriends than his brother (has). MORE as HEAD OF NP:

More (of them) are at home than (are) abroad. MORE as ADJUNCT:

I agree with you more than ((I agree) with) Robert. MORE as MODIFIER OF ADJECTIVE HEAD:

His speech was more interesting than I expected (it would be).

MORE as MODIFIER OF ADJECTIVE PREMODIFIER: It was a more lively discussion than I expected (it would be).

MORE as MODFIER OF ADVERB: The time passed more quickly than (it passed) last year.

A brief digression on the comparative item MORE:

Why do we make a distinction between these two? After all they look quite similar: MORE as MODIFIER OF ADJECTIVE HEAD:

His speech was more interesting than I expected (it would be).

MORE as MODIFIER OF ADJECTIVE PREMODIFIER: It was a more lively discussion than I expected (it

would be). Because there is a difference between:

There are more intelligent monkeys that Herbert.There are monkeys (who are) more intelligent that Herbert.

GENERAL (i.e. (VERY) BRIEF) OVERVIEW

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

Conditional clauses are adverbial clauses (i.e. subordinate clauses) which convey a condition upon which the situation in the main clause is DEPENDENT.

They are introduced by the following subordinators: If unless (negative condition) on condition (that) provided (that) given (that) supposing (that) assuming (that) in case as long as if only

TYPES OF CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

Depending on the type of condition that they express, conditional clauses can be classified into:

Direct conditional clauses They convey a CONDITION UPON WHICH THE SITUATION IN

THE MAIN CLAUSE IS DIRECTLY DEPENDENT, there are two subtypes: OPEN : If it doesn’t rain, we’ll go out. HYPOTHETICAL : If it weren’t raining, we’d go out.

Indirect conditional clauses They convey a CONDITION UPON WHICH THE SITUATION IN

THE MAIN CLAUSE IS INDIRECTLY RELATED WITH If you are going my way, I need a lift.

Rhetorical conditional clauses They are used as figures of speech to EMPHASIZE THE

NEGATION OF THE MAIN CLAUSE: If they’re telling the truth, I’m the king of Spain.

TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION According to the traditional classification, all conditional

clauses (or conditionals) are classified into: FIRST CONDITIONAL / TYPE A / TYPE 1

IF SHE COMES TO THE PARTY, HE WILL BE HAPPY. TIME REFERENCE: FUTURE, FULFILMENT POSSIBLE, REAL POSSIBILITY

SECOND CONDITIONAL / TYPE B / TYPE 2 IF SHE CAME TO THE PARTY, HE WOULD BE HAPPY. TIME REFERENCE: FUTURE, FULFILMENT ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE, LOW

POSSIBILITY (DREAM, WISHFUL THINKING, ETC.) THIRD CONDITIONAL / TYPE C / TYPE 3

IF SHE HAD COME TO THE PARTY, HE WOULD HAVE BEEN HAPPY. TIME REFERENCE: PAST, FULFILMENT IMPOSSIBLE, UNREAL

POSSIBILITY MIXED TYPE (e.g. ZERO CONDITIONALS)

IF SOMEBODY IS AT THE PARTY, HE SHOULD BE PARTYING. TIME REFERENCE: ALWAYS, FULFILMENT CERTAIN, NO POSSIBILITY:

CERATINTY OTHER TIME REFERENCES ALSO EXIST

TRADITIONAL vs. LINGUISTIC CLASSIFICATION

FIRST CONDITIONAL > OPEN CONDITIONAL, FUTURE TIME REFERENCE

IF SHE COMES TO THE PARTY, HE WILL BE HAPPY.

SECOND CONDITIONAL > HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL, FUTURE TIME REFERENCE

IF SHE CAME TO THE PARTY, HE WOULD BE HAPPY.

THIRD CONDITIONAL > HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL, PAST TIME REFERENCE

IF SHE HAD COME TO THE PARTY, HE WOULD HAVE BEEN HAPPY.

WHAT ABOUT OPEN CONDITIONAL WITH PAST TIME REFERENCE?

IF IT RAINED, AYRTON SENNA ALWAYS PRACTICED FOR WET RACES.

THE TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION IS FLAWED AND IMPRECISE.

OUR CLASSIFICATION IS BETTER!!!

OPEN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

Open conditionals are called open, because they convey open or real conditions.

In other words, the question of whether the condition will be fulfilled is OPEN, i.e. the possibility for the condition to be fulfilled EXISTS.

