Colonial architecture

Architecture transplanted from the motherland to overseas colonies

An architectural style from a mother country that has been incorporated into the buildings of settlements or colonies in distant locations.

Colonial Era (1500 AD—1947 AD)

The Chepauk Palace at Chennai, once the residence of the Nawab of Arcot

Further information: Indo-Gothic

Architecture an emblem of power, designed to endorse the patron. Numerous outsiders invaded India and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion.[29]

The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main powers that colonized India.[30] [31]

British Colonial Era: 1615 to 1947 The British arrival in 1615 overthrew the Mughal empire. Britain reigned India for over three hundred years and their legacy still remains through building and infrastructure that populate their former colonies.[32]

The major cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad.[33] [34]

St Andrews Kirk, Madras is renowned for its colonial beauty. The building is circular in form and is sided by two rectangular sections one is the entrance porch. The entrance is lined with twelve colonnades and two British lions and motto of East India Company engraved on them. The interior holds sixteen columns and the dome is painted blue with decorated with gold stars.[35]

The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled squared building adjacent to the beach. Surrounding the fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area Black Town later to be called Georgetown. Black Town described in 1855 as “the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilated…a hallow square, the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre." [36]

Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.[37]

Calcutta – Madras and Calcutta were similar bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 “the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses.” Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.[38] [39]

Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses, later transformed into a metropolis of brick and stone.[40]

The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built as a monument in tribute to Queen Victoria’s reign. The plan of the building consists of one large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller dome and is floored with marble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective pools.[41]

French: 1673 to 1954 The French colonized a fishing village (Pondicherry) in Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a flourishing port-town. The town was built on the French grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets and divided into two sectors, French Quarter (Ville Blanche) and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire). French styled villas were styled with long compounds and stately walls, lined houses with verandas, large French doors and grills. Infrastructure such as banks, police station and Pondicherry International Port still hold the French presence.

To preserve Pondicherry an organization names INTACH was formed. Authorization is needed from INTACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture.[42]

French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in Tamil Nadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of quiet towns around beaches. French spelling on signage and traffic signs still remains.[43]

Dutch: 1605 to 1825 The Dutch entered India with the only interests of Trade in the early 17th Century. During their 200 years in India, they colonized Surat, Bharuch, Venrula, Ahmedabad, Malabar Coast, Kochi and Sadras.[44]

Surat – a Dutch factory in 1630’s Bharuch: Trading Post of the Dutch East India Company had a Dutch cemetery. Venrula: a warehouse was built for 3000 Guilders by Leendart Janszoons and a castle for the protection of the Dutch. Ahmedabad: The Dutch cemetery lies on the bank of Kankaria lake. It holds a mix of Indian and European styled graves, with domed tombs,

pyramids, walled and plain grave stones. Malabar Coast Kochi: The Dutch Palace (Mattancherry Palace) – The palace was originally built by the Portuguese, it fell into the hands of the Dutch when the Portuguese lost control of Kochi. Dutch cemetery – The cemetery runs parallel to the beach and is the oldest European cemetery in India. It holds 104 tombs that visually narrate the Dutch influence in Architecture during the era. The cemetery is guarded by heavy walls and the entrance pillar still carries the original calligraphic inscription “1724” David Hall – which was the residence of the famous Dutch Commander and Governor of Kochi, Adriaan van Reed lot Drakestein was built in 1695. The hall has been restored as a cultural centre and art café for young, visual and performing artists. Bastion bungalow – This Dutch styled building near the Fort Kochi beach was built to protect the harbor. Thakur House – the Dutch built this bungalow overlooking the sea as a club. Sadras – 17 km (11 mi) from the rock cut temples of Mamallapuram is another Dutch settlement. Pullicat – Pullicat lake 55 km north of Madras is a million years old and the second largest lagoon in India. It was the most important trading post of the Dutch. They built two cemeteries. One was ruined due to negligence and at the entrance is flanked by stone pillars, having 76 tombs. Images of skeletons are carved onto the gravestones, symbolizing life and death.[45] [46]

