Cnidaria – Anthozoa: anemones, soft coral

UNDERWATER FIELD GUIDE TO ROSSISLAND & MCMURDO SOUND,

ANTARCTICAPeter Brueggeman

Photographs: Steve Alexander, Peter Brueggeman, Canadian Museum ofNature (Kathleen Conlan), Paul Cziko, Guenter Foersterra, Shawn Harper,

Luke Hunt, Adam G Marsh, Jim Mastro, Bruce A Miller, M Dale Stokes, &Norbert Wu

The National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs sponsored Norbert Wu on an Artist'sand Writer's Grant project, in which Peter Brueggeman participated. One outcome from Wu'sendeavor is this Field Guide, which builds upon principal photography by Norbert Wu, with photosfrom other photographers, who are credited on their photographs and above. This Field Guide isintended to facilitate underwater/topside field identification from visual characters. Organismswere identified from photographs with no specimen collection, and there can be someuncertainty in identifications solely from photographs.

© 1998+; text © Peter Brueggeman; photographs © Steve Alexander, Peter Brueggeman, Canadian Museum ofNature (Kathleen Conlan), Paul Cziko, Guenter Foersterra, Shawn Harper, Luke Hunt, Adam G Marsh, Jim Mastro,Bruce A Miller, M Dale Stokes, & Norbert Wu. Photographs may not be used in any form without the expresswritten permission of the photographers. Norbert Wu does not grant permission for uncompensated use of hisphotos; see his FAQ at www.norbertwu.com

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anemone Artemidactis victrix

page 7

anemone Edwardsia meridionalis or Scolanthus intermedius

page 11

anemone Edwardsiella ignota

page 13

anemone Edwardsiidae family

page 15

3

anemone Hormathia lacunifera

page 17

salmon anemone Isotealia antarctica

page 22

anemone Stomphia selaginella

page 30

anemone Urticinopsis antarctica

page 38

4

soft coral Alcyonium antarcticum

page 48

stoloniferous soft coral Clavularia frankliniana

page 55

nephtheid soft coral Gersemia antarctica

page 59

5

gorgonian Onogorgia nodosapage 70

gorgonian, family Ellisellidae, possibly Ctenocella sp.

Page 74

sea whip

page 76

6

unidentified soft coral

page 79

Feb 2017: Taxonomic names checked on World Register of Marine Species www.marinespecies.org

7

anemone Artemidactis victrix

Artemidactis victrix is found in the Ross Sea, South Georgia Island, and Burdwood Bank at depthsfrom 75 to 439 meters [1,4]. A. victrix can be up to thirteen centimeters long (preserved) with thepedal disc being 6.5 centimeters wide [1].

8

The column of Artemidactis victrix is smooth andcylindrical, dilating into a wide expanded upperportion which can fold backwards and hide the upperpart of the column, with tentacles pointing downwardin a fringe at the edge of the oral disc [2]. The oral discof A. victrix is much wider than its column [2].

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Artemidactis victrix is white, yellowish-white, or red in color [1]. Artemidactis victrix tentacles arefinely striated and taper from a broad base to a blunt or pointed tip [2].

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Artemidactis victrix has up to three hundredtentacles arranged in four or five cycles [1,2,4].Larger specimens of A. victrix have a tentacularcrown diameter of 8.4 centimeters and tentaclelength of 2.1 centimeters [2].

Artemidactis victrix is found in McMurdoSound's second and third benthic faunal zonebelow 15 meters depth [3].

References: 1: Further Zoological Results of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition 1901-1903. Volume 2, Number 3. Actiniaria andZoantharia. O Carlgren.Stockholm : PA Norstedt & Soner, 1927; 2: Coelenterata. Part I. Actinaria. TA Stephenson. British Antarctic("Terra Nova") Expedition, 1910. Natural History Reports. Zoology. Volume V. Coelenterata. London: British Museum (Natural History),1918; 3: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press, 1970. pp.244-258; 4: A Survey of the Ptychodactiaria,Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, 1949. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1

11

anemone Edwardsia meridionalis or Scolanthus intermedius

Edwardsia and Scolanthus anemones burrow in mud, sand, or gravel, with the lower part of theircolumn having a thickened cuticle, into which they can retract [3]. E. meridionalis and S.intermedius co-occur in McMurdo Sound, and can be distinguished by nemathybome (series ofnematocyst-bearing sacs in column) and tentacle arrangement, and by muscle histology [4,7].

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Here is Edwardsia sp. removed from the substrate.

Edwardsia meridionalis has been reported from McMurdo Soundlocations and the open Ross Sea, though its distribution may bewider to encompass the Antarctic Peninsula, South Georgia Island,Tierra del Fuego, and Chile from 5 to 500 meters depth [1]. E.meridionalis typically has sixteen white-tipped colorless tentacles intwo circles of eight with the inner tentacles longer than the outertentacles; twelve to eighteen tentacles have been counted inspecimens [1]. The column of E. meridionalis has been measured upto 3.5 centimeters long and 0.25 centimeters in diameter, and haseight white elongated blotches over a chestnut- colored region [1].Inner tentacles are about 11.25 millimeters long and outer tentaclesabout nine millimeters long [1].

