cognitive-functional linguistics – some basic tenets ii
TRANSCRIPT
Cognitive-Functional Linguistics– Some Basic Tenets II
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 2
Why did we introduce the terms entrenchment, abstraction, comparison, composition, and association? The first answer: “Regarding the issue of innate specification I
make no a priori claims. I do however sub-scribe to the general strategy in cognitive and functional linguistics of deriving lan-guage structure insofar as possible from the more general psychological capacities (e.g. perception, memory, categorization), positing inborn language-specific structures only as a last resort.”
R. W. Langacker (2000: 2)
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Why did we introduce the terms entrenchment, abstraction, comparison, composition, and association? The second answer: “The usage-based model … is applicable to
all domains of language structure: semantics, phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax. A linguistic system comprises large numbers of conventional units in each domain … A few basic psychological phenomena … [apply] repeatedly in all domains and at many levels of organization ….”
R. W. Langacker (2000: 2)
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Six Theses About Grammar
In “The English Passive”, chapter 4 in Con-cept, Image, and Symbol (1991), R. W. Langacker compares six theses about gram-mar – “accepted virtually without question by many theorists” (e.g. generativists) – with the corresponding cognitive view.
They are listed on the next slide. Afterwards, we shall look at each of them in
detail.
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The Seven Theses
Descriptive Minimalism
Descriptive Maximalism
Self-Contained Components
Continuum
Autonomous Syntax Symbolic SyntaxUniversal Semantics Language-Spec. SemanticsMeaningless Morphemes
Meaningful Morphemes
Abstract Syntax Overt GrammarSyntax-Lexicon Dichotomy
Non-Generality of Syntax
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Descriptive Economy
The Descriptive Minimalism Thesis
Economy is to be sought in linguistic description. Specifically, particular statements are to be ex-cluded if the grammar contains a general state-ment (rule) that fully subsumes them.
The Descriptive Maximalism Thesis
Economy must be consistent with psychological reality. The grammar of a language repre-sents conventional linguistic knowledge and includes all linguistic structures learned as established “units”. “Content units” coexist in the grammar with subsuming “schemas”.
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Rules and Lists – 1
Cognitive grammar seeks an accurate characterization of the structure and orga-nization of linguistic knowledge as an integral part of human cognition. … The question whether the grammar of a language should include both general statements and particular statements sub-sumed by them is a factual rather than a methodological issue.
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Rules and Lists – 2
If speakers in fact master and manipulate both lists (particular statements) and rules (general statements) from which these lists could be predicted, a truthful descrip-tion of their linguistic knowledge must contain both the lists and the rules.
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Components of Grammar
The Self-Contained Components Thesis
Linguistic structure can be resolved into nume-rous separate, essential-ly self-contained compo-nents.
The Continuum Thesis
Only semantic, phonologi-cal, and bipolar symbolic units are posited. Sharp dichotomies are usually found only by arbitrarily selecting examples from opposite endpoints of a continuum.
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Bipolar Symbolic Units = Constructions
All levels of grammatical analysis involve constructions: learned pairings of form with semantic or
discourse function
– including morphemes or words, idioms, partially lexically filled and fully general phrasal patterns.
P. 5 in Adele E. Goldberg (2006):
Constructions at Work. The Nature of Generalization in Language.
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Examples of Constructions – Varying in Size and
Complexity Morpheme Word Complex word Complex word
(partially filled) Idiom (filled) Idiom (partially
filled) Ditransitive
pre-, -ing Avocado, and daredevil [N-s] (for regular
plurals) going great guns jog <someone’s>
memory Subj V Obj1 Obj2
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Autonomy of Syntax
The Autonomous Syntax Thesis
As a special case of the modularity of grammar, syntax is an autono-mous component dis-tinct from both seman-tics and lexicon.
The Symbolic Syntax Thesis
Syntax is not autonomous, but symbolic, forming a continuum with lexicon and morphology. Syntactic units are bipolar, with semantic and phonological poles.
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Universality of Semantics
The Universal Semantics Thesis
Supporting the autonomy of syntax thesis, it can be pre-sumed that semantic struc-ture is universal, while gram-matical structure varies greatly from language to language.
The Language-Specific Semantics Thesis
Semantic structure is language specific, involving layers of con-ventional imagery. Semantic structure is conventionalized conceptual structure, and gram-mar is the conventional sym-bolization of semantic structure.
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Universal Semantics
Language has means for making reference to the objects, relations, properties and events that popu-late our everyday world. It is possible to suppose that these linguistic categories and structures are more or less straightforward mappings from a pre-existing conceptual space, programmed into our biological nature. Humans invent words that label their concepts.
