SENTENCES

AND

CLAUSES

A Sentence is defined:A Sentence is defined:By Meaning, a sentence is a “complete

thought”By Function, a sentence consists of a

subject and a predicateThen…..

A Sentence is a full predication containing a subject plus a predicate with a finite verb.

Classification of Sentences by TypesClassification of Sentences by Types

Declarative Sentences (Statements)

In a declarative sentence the subject and predicate

have normal word order. The sentence ends with a

period (called full stop in British English)

- The child ate his dinner.

- John blows a candle.

Interrogative Sentences (Questions)In an interrogative sentence the subject and the auxiliary are often reversed. The sentence ends with a question mark in writing. In spoken language, most Y/N questions end with a rise pitch; most interrogative-word questions end with a fall pitch.

- Did the child eat his dinner?- What does John blow?

Imperative Sentences (Command, Request)In an imperative sentence, only the predicate is expressed. The simple form of the verb is used, regardless of person or tense. The imperative sentence ends with period in writing.

- Eat your dinner.- Fold the paper.

Exclamatory Sentences (Exclamations)Such sentences begin with an exclamatory phrase consisting of what or how plus a part of the predicate. The exclamatory phrase is followed by the subject and the balance of the predicate.

What is used when a noun terminates the exclamatory phrase.- What beautiful hair she has!How is used when an adjective or adverb terminates the exclamatory phrase.- How beautiful she is!- How beautifully she behaves!

Classification of Sentences by Classification of Sentences by Number of Full PredicationNumber of Full Predication

SIMPLE SENTENCESSuch sentences have only one full predication in the form of an independent clause.

- The man stole the jewelry.COMPOUND SENTENCES

Such sentences have two or more full predications in the form of independent clauses.

- The man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his home.

COMPLEX SENTENCESSuch sentences also have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent clause (or main clause) that is similar to the form of the simple sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clause (or subordinate clause)- The man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCESIt contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.- The man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his home until he could safely get out of town.

“The independent clause in all four classes of sentences may take the form of statement,

question, request, or exclamation.”

CLAUSESCLAUSESA clause may be defined in the same way as a

sentence: It is a full predication that contains a subject and a predicate with a finite verb.

There are two kinds of clauses, independent and dependent.

The independent clause is a full predication that may stand alone as a sentence.

The dependent clause has a special introductory word that makes the predication ‘depend’ on an independent clause.

Independent ClausesIndependent Clauses(in compound sentences)(in compound sentences)Full predications may be joined

coordinately by punctuation alone, coordinate conjunction, or by conjunctive adverb.

- John was sick; he didn’t come to school.- John was sick, so he didn’t come to

school.- John was sick; therefore, he didn’t come

to school.

Dependent ClausesDependent Clauses(in Complex Sentences)(in Complex Sentences)In a dependent clause, the full predication is

altered in such a way that the clause must be attached to another clause, an independent clause. The alteration may be an added introductory word (after, before, etc.) or a change in the form of the subject or object (who, that, etc.).

There are three types of dependent clauses, named according to their function in the sentence.

1. Adverbial Clause1. Adverbial ClauseMost types of adverbial clauses are considered

as modifying the verb of the main clause. A few types, such as clauses of time or place are sometimes interpreted as modifiers of the entire sentences.

Like an adverb, the adverbial clause has three possible position; initial position, mid position, or final position.

Types Of Adverbial ClausesTypes Of Adverbial Clausesa. Clauses of Timea. Clauses of TimeClauses of TimeWhen(ever) You may begin when(ever) you are ready.

While/whilst While he was walking home, he saw an accident.

since They have become very snobbish since they moved into their expensive apartment.

before Shut the window before you go out.

after After she finished dinner, she went right to bed.

until Until Mr. Smith got a promotion in our company, I had never noticed him.

till We’ll do nothing further till we hear from you.

As As he was walking in the park, he noticed a very pretty girl.

As soon as I’ll go to the post office as soon as I wrap this package.

As long as You may keep my book as long as you need it.

Once Once she makes up her mind, she never changes it.

b. Clauses of Placeb. Clauses of PlaceA conjunction of place may consist of an

adverbial compound ending in –where or –place, with or without ‘that’ following it.

- Repairs will be made wherever (they are) necessary.

- She lives where the Jacksons used to live.- They sat down wherever they could find

empty seats.

c. Clauses of Contrastc. Clauses of ContrastThere are two types of clauses of

contrast; concessive and adversativeConcessive clause offers a partial

contrast, it states a reservation that does not invalidate the truth of the main clause.

Adversative Clause makes a stronger contrast that may range all the way to complete opposition.

Concessive ClauseConjunction: although,

though, even though

- Though he had always preferred blondes, he married a brunette.