Edwardsia meridionalis is found burrowed in mud, sand, gravel,sponge spicule mats, and cobbles and is most abundant between 6 to65 meters [1]. E. meridionalis is a dominant species in the McMurdojetty soft-bottom macrofaunal community [2]. A study examined thegut contents of E. meridionalis and found diatoms, egg cases,

copepods, polychaetes (pelagic and Spiophanes tcherniai), and the tanaid Nototanais dimorphus [2].Its predators include the fish Trematomus bernacchii and Trematomus hansoni [2].

Scolanthus intermedius has been reported from McMurdo Sound, the Antarctic Peninsula, SouthGeorgia Island, Chile, and Tierra del Fuego, from 6 to 300 meters depth [1,4,5,7,8]. S. intermedius hassixteen tentacles in two circles of eight [4,8]. S. intermedius is up to 3.8 centimeters long and 0.45centimeters wide [4,8].

Taxonomic note: Edwardsia intermedia was changed to Scolanthus intermedius [9].

References: 1: Records of the Australian Museum 33(6):325-360, 1981; 2: Ophelia 24(3):155-175, 1985; 3: British Anthozoa: Keys andNotes for the Identification of the Species. RL Manuel. Synposes of the British Fauna, New Series, 18. London : Academic Press, 1981; 4:Phylogenetic Systematics of the Edwardsiidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa). M Daly. PhD Dissertation, 2001. George Washington University; 5:Proceedings of the United States National Museum 16(930):119-216, plates, 1893; 6: Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria with Description ofa New Genus and Species from Peru. O Carlgren. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. Ny Foljd, Avd. 2. Band 56. No. 6. Kungliga FysiografiskaSallskapet Handlingar. Ny Foljd, Band 71, No. 6. Reports of the Lund University Chile Expedition 1948-49. Number 38. Lund: CWKGleerup, 1959; 7: Marymegan Daly, personal communication, 2001; 8: Zoantharien. O. Carlgren. Ergebnisse der HamburgerMagalhaensischen Sammelreise. Hamburg: L Friederichsen & Co. 1898. p. 6 plus accompanying figures 4 and 5; 9: Invertebrate Biology121(3):212-225, 2002

13

anemone Edwardsiella ignota

Edwardsiella ignota was first described from specimens collected in Chile at depths from 40 to 60meters; this photo was taken at 24 meters depth on Ross Island (Cape Armitage or Little RazorbackIsland) [2,5]. E. ignota can have twenty to forty tentacles, with the inner tentacles larger and longerthan the other ones, and a thin cuticle on the lower part of its column [2,4]. Edwardsiella ignota canbe distinguished from Edwardsia meridionalis by the number of tentacles (in live and preservedmaterial), and the coloration pattern (live material only) [1].

Edwardsiella anemones do not burrow, and are usually found in worm holes or holes and crevicesamong rocks [3,4]. Edwardsiella anemones have three cycles of tentacles, are ridged on the upper-most part of their column, and have a thickened cuticle on the lower part of their column [3,4,6].

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Members of the anemone family Edwardsiidae are generally small and shy; they are seldom found,with the result being that knowledge of their distribution is patchy [3].

Taxonomic Note: First described by Carlgren as Fagesia ignota [2]. Carlgren noted the tentaclecount and other anatomical details for Fagesia in an earlier work [4]. The genus Fagesia is a juniorsynonym of Edwardsiella [3,6].

References: 1: Marymegan Daly, personal communication, 2001; 2: Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria with Description of a New Genusand Species from Peru. O Carlgren. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. Ny Foljd, Avd. 2. Band 56. No. 6. Kungliga Fysiografiska SallskapetHandlingar. Ny Foljd, Band 71, No. 6. Reports of the Lund University Chile Expedition 1948- 49. Number 38. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1959;3: British Anthozoa: Keys and Notes for the Identification of the Species. RL Manuel. Synposes of the British Fauna, New Series, 18.London : Academic Press, 1981; 4: A Survey of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist& Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, 1949. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1; 5: Norbert Wu,personal communication, 2001; 6: Phylogenetic Systematics of the Edwardsiidae (Cnidaria: Anthozoa). M Daly. PhD Dissertation, 2001.George Washington University

15

anemone Edwardsiidae family

Members of the anemone family Edwardsiidae are generally small and shy; they are seldom found,with the result being that knowledge of their distribution is patchy [1].

16

References: 1: British Anthozoa: Keys and Notes for the Identification of the Species. RL Manuel. Synposes of the British Fauna, NewSeries, 18. London : Academic Press, 1981

17

anemone Hormathia lacunifera

Hormathia lacuniferais found throughoutAntarctica and theAntarctic Peninsula,South ShetlandIslands, South OrkneyIslands, SouthSandwich Islands,South Georgia Island,off Falkland Islands,Bouvet Island, and offRio Plata in Argentinaat depths from 15 to3,020 meters [1,3,4].