P. 266 in Li and Gleitman (2002):“Turning the tables: language and spatial reasoning.”
Cognition, 83, 265–94. (Cited in Evans & Green 2006: 62)
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Conventionalized Conceptual Structure
Cognitive linguists argue against the view that language is pre-specified in the sense that … semantic organization [is mapped out by] a set of primitives. Instead linguistic organization is held to reflect embodied cognition …, which serve to constrain what is possible to experi-ence, and thus what is possible to express in language.
P. 63-64 in V. Evans and M. Green (2006):Cognitive Linguistics. An Introduction.
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From Embodiment To Conceptual Structure
(Evans and Green 2006: 177)
SEMANTIC STRUCTUREConsists of ŌmeaningÕ units
like lexical concepts
CONCEPTUAL STRUCTUREConsists of conceptual
representations including image schemas
EMBODIMENT
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Meaningless Morphemes
The Meaningless Morphemes Thesis
In accordance with the auto-nomy of syntax thesis and the universality of semantics thesis, syntactic structure relies crucially on gramma-tical morphemes, which are often meaningless and serve purely formal purposes.
The Meaningful Morphemes Thesis
Grammatical morphemes are meaningful, and are present be-cause of their semantic contri-bution.
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Meaningful Grammatical Morphemes –
1[T]he claim [in autonomous syntax] that gram-matical morphemes are for the most part mean-ingless, being inserted for purely formal or grammatical purposes, is almost a necessary one, since the autonomy of syntax would ap-pear very dubious if we admitted that gram-matical markers are meaningful, and that their syntactic use is determined by the meanings they convey.
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Meaningful Grammatical Morphemes
2 The distinction between lexical and gramma-tical morphemes represents an artifactual dichotomization based on sharp differences between examples selected from the end-points of what is really a continuum.
In reality, however, both lexical and gramma-tical morphemes vary along a continuum in regard to such parameters as the complexity and abstractness of their semantic specifi-cations.
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Meaningful Grammatical Morphemes
3 While so-called lexical morphemes tend to cluster near the complex/concrete end of the continuum, we see a clear gradation in series like ostrich–bird–animal–thing.
So-called grammatical morphemes tend to cluster near the simple/abstract end of the continuum, but here too we observe a gradation: above–may–have–of.
The scales clearly overlap.
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Abstract Syntactic Structure
The Abstract Syntactic Structure Thesis
Syntactic structure is ab-stract. Surface structures often derive from deep struc-tures which are significantly different in character, and contain elements (grammati-cal morphemes) that have no place in underlying struc-ture.
The Overt Grammatical Structure Thesis
Grammatical structure is entire-ly overt. No underlying struc-tures or derivations are posited.
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The Content Requirement
The only units permitted in the grammar of a language are:
(i) semantic, phonologi-cal, and symbolic structures that occur overtly in linguistic expressions;
(ii) structures that are schematic for those in (i).
This requirement rules out all arbi-trary descriptive devices, i.e. those with no direct grounding in phonetic or semantic reality:
(a) contentless features or dia-critics;
(b) syntactic dummies with neither semantic nor phonological content, introduced solely to drive the formal machinery of autonomous syntax;
(c) the derivation of overt structures from abstract, underlying structures of a substantially different charac-ter.
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The Generality of Syntax
The Syntax-Lexicon Dichotomy Thesis
Syntax consists primarily of general rules. It is to be distinguished sharply from lexicon, the repository for ir-regularity and idiosyncrasy.
The Non-Generality of Syntax Thesis
Lexicon and grammar form a continuum of symbolic struc-tures. This continuum contains no sharp dichotomies based on generality, regularity, or analy-zability.