Portuguese: 1498 to 1961

The Portuguese arrived as merchants in the 1498 and were more driven by a Catholic missionary zeal than gaining powers in India. The Portuguese gained a foothold Goa and ruled for 400 years.[47]

Portuguese dominance in Goa still remains. Their missionary spirit built many magnificent cathedrals, churches, basilicas and seminaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus (Good Jesus), Old Goa, former capital during the Portugal rule. The three storied Renaissance styled church was built of plaster and laterite in 1605, it holds the body of St.Francis. The interior is built in a Mosaic- Corinthian style and adorned with wood and gold leaf. The walls embrace old painting of saints as the floor is laid with pure white marble.[48]

The Portuguese - Catholic houses faced the street with unique large ornamental windows opening onto verendahs. Bold colours were painted on houses constructing distinct identity, allowing the sailors to recognize their houses from sea. The covered porches and verandas were designed for socializing contrary to the Hindu styled housing. Front doors were lined with columns, and railings were popular in embellishment.[49]

The interior of Goan-Portuguese houses consisted of elaborate patterns created with tiles imported from Europe and a false ceiling installed of wood. The walls are painted with bright colours contrasting to the earthy coloured furniture.

The walls were made of out mud or laterite stone and coloured with vegetable and natural dyes. Gateposts and compound walls were craved with great detail.[50]

Indian Architecture continued to flourish as they took influence from the colonies. Indian Architecture further shaped as they combined the colonial influences with traditional Architecture.

BRITISH INDIA

British Architecture in Colonial India reflects two major themes: the evolving notions of authority in the development of a colony, and the efforts to construct a 'self' in the context of the Empire. The presentation shows slides of important colonial buildings exhibiting early attempts at adapting the classical idiom in an Indian context, the rise of the prodigious Neo-Gothic style secularized for the buildings of the state and the many attempts to create an 'Indian' imperial architecture. However, the main aim of the presentation is to provide a way to look at the architecture of colonial India in its context and its meaning in the course of empire building.

Colonial Architecture - Prof. M. Dalvi

- British believed that the power of a civilization was reflected in the

grandeur of their structures

- East India company was precursor of the Raj

- E.I. would separate themselves from the locals

- wrap-around porches common

- outlying houses (servants, etc.) common

- straight sloping roofs

- early Raj stuff is neo-classical

- imitating Classical Greek style, Italian, Roman

- several town halls

- started adapting to hot climate, incorporating shade devices

- much of early design done by military engineers rather than architects

- they often used "pattern books"

- stylistic revivals in Europe considered a response to the Industrial

Revolution

- revived styles were what came to India

- engineers were on cutting edge of technology, which architects tended to shun

- neo-Gothic buildings fronting rail sheds - sheds using new materials - seen

both in England and India (Victoria Terminus)

- some street arcades - allows shade and protection from rain

- Jain temple in Calcutta really sucked up the Raj influence

- in 1857, uprising was suppressed, last Mughal emperor exiled, E.I. disbanded

- Gothic style very widely used

- common in cathedrals in Britain, secular buildings here

- George Gilbert Scott (architect) - university buildings, gorgeous

- British architect

- patron was Indian (for the library)

- period 1869-78

- Convocation hall looks very like a church, again Indian patron

- the university libray looks _so much_ like the University of Toronto

University College building (~1864) (detailing more than outside structure)

- the British documented everything about the Indian empire very well,

_lots_ of photographs, details of physical arrangements, etc., but not

context (ie. who cares about the religion and its iconography...)