Hormathia lacuniferacan be up to 107millimeters high witha column up to sixtymillimeters diameter[1,6].

Hormathia lacuniferais often foundattached to rocks [6].

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Hormathia lacunifera is found in McMurdo Sound's second benthic faunal zone between 15 and 33meters depth [2].

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The cylindrical column of Hormathialacunifera has two histologicallydifferent divisions (shown here), withthe lower division (scapus) having astrong reticulated brownish oryellowish cuticle with rectangulartubercles arranged in rows, and theupper division (scapulus) beingwhitish, yellowish, or pinkish, and issmooth or has shallow longitudinalridges [1,3,5,6].

Three externally differentmorphotypes of Hormathia lacuniferahave been found, differing in presenceand development of cuticle andtubercles in the scapus [6].

20

The 96 tentacles of Hormathia lacunifera are arranged in an inner row of 48 longer tentacles (up to2.5 centimeters) and a outer marginal row of 48 shorter tentacles (up to 0.8 centimeter) [1,3,6].

The oral disc of Hormathia lacunifera is flat, and up to 75 millimeters in diameter, being widerthan the column [6].

21

The tentacles of Hormathia lacunifera, like the scapulus (upper part of column) and oral disc, arewhitish, yellowish, or pinkish [1,5,6]. H. lacunifera tentacles are smooth, tapered to a point andrelatively long, and are longitudinally ridged [1,5,6].

References: 1: Some Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic Sea Anemones (Coelenterata--Ptychodactiaria and Actiniaria). D Fautin Dunn.Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, 1983; 2: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press, 1970.pp.244-258; 3: A Survey of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist & WiksellsBoktryckeri AB, 1949. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1; 4: Berichte zur Polar- undMeeresforschung 402:76-81, 2001; 5: Antarctic Macrobenthos, a Field Guide of the Invertebrates Living at the Antarctic Seafloor. MartinRauschert & Wolf Arntz. Arntz & Rauschert Selbstverlag, Wurster Nordseekueste, Germany, 2015. page 30; 6: Zootaxa 3624(1):1-100,2013

22

salmon anemone Isotealia antarctica

Isotealia antarctica is found in Antarctica and in Bouvet Island, Chile, and Argentina at depthsfrom 25 to 600 meters [2,3,5,7,9,11,13].

The somewhat blunt and conical tentacles of Isotealia antarctica are arranged in six cycles and are168 in number (also reported as 192) [2,3,4,7,13]. The points of the tentacles are often pulled inward, andthe inner tentacles are longer than outer tentacles [3,4,11,13].

23

The column of Isotealia antarctica iscylindrical, flat-surfaced with finewrinkles and folds (visiblemesenterial insertions), and is coloredlight pink, salmon, brown-violet ororange [3,5,12,13].

Oral disc and tentacles of Isotealiaantarctica. The margin of I.antarctica has up to 100 smallpseudo-acrorhagi (marginalpseudospherules without specialnematocysts) [3].

24

The pedal disc of Isotealia Antarctica is wider than the oral disc [13].

Isotealia antarctica is among the largest and most conspicuous benthic invertebrates in the secondbenthic zone of Cape Armitage between 15 and 33 meters depth [1].

25

Here Isotealia antarctica is shown devouring the medusa Periphylla periphylla. Large medusae orjellyfish which get close enough to the bottom in shallow water are prey to be captured by ananemone's tentacles [1]. The struggle can continue for quite awhile. The medusa pulses its bell as ittries to swim away while the anemone slowly pulls the medusa into its mouth.

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Isotealia antarctica (on the right) is probably grabbing at the same prey as Urticinopsis antarctica(on the left).

27

Isotealia antarctica (on the left) grabbing at the same Desmonema glaciale jellyfish as Urticinopsisantarctica (on the right). It appears that I. antarctica has been pulled off its attachment, probablyby the struggles of the jellyfish, and has been seen attached to jellyfish it is consuming [10].

28

Here is Isotealia antarctica atPuerto Chacabuco, Chile in 25- 30 meters depth, with thepedal disc being 2-3centimeters diameter [8].

The anemone column wasnearly invisible being coveredwith mud [8].

29

Here is a side-by-side comparision of Urticinopsis antarctica (on the left) and Isotealia antarctica(on the right).

Taxonomic Note: Dell 1972 states that Isotealia antarctica is believed to be a synonym ofTealianthus incertus by Carlgren, citing Carlgren's 1939 and earlier works [6]. Carlgren in 1949 and1959 refers to it as Isotealia antarctica and differentiates the two genera in 1949 [5,7]. I. antarctica inPatagonian Chile is reported with 96 tentacles [11].