Grammar versus Lexicon
A Classical Generative Solution
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 1
Lexicon hopar / JUMP, PRES
hopa / JUMP, PAST
dansar / DANCE, PRES
dansa / DANCE, PAST
spe:lar / PLAY, PRES
spe:la / PLAY, PAST
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 2
Lexicon hopar / JUMP, PRES
hopa / JUMP, PAST
dansar / DANCE, PRES
dansa / DANCE, PAST
spe:lar / PLAY, PRES
spe:la / PLAY, PAST
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 3
Lexicon hopar / JUMP, PRES
hopa / JUMP, PAST
dansar / DANCE, PRES
dansa / DANCE, PAST
spe:lar / PLAY, PRES
spe:la / PLAY, PAST
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 28
Grammar versus Lexicon – 4
Lexicon hopar / JUMP, PRES
hopa / JUMP, PAST
dansar / DANCE, PRES
dansa / DANCE, PAST
spe:lar / PLAY, PRES
spe:la / PLAY, PAST
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 5
Lexicon hop / JUMP
dans / DANCE
spe:l / PLAY
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
de:lte / DIVIDE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a3. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +er4. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +te
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 6
Lexicon hop / JUMP
dans / DANCE
spe:l / PLAY
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
de:lte / DIVIDE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a3. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +er4. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +te
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 31
Grammar versus Lexicon – 7
Lexicon hop / JUMP
dans / DANCE
spe:l / PLAY
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
kvi:ler/ REST, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
de:lte / DIVIDE, PAST
Grammar1. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +ar2. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +a3. [V, PRES] → [V, PRES] +er4. [V, PAST] → [V, PAST] +te
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 32
Grammar versus Lexicon – 8
Lexicon hopα / JUMP
dansα / DANCE
spe:lα / PLAY
kvi:lβ / REST
de:lβ / DIVIDE
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
Grammar1. [Vα, PRES] → [Vα, PRES]
+ar2. [Vα, PAST] → [Vα, PAST]
+a3. [Vβ, PRES] → [Vβ, PRES]
+er4. [Vβ, PAST] → [Vβ, PAST]
+te
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Grammar versus Lexicon – 9
Lexicon hopα / JUMP
dansα / DANCE
spe:lα / PLAY
kvi:lβ / REST
de:lβ / DIVIDE
se:r / SEE, PRES
so:g / SEE, PAST
le:r / LAUGH, PRES
lu: / LAUGH, PAST
Grammar1. [Vα, PRES] → [Vα, PRES]
+ar2. [Vα, PAST] → [Vα, PAST]
+a3. [Vβ, PRES] → [Vβ, PRES]
+er4. [Vβ, PAST] → [Vβ, PAST]
+te
The Emergent Grammar A Cognitive Solution
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The Emergent Grammar
Predictable features need not be excluded from repre-sentation in individual items. The presence of a feature on a list does not exclude it from being predictable by rule. Rather the notion of rule takes a very different form. Linguistic regularities are not expressed as cogni-tive entities or operations that are independent of the forms to which they apply, but rather as schemas or organizational patterns that emerge from the way that forms are associated with one another in a vast network of phonological, semantic, and sequential relations.
P. 21 in Joan Bybee (2001):
Phonology and Language Use
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The Rule/List Fallacy 1
The exclusionary fallacy holding, on grounds of simplicity, that particular statements (lists) are to be excised from the grammar of a language if gen-eral statements (rules) can be estab-lished that subsumes them.
P. 492 in R. W. Langacker (1987):Foundations of Cognitive Grammar
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The Rule/List Fallacy 2
If all the regularity is factored out of a linguistic structure, the residue is sel-dom if ever recognizable as a coherent entity plausibly attributed to cognitive autonomy.
P. 393 in Langacker (1987):
Foundations of Cognitive Grammar
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The Cheshire Dog
That is to say, if our memories for dogs ex-cluded all the predictable features (two ears, a muzzle, fur, a tail, wet nose, etc.), what is left would not be a recognizable or coherent entity. Similarly, if all predictable features are removed from a word, it would not be recognizable as an English word, or as a linguistic object at all.
P. 21 in Joan Bybee (2001):Phonology and Language Use
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The Emergent Grammar 1
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
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The Emergent Grammar 2
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
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The Emergent Grammar 3
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
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The Emergent Grammar 4
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRES
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The Emergent Grammar 5
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 44
The Emergent Grammar 6
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 45
The Emergent Grammar 7
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 46
The Emergent Grammar 8
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 47
The Emergent Grammar 9
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 48
The Emergent Grammar 10
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 49
The Emergent Grammar 11
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 50
The Emergent Grammar 12
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 51
The Emergent Grammar 13
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
σ…er / VERB, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 52
The Emergent Grammar 14
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
σ…er / VERB, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 53
The Emergent Grammar 15
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
σ…er / VERB, PRES
se:r / SEE, PRES
June 19, 2006 RT/CFL 54
The Emergent Grammar 16
hopar / JUMP, PRES hopa / JUMP, PAST
hopa... / JUMP, TNS
dansar / DANCE, PRES
σ…ar / VERB, PRESdansa / DANCE, PAST
dansa... / DANCE, TNS σ…a / VERB, PAST
kvi:ler / REST, PRES σ…Vr / VERB, PRES
kvi:lte / REST, PAST kvi:l…e… / REST, TNS
de:ler / DIVIDE, PRES
σ…er / VERB, PRES
se:r / SEE, PRES
… and then?