- Gothic and neo-Gothic in India was attacked, and eventually supplanted

by "Saracenic"

- "Saracenic" in quotes because the British used it rather widely

- some Saracenic was built in Britain - cobbled together Islamic -> Brighton

Beach House

- British architects started building in "Indo-Saracenic" style, a collage

of Gothic, Islamic, many other styles

- Central Post Office in Mumbai a spectacular example (relatively attractive

to me, as opposed to others we saw)

- Prince of Wales Museum another example and Gateway of India (1911)

- Wittet did both

- by 1920s, Indo-Saracenic was dying, Wittet (as example) went back to

neo-classical

European colonists brought with them to India concepts of their "world view" and a whole baggage of the history of European architecture --- Neo-Classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance. The initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading posts, giving way to fortified towns along the coastline. The Portuguese adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa. Se Cathedral and Arch of Conception of Goa were built in the typical Portuguese-Gothic style. The St. Francis Church at Cochin, built by the Portuguese in 1510, is believed to be the first church built by the Europeans in India. The Portuguese also built the fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai and added fortifications to the Bassein fort built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD. The Bassein fort is famous for the Matriz(Cathedral of St Joseph), the Corinthian pillared hall and the Porte da Mer (sea gate).

The Danish influence is evident in Nagapatnam, which was laid out in squares and canals and also in Tranquebar and Serampore. The French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural patterns. The Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), the Eglise de Notre Dame de Anges and theEglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.

However, it was the British who left a lasting impact on the India architecture. They saw themselves as the successors to the Mughals and used architecture as a symbol of power. The British followed various architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian being the essentials.

The first buildings were factories but later courts, schools, municipal halls and dak bungalows came up, which were ordinary structures built by garrison engineers. A deeper concern with architecture was exhibited in churches and other public buildings. Most of the buildings were adaptations of the buildings designed by leading British architects of that time like Wren, Adam, Nash and others in London and other places. For instance, the Church of St. John at Calcutta

was built in 1787 inspired by St. Stephens Church at Walbrooks, the Government House in Calcutta was built by Capt. Charles Wyatt modelled on the Kedleston Hall of Derbyshire, the Indian Government Mint in Calcutta is a half-scale replica of the Temple of Minerva at Athens and the Pachaiyappa's Hall in Chennai was modelled on the Athenium Temple of Theseus. Unlike Europe, however, these buildings were built mostly of brick and stuccoed with lime or chunam, sometimes "facades" incised to look like stones. Some later buildings were, however, built with stones. Churches, which were symbols of colonialism, were built in great style. Based on London prototypes, several churches evolved with variations as highly original works. The earliest example is the St. Mary's Church in Fort St. George in Chennai.

Neo-Gothic architecture flourished in different parts of India under the British, inspired by the Houses of Parliament in London. Colonel Thomas Cowper built the town hall in Bombay during 1820 to 1835. Governor Sir Bartle Frere tried to give a truly imperial ambience to the city of Bombay. During his reign the old town walls were broken down and the Gateway of India was built in the Gothic style of architecture. The Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai Tower, Telegraph Office and the Victoria Terminus all followed the Victorian Gothic style, similar to buildings in London. Undoubtedly, the Victoria Terminus, designed by the architect Frederick Willaim Stevens modelled on the St.Pancras Station, is the finest example of Gothic architecture with a subtle hint of the Indo-Saracenic motifs, an extravaganza of polychromatic stone, decorated tile marble and stained glass. Stevens also designed other buildings like the Churchgate Terminus and the Municipal Building opposite the Victoria Terminus.

In Varanasi, one of the true Gothic monuments is Queen’s College, built in a perpendicular style by Major Kitoe from 1847 to 1852. In Allahabad, the British built a series of edifices including the University, All Saints Cathedral, the High Court and the Mayo College. In Calcutta, a High Court was constructed following the Gothic style. The Howrah Bridge (1943), with its red brick facade surrounded by eight square towers represents a combination of the Oriental and Roman styles. Fort William, the stronghold of the British in mid 19th century that took 13 years to construct at a cost of more than $3.5 million and the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta (1921), designed by Sir William Emerson, are probably the most imposing of all British structures in India.