References: 1: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press, 1970. pp.244-258; 2: Further Zoological Results ofthe Swedish Antarctic Expedition 1901-1903. Volume 2, Number 3. Actiniaria and Zoantharia. O Carlgren. Stockholm: PA Norstedt &Soner, 1927; 3: Mitteilungen Hamburg Zoologisches Museum und Institut 77:19-33, 1980; 4: Zoantharien. O. Carlgren. Ergebnisse derHamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise. Hamburg: L Friederichsen & Co. 1898. pp. 25-26 plus accompanying figures 8 and 9; 5:Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria with Description of a New Genus and Species from Peru. O Carlgren. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. NyFoljd, Avd. 2. Band 56. No. 6. Kungliga Fysiografiska Sallskapet Handlingar. Ny Foljd, Band 71, No. 6. Reports of the Lund UniversityChile Expedition 1948-49. Number 38. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1959; 6: Advances in Marine Biology 10:1- 216 (on page 43), 1972; 7: ASurvey of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, 1949.Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1; 8: Vreni Haeussermann, personal communication,2001; 9: Polar Biology 29(2):83-96, 2006; 10: Paul Dayton, personal communication, 2003; 11: Marine Benthic Fauna of ChileanPatagonia. V Haussermann, G Forsterra. Puerto Montt, Chile: Nature in Focus, 2009. p. 258; 12: Antarctic Macrobenthos, a Field Guide ofthe Invertebrates Living at the Antarctic Seafloor. Martin Rauschert & Wolf Arntz. Arntz & Rauschert Selbstverlag, WursterNordseekueste, Germany, 2015. page 32; 13: Zootaxa 3624(1):1-100, 2013

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anemone Stomphia selaginella

31

Stomphia selaginella is found in Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Islands,South Orkney Islands, South Georgia Island and Shag Rocks, and Bouvet Island at depths from 9to 1,674 meters [2,3,5,7]. Above, Stomphia selaginella is perched on a hydroid above a Tritoniellabelli egg mass.

Stomphia selaginella perched on a featherduster worm tube.

Stomphia selaginella is found in McMurdo Sound's third benthic faunal zone below 33 metersdepth [1]. S. selaginella females brood their young internally [3].

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Specimens of Stomphia selaginella have been measured up to ten centimeters high and sixcentimeters in diameter; the pedal (foot) disc diameter a bit less than length [2,3].

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The skin of Stomphia selaginella has a distinct coloration, with a white column with irregularorange spots, an oral disc that is light red or orange with dark orange radial lines at mesenterialinsertions, a light orange mouth and actinopharynx, and light orange tentacles with two darkerorange bands [3,6,7].

34

The tentacles of Stomphia selaginella are thick and pointed, numbering 64 to 68 in most anemones[some authors report 48 to 80], and are restricted to the margin of the anemone’s column, withinner tentacles longer than outer ones [2,3,4,7].

35

Young Stomphia selaginella have oral disc diameters of three to six millimeters with their pedaldisc shaped into a cone [3].

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Stomphia selaginella has two morphotypes: thin and delicate, or thick and robust [7].

37

References: 1: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press, 1970. pp.244-258; 2: Soviet Journal of MarineBiology 1(5):307-315, 1975; 3: More Antarctic and Subantarctic Sea Anemones (Coelenterata: Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria). DGFautin. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, 1984. Biology of the Antarctic Seas 16. Antarctic Research Series 41(Paper 1):1-42; 4: Actiniaria. O Carlgren and TA Stephenson. Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, Scientific Reports. Series C, Zoology andBotany. Volume 9, Part 2. Sydney : David Harold Paisley, Government Printer, 1929; 5: A Survey of the Ptychodactiaria,Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, 1949. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1; 6: Antarctic Macrobenthos, a Field Guide of the Invertebrates Living at the AntarcticSeafloor. Martin Rauschert & Wolf Arntz. Arntz & Rauschert Selbstverlag, Wurster Nordseekueste, Germany, 2015. Page 31-32; 7:Zootaxa 3624(1):1-100, 2013

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anemone Urticinopsis antarctica

Urticinopsis antarctica is found in Antarctica and the South Shetland Islands from 6 to 223+meters depth [2,5,6].

39

Urticinopsis antarctica has a cylindrical massive sandy-colored body column up to fifteencentimeters high and eleven centimeters in diameter [2,7]. Urticinopsis antarctica is among thelargest and most conspicuous benthic invertebrates in the Cape Armitage community between 15and 33 meters depth and is found below 33 meters as well [1].

40

The tentacles and oral disk of Urticinopsis antarctica are dirty white [2,7]. U. antarctica tentaclesrange in number from 120 (1.2 centimeter diameter anemone) to 600 - 800 (10 centimeter diameteranemone) [2,4]. Contracted tentacles are short and conical with slight longitudinal furrows andsometimes rounded on the end [2,4,6].

41

Urticinopsis antarctica may bend over to engulf a seastar (Perknaster fuscus antarcticus shownhere). U. antarctica feeds predominantly on seastars and sea urchins which are 77% of its diet [1].