Adversative ClauseConjunction: while,

where, whereas, when

- While Roy is friendly with everyone, his brother makes very few friends.

d. Clauses of Caused. Clauses of Causebecause They had to more because their building was to

be torn down.

since Since he couldn’t take his wife with him, he decided not to go to the conference

as As he was in a hurry, he hailed the nearest cab

now (that) Now ( that ) he’s inherited his father’s money, he doesn’t have to work any more

whereas (formal)

Whereas a number of the conditions in the contract have not been met, our company decided to cancel the contract.

As long as As long as it’s raining, I won’t go out tonight.

On the ground (that) His application for the job was rejected on the ground that he had falsified some of the information

e. Clauses of Resulte. Clauses of ResultSo … that so – adjective – that

so – adverb – that

She is so emotional that every little thing upsets her.She behaved so emotionally that we knew something terrible had upset her.

Such (a) … that such a – singular countable noun such – plural countable noun such – noncountable noun

This is such an ugly chair that I am going to give it away.These are such ugly chairs that I am going to give them away.This is such ugly furniture that I am going to give it away.

So (that) They spent their vacation at the seashore, so (that) when they came home they were quite tan.

f. Clauses of Purposesf. Clauses of PurposesConjunction: so, in order that, in the

hope that, to the end that- The flowers will be delivered at late in the evening so it

will be fresh in the next morning.- He decided to take a trip around the world in order

that he wanted to learn other cultures.- They are working night and day in the hope that they

can finish the building on time.- To the end that justice may be served, the defendant

will be offered every opportunity to establish his innocence.

g. Clauses of Conditiong. Clauses of Conditionif If I see him, I’ll invite him to our party.

Even if Even if I had known about the meeting I couldn’t have come.

Unless (if … not) Unless it rains, we’ll go to the beach tomorrow.

In the event that In the event that the performance is called off, I’ll let you know at once.

In case In case a robbery occurs in the hotel, the management must be notified at once.

Provided that We will be glad to go with you to the theatre provided that we can get a baby sitter.

On condition that The company will agree to arbitration on condition that the strike is called off at once.

If only She would forgive her husband everything if only he would come back to her.

h. Clauses of Exceptionh. Clauses of ExceptionExcept that The building would have already been

finished except that a trucking strike had delayed delivery of some materials.

But that But that his pistol failed to fire, he would surely be dead now.

Save that Save that he lapsed into vulgarity every now and then, he had great appeal to his genteel woman readers.

Only that This antique vase is in very good condition, only that there is little crack near the top.

Beyond that The police could get nothing out of the boy beyond that he had become separated from his mother in the crowd.

Other than (the fact) that

Other than (the fact) that he is now in good financial condition, I have no news to report.

i. Clauses of Manneri. Clauses of MannerAs if They all treat him as if he were

a king.

As though He walked around as though he was in a daze.

as She always does as her husband tells her.

j. Clauses of Degree j. Clauses of Degree ComparisonComparisonAs + adj. or adv …. as

The new machine is just as efficient as the old one (was).

So + adj. or adv …. as

The new machine works so efficiently as the old one (did).

Adj. or adv + -er …. thanMore + adj. or adv…. thanLess + adj. or adv …. than

The new machine is more efficient than the old one (was).

k. Clauses of Proportion or Extentk. Clauses of Proportion or Extentas As he acquires more power, he becomes more

unscrupulous.

As …. so As you sow, so shall you reap. (proverb)

In proportion as … so In proportion as the value of land increased, so taxes become higher.

To the extent that The project will succeed only to the extent that each of us puts his best effort into it.

According as We can earn more or less according as the company can gives us overtime work.

As (so) far as As (so) far as we can see, he appears satisfied with his arrangement.

Insofar as Insofar as I understand modern art, I find it very exciting.

In the degree that You will succeed in the degree that you apply yourself dilligently.

Exercise 1Exercise 1Join each of the clauses in A to the appropriate Join each of the clauses in A to the appropriate clause in B.clause in B.

A B

1. Come again a. As long as is necessary

2. Wait b. By the time they got back.

3. He went out again c. Just as he was ringing the bell

4. They must go home d. As soon as you can

5. There was nothing left e. After he had finished his dinner

6. He repaired our shoes for us f. Every time I meet her

7. I opened the door g. Since you went to live in London

8. I haven’t heard from you h. The moment he spoke

9. She asks after you i. Before they get too tired

10. I knew who it was j. While we waited.

Exercise 2.Exercise 2.Complete the following sentencesComplete the following sentences

1. He was so kind that ….2. Come a little nearer so that ….3. I’ll give you some money in case ….4. Even if things are bad, …..5. They live such a long way that …6. He hurriedly back in order that ….7. I didn’t come any earlier for fear ….8. He will give his wife more money on condition that

…9. We’ll leave for our automobile trip tomorrow even if

….10. Some newspaper have no advertising at all, whereas

….