The passing of power from the East India Company to the British Crown, the rise of Indian nationalism and the introduction of Railways were the watersheds in the British Colonial Indian architectural history. New materials like concrete, glass, wrought and cast iron opened up new architectural possibilities. The British also started assimilating and adopting the native Indian styles in the architecture. All these factors led to the development of Indo-Saracenic architecture towards the end of the 19th century. Victorian in essence, it borrowed heavily from the Islamic style of Mughal and Afghan rulers. In fact it was a pot pouri of architectural

styles; a hybrid style that combined in a wonderful manner diverse architectural elements of Hindu and Mughal with gothic cusped arches, domes, spires, tracery, minarets and stained

glass. The Indo-Saracenic style was Indian on the outside and British inside since the facade was built with an Indian touch while the interior was solely Victorian. F.S.Growse, Sir Swinton Jacob, R.F.Chisholm and H.Irwin were the pioneers of this style of architecture. The Chepauk Palace in Chennai designed by Paul Benfield is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic building in India. Other outstanding examples of this style of architecture include the Law Courts, Victoria Memorial Hall, Presidency College and SenateHouse of Chennai, Muir College at Allahabad, Napier Museum at Thiruvanthapuram, the Post Office, Prince of Wales Museum and the Gateway of India in Mumbai, the Maharaja's Palace at Mysore and M.S.University and Lakshmi Villas Palace at Baroda.

The architecture of New Delhi was the crowning glory of the British Raj. Robert Byron described New Delhi as "The Rome of Hindostan". The British built New Delhi as a

systematically planned city after it was made the capital in 1911. The British Viceroy made Sir Edward Lutyens responsible for the overall plan of Delhi. He was specifically directed to "harmonise externally with the traditions of Indian art". Thus, the

Western architecture with Oriental motif was realised with chajjas, jalis andchhattris, as stylistic devices in the Viceroy's House (now Rashtrapati Bhawan). Herbert Baker added the imposing buildings of the South Block and the North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan. Another Englishman called Robert Tor Tussell built the Connaught Place and the Eastern and Western Courts.

St Martin’s Garrison Church marks the culmination of the British architectural ventures in India. The Church is a huge monolith with a high square tower and deeply sunken window ledges reminiscent of Dutch and German architecture.

DUTCH

Dutch India is a term used to refer to the settlements and trading posts of the Dutch East India Company on the Indian subcontinent. It is only used as a geographical definition, as there has never been a political authority ruling all Dutch India. Instead, Dutch India was divided into the governorates Dutch Ceylon and Dutch Coromandel, the commandment Dutch Malabar, and the directorates Dutch Bengaland Dutch Suratte.

The term should not be confused with the term Dutch Indies, which refers to the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) and the Dutch West Indies (present-day Suriname and the former Netherlands Antilles).

History

A View of Chinsura the Dutch settlement in Bengal

Dutch presence on the Indian subcontinent lasted from 1605 to 1825. Merchants of the Dutch East India Company first established themselves in Dutch Coromandel, notably Pulicat, as they were looking for textiles to exchange with the spices they traded in the East Indies.[1] Dutch Suratte and Dutch Bengal succeeded in 1616 and 1627 respectively.[2] [3] After the Dutch conqueredCeylon from the Portuguese in 1656, they took the Portuguese forts on the Malabar coast five years later as well, to secure Ceylon from Portuguese invasion.[4] [5]

Apart from textiles, the items traded in Dutch India include precious stones, indigo, and silk across India, saltpeter andopium in Dutch Bengal, and pepper in Dutch Malabar. Indian slaves were imported on the Spice Islands and in the Cape Colony.

In the second half of the eighteenth century the Dutch lost their influence more and more. The Kew Letters relinquished all Dutch colonies to the British, to prevent them from being overrun by the French. In the famous Battle of Colachel (1741),Travancore king Marthanda Varma's army defeated the Dutch East India Company, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. Although Dutch Coromandel and Dutch Bengal were restored to Dutch rule by vitue of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, they returned to British rule owing to the provisions of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Under the terms of the treaty, all transfers of property and establishments were to take place on 1 March 1825. By the middle of 1825, therefore, the Dutch had lost their last trading posts in India.