42

The sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri is the most frequent prey of Urticinopsis antarctica at 65%of its diet [1]. S. neumayeri shields itself from the anemone's tentacled grasp with attached bits ofshell, debris and algae; the shells and debris often have stinging hydroids on them (see the whitishpolyps on top of the urchin at left). If the anemone touches the urchin's hydroids, it releases theurchin. If the urchin is aware of the anemone's tentacles, the urchin releases its protectivecamouflage and escapes. If this camouflage isn't present on the urchin, U. antarctica captures andeats the urchin [1].

43

The seastars Odontaster validus (shown being devoured above) and Diplasterias brucei aresignificant prey items at 4% and 5% of the diet of Urticinopsis antarctica respectively [1].Combined predation on the seastar Acodontaster conspicuus by Urticinopsis antarctica and theseastar Odontaster validus minimally killed 3.5% of the population of the seastar Acodontasterconspicuus in one year at Cape Armitage [3].

44

Urticinopsis antarctica also feeds on large medusae or jellyfish (Desmonema glaciale shown here)which get close enough to the bottom in shallow water to be captured by the anemone's tentacles;21% of its diet are medusae [1].

45

Divers may occasionally see two Urticinopsis antarctica anemones devouring the same medusa,Diplulmaris antarctica shown here.

46

A Diplulmaris antarctica jellyfish with its hitchhiking hyperiid amphipods, being devoured by theanemone Urticinopsis antarctica.

47

Here is a side-by-side comparison of Urticinopsis antarctica (on the left) and Isotealia antarctica(on the right).

References: 1: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press, 1970. pp. 244-258; 2: Soviet Journal of MarineBiology 1(5):307-315, 1975; 3: Ecological Monographs 44(1):105- 128, 1974; 4: Further Zoological Results of the Swedish AntarcticExpedition 1901-1903. Volume 2, Number 3. Actiniaria and Zoantharia. O Carlgren. Stockholm : PA Norstedt & Soner, 1927; 5: PolarBiology 20(4):229-247, 1998; 6: A Survey of the Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia and Actiniaria. O. Carlgren. Stockholm : Almqvist &Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, 1949. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 4th Series, Band 1, No. 1; 7: AntarcticMacrobenthos, a Field Guide of the Invertebrates Living at the Antarctic Seafloor. Martin Rauschert & Wolf Arntz. Arntz & RauschertSelbstverlag, Wurster Nordseekueste, Germany, 2015. Page 32

48

soft coral Alcyonium antarcticum

Alcyonium antarcticum is found in Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, South Georgia Island,Kerguelen Island, Heard Island, Burdwood Bank, Falkland Islands, and Argentina from shallowdepths down to 642 meters [6,7,8,9,10,11,12].

49

The color of Alcyonium antarcticum is white, grayish white, grayish brown, light rose, orange, paleorange, or orange pink with white tentacles [1,6,7,9,10,11].

50

Alcyonium antarcticum has been measured at population densities of 0.02 and 7.3 colonies persquare meter at Explorer's Cove and Arrival Heights respectively [5].

51

Individual colonies of Alcyonium antarcticum live at least 4.5 years, and many adults have shownno measurable growth over four years [5].

52

Alcyonium antarcticum produces chemicals that it releases into the water surrounding itself to deterpredators and bacterial growth [4]. These anti-predator chemicals cause tube-foot retraction in theseastars Perknaster fuscus and Odontaster validus [2].

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Juvenile Alcyonium antarcticum about two centimeters tall [14].

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Alcyonium antarcticum feeds on plankton [3]. It has few predators and is preyed upon by the seaspider Colossendeis megalonyx [2].

Taxonomic Note: Alcyonium paessleri was synonymized with A. antarcticum in 1992 [6]. Thediagnosis of the genus Alcyonium was revised in 1986 [13].

References: 1: Ecological and Faunistic Investigations of the Marine Benthos at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. John Holmes Dearborn. Ph.D. Dissertation, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, 1965; 2: Marine Biology 122(3):461-470, 1995; 3: Science 197:55-58,1977; 4: Marine Ecology Progress Series 161:133-144, 1997; 5: Antarctic Communities: Species, Structure, and Survival. B Battaglia, JValencia, and DWH Walton, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp.309-315; 6: Zoologische Mededelingen 66(1-15):155-181, 1992; 7: Coelentera. I. Alcyonaria. National Antarctic Expedition 1901-1904. Natural History. Volume III. Zoology andBotany (Invertebrata: Marine Algae, Musci). SJ Hickson. London: British Museum, 1907; 8: Die Octactiniarien. AR Molander. FurtherZoological Results of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1903. Volume II, Number 2. Stockholm: PA Norstedt & Soner, 1929; 9:American Museum Novitates 2282:1-19, 1967; 10: Annals of the South African Museum 96(6):241-270, 1986; 11: Report on theAlcyonaria Collected by H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873-76. EP Wright and T Studer. Report on the Scientific Results of theVoyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873-76. Zoology. Volume 31, Part 1 London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1889; 12: HJ Broch.Some Octocorals from Antarctic Waters. Scientific Results of the "Brategg" Expedition, 1947-48. Number 5. Publikasjoner Number 26 fraKommandor Chr. Christensens Hvlafangstmuseum i Sandefjord. Bergen: AS John Griegs Boktrykkeri, 1965. pp.18-38; 13: Journal ofNatural History 20(1):53-63, 1986; 14: Paul Cziko, personal communication, 2015