They can have the following time references: FUTURE PRESENT PAST

There are NO RESTRICTIONS on the use of verb forms (in either the IF-CLAUSE or the MAIN CLAUSE) I.e. THE COMBINATION OF TENSES IS FREE

The use (mood) of verb forms is INDICATIVE (NOT hypothetical), therefore the open conditional clauses are SUBJECT TO THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES RULE

OPEN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES=> FUTURE TIME REFERENCE

OPEN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES=> PRESENT TIME REFERENCE

OPEN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES=> PAST TIME REFERENCE

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

Hypothetical conditionals are called hypothetical (or unreal), because they convey hypothetical/unreal conditions.

In other words, the question of whether the condition will be fulfilled is NOT OPEN, i.e. the possibility for the condition to be fulfilled DOES NOT EXISTS.

They can have the following time references: FUTURE PRESENT PAST

There are RESTRICTIONS on the use of verb forms (in both the IF-CLAUSE and the MAIN CLAUSE) I.e. THE COMBINATION OF TENSES IS NOT FREE

The use (mood) of verb forms is SUBJUNCTIVE (i.e. hypothetical), therefore the hypothetical conditional clauses are NOT SUBJECT TO THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES RULE

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES => FUTURE TIME REFERENCE

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES => PRESENT TIME REFERENCE

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES => PAST TIME REFERENCE

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES => CLOSING REMARKS

With verbs SHOULD, HAD and WERE it is possible to have SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION: Had he done that, I would have helped him. Were you in my shoes, you would do the same

thing. Should he send a complaint, we will sue him.

Will and would can have SPECIAL USES in IF-CLAUSES: POLITENESS: If you will/would wait, I will see to

it. EXPRESSING WILLINGNESS: If you will/would

listen to me, I will be able to help you.

SOME SIMPLE and COMPLEX SENTENCES FROM THE EXAMS: 1997-2008

NOW LET’S PREPARE FOR THE EXAM…

Sentence Structure (Language Workbooks)Publishing date: 2005, July 12Price: $30.95

' ... the book represents an excellent and flawless attempt to learn syntax through active explorations.' - The Linguist List

Sentence Structure:• introduces the evidence for sentence

structure and reveals its purpose • is based on a problem-solving

approach to language • teaches the reader how to identify

word classes, such as noun, preposition and demonstrative

• uses simple tree structures to analyse sentences

• contains numerous exercises to encourage practical skills of sentence analysis

• includes a database and exercises that compare the structure of English with other languages.

• The second edition of Sentence Structure has been revised and updated throughout and includes new material on tense, aspect, modality and the verb phrase, whilst the order of topics has been rearranged to improve clarity. 

PRACTICE SENTENCES

The bird that was ruthlessly hunted has become extinct.

S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

They were very proud that he was accepted.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

He answered the question I asked.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

Because we were late they decided to start eating.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

They decided because we were late to start eating.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

They decided to start eating because we were late.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

Whether this will help, I don’t know.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

She told me what?

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

What did she tell me?

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCE

I said that Mary told me that she was leaving.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCE

When she arrived, Mary told me that she was leaving.

S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

He probably wants to leave town before it is too late.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

I promised that the papers would be ready.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

This is the book that I am reading.

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

S:_________________ F:___________________

PRACTICE SENTENCES

Whenever we go, we should be careful.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

I said that I was intending to leave soon.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

Mary persuaded the woman to read both books.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

It seems that it has rained.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

He saw me walk to the store.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

We can overcome division only by refusing to be divided.

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PRACTICE SENTENCES

She persuaded me to eat it.

She wanted me to eat it.

She told me to eat it.

She promised me to eat it.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

I heard him reading the book to his daughter.

The dog was happy though wet.

The dog was happy though we were not.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

He was so in a rage that we had to leave.

It was so big a box that we had to knock part of the wall down.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

He did so.

So he did!

We did it so as to leave him some food.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

We did it so that he would have some food.

They nevertheless decided to leave town.

Therefore I conclude that they entered by the back.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

She deliberately made him richer a person.

She almost sold the books to them for a pound.

The plane took off from the runway without trouble.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

Their finally acknowledging their mistake is a great relief.

Who I spoke to is none of your business.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

The roads in the city deteriorated gradually over time.

The women got really angry at the behavior.

I gave Mary the quite expensive book reluctantly.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

The men with beards walked across the garden without shoes.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

John believes Mark to be telling the truth but Mary considers this belief of his totally wrong.

PRACTICE SENTENCES

The dusty old picture of Lenin that used to be placed on the highest shelf in President Putin’s office suddenly disappeared over the weekend which the president spent with his family in their holiday resort in Sochi, where the Winter Olympics are to be held in 2014.