Coinage

During the days when the Dutch were commercially active in India, they operated several mints, at Cochin, Masulipattam, Nagapatam (or Negapatam), Pondicherry (for the five years 1693-98 when the Dutch had gained control from the French), and Pulicat. The coins were all modeled on the local coinages.

PORTUGESE

Parangipettai, historically called Porto Novo, is a panchayat town in Cuddalore district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Portuguese, Dutch and English successively colonized the area, situated on the north bank of the mouth of the Vellar river at a distance of 30-km from Cuddalore. Porto Novo was an important trade centre during the colonial era.....Today, Parangipettai is mainly a fishing village and a pilgrimage centre for Muslims

The Portuguese colonized Goa, and left very late, so the influence is still very obvious, especially architecturally. There are many villas with Portuguese names, and churches EVERYWHERE! It’s beautiful, and reminded me a lot of Miami – being by the beach, with gorgeous Western architecture.

French

Another fine example of 19th century French Colonial architecture, the once Saigon Opera House, has now been blandly renamed the Municipal Theater. Much befitting this name change, the venue now showcases popular music acts as well as Vietnamese theatrical productions. There is generally some kind of show at 8 PM or if staying in the snooty area, ask your concierge.

The French rule in Pondicherry started in the 17th century when the French officer, Bellanger set up his residence in the Danish Lodge in the region of Pondicherry. The French had been invited to start trading units in Pondicherry by the ruler of Gingee. The invitation was forwarded to raise competition in trade between the French and the Dutch who had already settled in the region and set up their business unit.

The first governor of Pondicherry was Francois Martin who assumed office in the year 1674. The efforts of the governor converted Pondicherry into an emerging port town from a small fishing village. The Dutch occupied the territory of Pondicherry in the year 1693 and fortressed the territory. The reign of the region returned to the French in the year 1699 after the countries Holland and France signed an alliance.

Pondicherry became a part of the conflicts between the French and the English. The ambitious plans of the Governor Dupleix were ruined with the arrival of the English governor Lord Robert Clive. Attempts to regain Pondicherry was made by the French under the command of Lally Tollendal but in vain. The British captured the region in 1760. The plunders of the British army led to the devastation of Pondicherry. After a peace treaty is signed between the English and the French in 1765, the territory of Pondicherry is returned to the French. It was in 1816 that the French gained supremacy over Pondicherry.

The French rule in Pondicherry lasted till 1954 when the territory acceded to the Union of India.

Evolution of Colonial Architecture in India

September 21, 2012 By Eric Jogga 2 Comments

Contrary to popular belief, it was the Portuguese and not the British who were the first to build major construction projects in India. Don Afonso de Albuquerque landed in Goaduring the early 16th century and began creating settlements, forts, factories, and domestic buildings.

Bombay Victoria Terminus – Colonial Architecture that looks like St Pancras railway station in LondonPhoto from Flickr

The earliest buildings were entirely wood and heavily fortified. In the mid-16th century, the Portuguese began building with stone as their regional influence increased and they gained access to quarries. Soon thereafter, the Dutch, Danes, French, and English followed suit. Because of the perceived danger from locals, even the factories were built in a defensive posture, with long fences and gates. Inside these rudimentary complexes were courtyards, public administrative buildings, and warehouses. It was not until the middle of the 18th century when European colonials would begin building to the east.

The French established very exquisite structures at Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu and in Bengal. Notably, in 1766 the British destroyed the Baroque Government House in Pondicherry, built in 1752 by Marquis Joseph de Dupleix. After this victory, which was both systematic and symbolic, the British became the dominant faction on the eastern sea boarder. It was from this vantage point that the British paved the way for a new generation of architectural, economic, and governmental projects to begin.

1690 saw the founding of the East India Company in Calcutta, but by 1758, after a victory in the Battle of Plassey, Fort William was constructed. During the late 18th century, the British moved learned citizens into Bengal and began influencing local labor forces which meant the colonial government had a hand in most new architectural construction projects of the era. More European buildings, such as churches, tombs, and monuments to colonial figures were erected throughout the countryside. The British centralized governments locally and regionally in town halls which would be fortified with troops and modern weaponry.