55

stoloniferous soft coral Clavularia frankliniana

Clavularia frankliniana is found in Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula and South GeorgiaIsland at depths from 12 to 675? meters [2,3,4,7,9,22]. C. frankliniana is nearly transparent, white orpinkish to yellowish white [2]. C. frankliniana is shown here attached to sea urchin Sterechinusneumayeri.

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Clavulariafrankliniana can befound on rock orgravel bottoms,attached to stones,worm tubes, andshells [2,3,4,8].

An individual polyp (zooid) of Clavulariafrankliniana averages 8.3 millimeters in height(can be up to 25 millimeters), has eight featherytentacles [4,8,16,18].

Individual polyps die within 1.5 years thoughclones may live much longer [7].

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An individual polyp of Clavularia frankliniana is connected by ribbon-like or spreading stolons toother polyps [4,8,16,18]. The stolon adheres to hard objects, thus attaching the colonies [18]. C.frankliniana has been measured at population densities of 0.18 and 1,337.3 polyps per square meterat Explorer's Cove and Arrival Heights respectively [7].

Clavularia frankliniana has a diet linked to food resuspended from the seafloor, probably bycurrents, bivalve molluscs, echinoderms, and fish; its polyps are located close to the bottom, and itfeeds on diatoms, protozoans, foraminiferans, nematodes, and invertebrate larvae [21]. C.frankliniana has few predators and is preyed upon by the nudibranchs Tritoniella belli andNotaeolidia gigas and also by the sea spiders Colossendeis robusta, Colossendeis megalonyx, andThavmastopycnon striata [1,3,4].

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Extracts from Clavulariafrankliniana cause tube-footretraction in the seastarsPerknaster fuscus andOdontaster validus whichindicates feeding deterrence [4].Extracts of the nudibranchTritoniella belli and the softcoral C. frankliniana havechimyl alcohol in common. Thecommon predatory seastarOdontaster validus showsfeeding deterrence to Tritoniellabelli mantle tissue and to chimylalcohol [6]. Tritoniella belliprobably defends itself

chemically against predators using chimyl alcohol that it obtains from C. frankliniana.

Taxonomic Note: In 1906, Kukenthal changed Clavularia frankliniana to Anthelia frankliniana [11]. In 1929,Molander changed Clavularia frankliniana to Pachyclavularia cylindrica var. frankliniana [9]. In 1940, Goharreassigned Anthelia frankliniana to Clavularia frankliniana and affirmed Clavularia as the genus instead ofPachyclavularia [12]. In 1960, noting Gohar, Verseveldt affirmed Molander's change to the genus Pachyclavulariaand noted Clavularia frankliniana as properly being in the genus Pachyclavularia (though this work only sorted outgenera and didn't sort out species characters) [10]. In 1974, it is referred to as Clavularia cylindrica [19]. In 1990,Clavularia cylindrica is referenced from original description and reports in south Africa; author notes inadequatedescriptions in literature and need for revision of genus [20]. In 1990, Pachyclavularia cylindrica is noted asresembling Pachyclavularia frankliniana so the two species are deemed distinct [17]. Recent non-taxonomic workreferred to this soft coral as Clavularia frankliniana; those authors verified the ID as Clavularia frankliniana withFrederick M Bayer of the Dept of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, SmithsonianInstitution [4,6,7,14]. The Smithsonian's US National Museum Polar Invertebrate Catalog refers to Clavulariafrankliniana [15]. In 1981, Bayer published a key to Octocorallia genera which sorted out Clavularia andPachyclavularia so it is assumed his later identification of the genus of this organism as Clavularia frankliniana isbased on that published key [16]. Reassignment of the species frankliniana to the genus Clavularia appears to beunpublished as of September 2014.

References: 1: Ecological Monographs 44(1):105- 128, 1974; 2: Ecological and Faunistic Investigations of the Marine Benthos at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. JohnHolmes Dearborn. Ph. D. Dissertation, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, 1965; 3: Antarctic Ecology, Volume 1. MW Holdgate, ed. NY: Academic Press,1970. pp.244-258; 4: Marine Biology 122(3):461-470, 1995; 5: Science 197:55-58, 1977; 6: Journal of Chemical Ecology 20(12):3361-3372, 1994; 7: AntarcticCommunities: Species, Structure, and Survival. B Battaglia, J Valencia, and DWH Walton, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp.309-315; 8: Coelentera. I.Alcyonaria. National Antarctic Expedition 1901-1904. Natural History. Volume III. Zoology and Botany (Invertebrata: Marine Algae, Musci). SJ Hickson. London: BritishMuseum, 1907; 9: Die Octactiniarien. AR Molander. Further Zoological Results of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1903. Volume II, Number 2. Stockholm: PANorstedt & Soner, 1929; 10: Temminckia, a Journal of Systematic Zoology 10:209-250, 1960; 11: Alcyonacea. W Kukenthal. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der DeutschenTiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer "Valdivia" 1898-1899. Volume 13, Part 1. Jena: G Fischer, 1906; 12: A Revision of Some Genera of the Stolonifera (with an amendedsystem of classification and the description of two new species). HAF Gohar. Publications of the Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa (Red Sea). Number 3. Cairo: Fouad IUniversity, 1940; 13: American Museum Novitates 2282:1-19, 1967; 14: Marc Slattery, personal communication, 1999; 15: US National Museum Polar Invertebrate Catalogat http://www.nmnh.si.edu/iz/usap/usapdb.html; 16: Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 94(3):902- 947, 1981; 17: Fauna der Antarktis. J Sieg & JWWagele, eds. Berlin : P. Parey, 1990; 18: Coral Reef Octocorals, an Illustrated Guide to the Soft Corals, Sea Fans, and Sea Pens Inhabiting the Coral Reefs of Northern Natal.GC Williams. Durban, South Africa: Durban Natural Science Museum, 1993; 19: Tethys 6(3):631-653, 1974; 20: Systematics and Zoogeography of Southern AfricanOctocoral Cnidarians. GC Williams. PhD Dissertation, University of Cape Town, 1990; 21: Polar Biology 24(8):620-627, 2001; 22: Berichte zur Polar- undMeeresforschung 402:76-81, 2001 (increased reported depth from 250 meters in other sources to 675? meters)

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nephtheid soft coral Gersemia antarctica

Gersemia antarctica is found inMcMurdo Sound, South GeorgiaIsland, South Sandwich Islands,and Bouvet Island from 12 to3,144 meters depth [3,6,7,8,11].Gersemia spp. have been reportedfrom the eastern Weddell Sea,Bransfield Strait off the AntarcticPeninsula, and the South ShetlandIslands [13].

In McMurdo Sound, G.antarctica is found possibly onWhite Island and on the coastlinefrom Granite Harbor down toCape Chocolate at depths from 18to 250 meters, and has been foundat the south end of Cape Evansfrom 12 to 18 meters depth [3,7,11].

In Explorer's Cove at NewHarbor, Gersemia antarctica isfound in soft sedimentcommunities where it is anchoredto scallop shells, small rocks, orclay substrate [3]. At Explorer'sCove, G. antarctica averages 0.04colonies per square meter and isfound there between 18 and 33meters depth, with most coloniesfound from 27 to 33 meters depth[3].

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Gersemia antarctica colonies can inflate to over two meters in height [1].

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In additionto an uprightfeedingposture,Gersemiaantarcticacan bend itsentire colonydown so thatthe polypsreach thebottom tofeed there [1].

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The food that Gersemia antarctica seeks on the bottom includes benthic diatoms, foraminiferans,and particulate organic matter [1].

This grazing behavior has likely evolved to supplement plankton capture from the water and isuseful in Antarctica where plankton in the water column is seasonal [1].

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A Gersemia antarctica colony can move like an inch worm, to reach undisturbed sediments forgrazing [1]. G. antarctica colonies have been observed moving over fourteen meters in one year'stime [1].

When a Gersemia antarctica colony encounters sediment previously grazed by G. antarctica, itcontracts from it [1].

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Gersemia antarctica colonies have been observed surviving for at least 4.5 years [4].

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Sea spiders Achelia sp. clinging to Gersemia antarctica. Adult Achelia sea spiders are small,spending their lives clinging to the substrate on which they feed [12]. The protonymphon stage ofAchelia may be passed in the tissues of the organism on which juveniles and adults feed [12].

The sea spider Thavmastopycnon sp. is also apredator of Gersemia antarctica [3].

Gersemia antarctica produces chemicals that itreleases into the water surrounding itself to deterpredators and bacterial growth [2].

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Rob Robbins, McMurdo Station’s Scientific DivingCoordinator, photographed Gersemia antarctica at thesouth end of Cape Evans at 12 to 18 meters depth; this isthe first recorded location for G. antarctica on Ross Island[3,6,7,8,11].

Found here at 24 metersdepth, Gersemia antarcticahangs down from the wallat the south end of CapeEvans [14].