Wealthy locals who cooperated with the British started to mimic the British colonials with their own private residences. Because of the mercantile explosion catalyzed by new markets and trade goods, houses became larger and required many servants to maintain. It was in these types of large residences that modern conveniences such as fans (pankha-s) were installed. The outskirts of major cities became grounds for new colonial housing and architectural projects. Stone walls and roof tiles became the standard, replacing the old clay and thatch bungalows.

Until the middle of the 19th century, architectural planning was primarily in the hands of military engineers and civil servants who were trained in and traveled from England. Although most military engineers were British, others were Irish and Italian.One notable monument in Calcutta proper was the domed Rohilla Monument, built in 1817. This structure commemorated military victory, like many other monuments built in a Greco-style with pillars, undoubtedly a symbol of triumph. Between the years 1829 and 1837, military engineers constructed a beautiful palace at Murshidabad, outside of Calcutta. Duncan McLeod designed the Palladian palace. One enters the palace through a massive portico. Its pediment is triangular and sits on giant columns. Interestingly, after the construction of the palace, Nawab Feridun Jah added onto the structure. He built an imambargah to the north. This communal gathering space for Shia Muslims is the largest in all of Asia. The imambargah was deliberately built to match the European design style, ten years after its vision was first conceived by the architect Duncan MacLeod. The south facade faces the palace and has two storeys. The main entry way has the typical rounded arches flanked by Doric columns. Nawab Feridun Jah hired the famous architect Sadiq ‘Ali Khan to design the add-on. The palace and its subsequent addition represents a new shift in thinking in Indian architectural terms. In the mid-19th century, India was heavily colonized but still attempted to maintain a traditional element. For the Nawab, this meant drawing upon traditional Mughal architecture to build a standard (albeit massive) Shia Muslim communal space as part of a Palace complex that was built by Europeans. One may view this hybrid architectural type as a representation of India’s vast and interesting culture but also of its attempt to move forward in exploring new types of thinking.

The St. Martin-in-the-Fields church in London inspired many similar architectural formations throughout the Indian subcontinent. In Pune, there was St. Mary’s (1825); in Calcutta, there

was St. John’s (1787) and St. Andrew’s (1818); in Madras there was St. George’s Cathedral (1816) and St. Andrew’s Church (1818). Most of these types of buildings that imitated famous architectural forms in Europe were redesigned completely from illustrations, itself a wondrous feat considering many engineers were not as superb as those actively constructing monuments in London.

The 19th century also saw an increase in what has been called Neo-Classicism. Architects became re-enamored with ancient Grecian architecture and sought to emulate ancient architectural tropes in India. Madras eventually became known as a “Greek city” because it exhibited so many Neo-Classical features. W.N. Forbes was one of the first to really re-introduce this line of thinking. At a young age, he drafted the Calcutta Mint (1824). The Doric order on the Silver Mint was inspired by viewing drawings of the Greek Parthenon. India was not alone in developing a Neo-Classical style. In Europe and the United States a similar trend began to emerge. Washington D.C., for instance, is an excellent example. Still today most of the buildings can be obviously viewed as Grecian influenced.

The Colonial Culture Reflecting In the Architecture:

The infrastructure in India without the giving of the industrial revolution was negligible for the British, as mentioned above; the developments were for the colonizers and not for the ruled, the architectural manifestations also had a colonial aim of representation. Representation of power, supremacy and yet somewhere, even in their own dilemma, a way to connect to the masses of the colonized Indians and symbolize their blatancy of rule.