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Taxonomic Note: First described by Kukenthal as Eunephthya antarctica in 1906 and discussed in1914 by Gravier in comparision with another species of Eunephthya [6,10]. In 1961, Utinomi revisedthe family Nephtheidae for the genera Gersemia, Duva, Drifa, and Pseudodrifa and renamedEunephthya antarctica to ?Drifa antarctica and also synonymized Paraspongodes antarcticaunder ?Drifa antarctica [5]. Recent non-taxonomic work referred to this soft coral as Gersemiaantarctica; those authors verified the ID as Gersemia antarctica with Frederick M Bayer of theDept of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution[1,2,3,4,7]. The Smithsonian's US National Museum Polar Invertebrate Catalog refers to Gersemiaantarctica [8]. In 1981, Bayer published a key to Octocorallia genera which sorted out Gersemiaand Drifa so it is assumed his later identification of the organism as Gersemia antarctica is basedon that published key [9]. A reassignment of Eunephthya antarctica or ?Drifa antarctica to thegenus Gersemia appears to be unpublished as of September 2014. Gersemia antarcticasuperficially resembles Gersemia juliepackardae but differs internally in radiates and sclerites [9].

References: 1: Marine Ecology Progress Series 149(1- 3):299-304, 1997; 2: Marine Ecology Progress Series 161:133-144, 1997; 3: Marine Biology 122(3):461-470, 1995;4: Antarctic Communities: Species, Structure, and Survival. B Battaglia, J Valencia, and DWH Walton, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp.309-315; 5:Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory 9(1):229-246, 1961. Contributions from the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory, Number 366; 6: Alcyonacea. WKukenthal. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer "Valdivia" 1898-1899. Volume 13, Part 1. Jena: G Fischer, 1906; 7: MarcSlattery, personal communication, 1999; 8: US National Museum Polar Invertebrate Catalog, formerly at www.nmnh.si.edu/iz/usap/usapdb.html; 9: Proceedings of theBiological Society of Washington 94(3):902-947, 1981; 10: Alcyonaires. C Gravier. Deuxieme Expedition Antarctique Francaise (1908-1910). Sciences Naturelles:Documents Scientifiques. Extrait. Paris: Masson, 1914; 11: Rob Robbins, personal communication (south end of Cape Evans at 12-18 meters), 1999; 12: Fauna of the RossSea, Part 7. Pycnogonida, 1. Colossendeidae, Pycnogonidae, Endeidae, Ammotheidae. WG Fry & JW Hedgpeth. New Zealand Department of Scientific and IndustrialResearch Bulletin 198. New Zealand Oceanographic Insitute Memoir 49. 1969; 13: Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung 402:76-81, 2001; 14: Luke Hunt, personalcommunication (south end of Cape Evans at 24 meters/80 feet), 2003; 15: Zoologische Mededelingen 83(4):1067 -1081, 2009

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gorgonian Onogorgia nodosa

Onogorgia nodosa isfound in Antarctica andthe Antarctic Peninsula,South Shetland Islandsand South Georgia Islandat depths from 21 to 433meters [1,3,4].

Onogorgia nodosa hasunbranched pinkish-yellow whip-like colonieswith a thin holdfast andits axis havinglongitudinal grooves [3,4].O. nodosa has 2-3 whorlsper centimeter of axiallength, and up to 4.5 mmat middle part of colonies,with its polyps in one rowat each whorl [3,4].

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Onogorgia nodosa with contracted polyps.

References: 1: Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Antarctic Invertebrates naturalhistory.si.edu/iz/antiz/index.cfm ; 2: Antarctic Macrobenthos, a Field Guideof the Invertebrates Living at the Antarctic Seafloor. Martin Rauschert & Wolf Arntz. Arntz & Rauschert Selbstverlag, Wurster Nordseekueste, Germany, 2015. Page 39; 3:Animal Systematics Evolution and Diversity 28(2):84-96, 2012; 4: Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 629:1-79, 2009

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gorgonian, family Ellisellidae, possibly Ctenocella sp.

Cnidarian predators like gorgonians hunt passively, waiting with outstretched tentacles for prey todrift by [1].

The individual gorgonian polyps are linked by a body wall [1]. A horny protein called gorgonincontains fused calcareous spicules or sclerites and forms a solid or jointed central rod [1].

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References: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Hampshire, England : Macmillan Publishers, 1999

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Sea Whip

Sea whips are several genera of corals of the orderGorgonacea, characterized by long, whiplike growth[1]. The whip is a colony of tentacled polyps growingone upon one another in a continuous single stem.Spicule needles of lime are embedded in the polypwhich provides firm, flexible support for the whip[1].

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Sea whips differ from sea pens in that the sea whip polyps come directlyoff the center stalk, whereas sea pen polyps are on branches from thecentral stalk.

References: 1: Encyclopedia Britannica at www.eb.com; Taxonomic Overview: Fauna der Antarktis. J Sieg & JW Wagele, eds. Berlin :P. Parey, 1990; Callozostron / Primnoella / Convexella: Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 109(1):150- 203, 1996;Armadillogorgia / Tokoprymno / Aglaoprimnoa: Bulletin of Marine Science 58(2):511-530, 1996

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soft coral

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