The architectural undertakings in the colonial empire also just like in their own nation, politically driven, had different needs to subside to. For instance, the colonial and India office buildings in white hall, in fact, themselves indicated something of the

distinctive character of empire. Both structures, designed by Scott and aligned with the Foreign Office, were classical in their architectural form. Most revealing, however, was their sculptural ornamentation. The topmost story of the Foreign Office was decorated with a series of sculpted figures emblematic of different countries, such as France and Italy. Similar figures set on the India Office, however, represented not the nations but “Indian tribes”, an afghan, a goorkha, a Malay, a Maharatt, and so on”, social categories identified by the British as significant for their rule of the sub continent. While the inner court of the foreign office was plain, that of Indian Office was decorated with busts and statues of” celebrated worthies, both civil and military, connected with the Indian empire.”6

British architects who worked in the empire, regardless of their choice, shared a set of attitudes very different from their colleagues’ home. Their views together formed the colonial style, which more or less were inflicted with a concern of making visible Britain’s imperial position as ruler. Since, the British thought process was based on the allegory that, “to know was, in some measure, already to rule”, hence the imperial architecture was – “architecture both of knowledge and of power.”6

With his Calcutta General Post Office, Walter Cranville fused the Classical and Baroque.

It is probably for the thought that, T. Roger Smith stated, “The great peculiarity of a tropical climate is that it is very hot…and that is one point an architect must never forget.”

Innovation did not stop here.

The Thought Materializing Together with the Imperial Apparition of Pre-Eminence:

The Indians had of course over the centuries developed ways to accommodate the country’s climate in their building and the English men even with full realization of the fact did not adopt the same means but set their work different from that of the Indians. To satisfy those imperial whims were adopted the bungalow form, which ideally combined the climate and

political fantasies – ‘of social distinction’.Early Colonial Bungalow (Sanatarium in Kinnur)

It had thick walls and high ceilings – to provide ample ventilation.

Encircling veranda – shaded the main structure; also

It provided an arena for a carefully regulated intercourse with that world.

The placement of the bungalow in a large compound – emphasized a social distance and of superiority.

The superiority further emphasized by an impressive drive way and with access regulated by walls, gates and watchmen.

Though this expression and culture of colonialism did not confine only to the architectural manifestations like the bungalow or other public buildings but it was prominently visible at the urban level in the form of many settlements.

The Demarcations And The Results

These settlements probably borne out of some kind of a racist fear, as the British created separately demarcated spaces for themselves. In cities these areas were labeled ‘civil lines’, with associated ‘cantonments’ for the military, in mountains they established ‘hill stations’ that served as summer refuges not only for individuals but for the colonial governments. The building of these areas went hand in hand with a increased number both of settled families, their presence made easier by improved communications of the day, and of British military personnel. These spaces communicated racial difference as well as the threatening disorder and ‘putrid air’ understood to characterize the old cities. They represented, moreover, as part

of lived experience, an association of British culture with ‘modern’ in contrast to the older sections of the city seen as ‘medieval ‘ or ‘traditional’ – always the necessary foil to modernity. The ‘colonial city’ was predicated on such duality. 3

Though at the urban level there was a concern about the break down in sanitation, and alarming diseases and epidemics. Drainage, removal of refuse, safe water supply, were the remedies thought but whatever measures were taken at the urban development level were in to the English privilege. In fact, one of the earliest, “sanitary concerns focused on the military, whose poor health was evident from the fact that more soldiers died from diseases than from the battle.

The city of Allahabad, capital of the United Province, is a classic example of the way health and safety drove urban design. One of the most celebrate pilgrimage places, its population varied tremendously along the course of the year. The British feared itinerancy in all forms so that Allahabad seemed a particularly dangerous site for health and safety. The old city had two or three main streets, but from these a labyrinth – as the British saw it – of narrow streets led off to distinct neighborhoods, some still with gates fastened at night. The houses mixed together with shops and warehouses, looked inwards and were densely built. With the establishments of sanitary commissions and municipal councils, efforts were made to improve sanitation in the old city, but resources were disproportionately directed towards the European areas.

Here, to just like in the case of Delhi, rail line was strategically used as the defence for European population, and so it ran through the city forming a barrier between the civil lines and the areas inhabited by the native population.

References

A. King: Colonial Urban Development (London, 1976)

S. Nilsson: European Architecture in India, 1750–1850 (London, 1968)

T. J. Till Walsh: A History of Murshidabad District (London, 1902)