Classical Europe The Mediterranean world of approximately 2000 BCE to AD 500

produced brilliant civilizations in Greece and Italy.

Greek civilization took shape in many individual city-states.

Although the military might of Greece was small compared to later

empires, Greek culture produced a golden age of innovation in

architecture, sculpture, poetry, drama, philosophy, science and

government that set a standard for later civilizations. The conquests

of Alexander the Great spread Greek culture throughout Southwest

Asia.

To the west of Greece, another great civilization grew up in Italy.

The Roman republic and empire would develop new methods of

government to represent the people, tie together far-flung

provinces, and amass wealth many times greater the Greece’s. Yet

Rome’s writers acknowledged the Greeks’ enduring impact.

Ancient Greece (2000 BCE – 323 BC)

Ancient Greece was a small region with few resources and limited

political power. Yet, for about 600 years, between about 750 BCE

and 150 BCE, the people of this area on the Aegean Sea produced

poetry, art, entertainment, ideas and forms of government that

continue to influence the way we think, live and govern ourselves

today.

Greece has a long coastline, dotted with bays and inlets and with

many islands. Some writers have said that the Greeks did not live on

a land but around a sea. Sea travel and trade were important to the

Greeks because their homeland was poor in resources. Because of

its mountainous terrain (see below), travel from one section of

Greece to another was difficult, therefore, the Greeks developed

independent, self-sufficient communities.

The mild Mediterranean climate of Greece encouraged outdoor

activities. Greek men spent much of their time in the marketplace,

or agora, and the gymnasium, discussing current events and politics.

The mild climate also encouraged outdoor religious and civic

celebrations and theatrical productions in outdoor amphitheaters.

The earliest civilization to appear in Greece was that of the Minoans

on the island of Crete. For unknown reasons that civilization ended

abruptly. Around 2000 BC, during the Bronze Age, Greek-speaking

peoples began to move into mainland Greece. These people are

known as the Mycenaeans. Warrior kings, who lived in huge and

luxurious fortresses, ruled over the common people. These kings

obtained wealth through piracy and wars.

The most famous war of the Mycenaeans was the Trojan War,

named for Troy a seaport city in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey).

Homer, a Greek poet, told stories of the Trojan War in long poems

called epics. According to Homer, Greek armies attacked and

destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had abducted Helen, the

beautiful wife of a Greek king. In his poems, The Iliad and The

Odyssey, Homer celebrated the ideal of arête, which means to strive

for excellence, to show courage, and to win honor. These values and

this period have been labelled as the Heroic Age.

Greek warriors had the chance to realize the ideal of arête through

the Olympic games, an athletic event held in Olympia, a Greek

sacred site, every four years. These games allowed young

charioteers, boxers, wrestlers, runners and javelin throwers from all

over Greece to compete with one another. Winners received a

wreath of olive leaves, but the most important prize was fame and

honor. The Olympic games were not just a chance for athletes to

compete, however. Athletic games were also a form of homage to

the gods.

The twelve most powerful gods and goddesses of the Greeks were

believed to live on Mount Olympus, the tallest mountain in Greece.

The gods and goddesses had human characteristics. They loved,

they hated, they became jealous, they quarreled, but they were also

immortal and more powerful than human beings. The Greeks

developed a rich set of myths and stories about their gods and

goddesses. These myths helped explain the mysteries of nature, the

origins of the world, and the power of human passions.

Around 750 BCE, the city-states became the most important form of

political organization in Greece. The Greek word for city-state, polis,

is the root of our words politics, police, and policy. Citizens of the

polis took part in debates on public issues.

The kings of the Heroic Age were overthrown by small groups of

noble families, who ruled as an aristocracy (which means rule by the

“best”, in this case, the upper class/nobility). Under the aristocracy,

the armies of the city-states grew larger. It became the duty of a

citizen to serve in the army of his polis. These citizen soldiers were

called hoplites. With their iron spears and shields, they stood side

by side to form the most formidable fighting machine of their time,

the phalanx. As farmers and artisans acquired weapons and military

training, they then rose in revolt against the aristocracy.

The citizen armies were led by men called tyrants, often nobles who

feuded with other aristocrats. The tyrants strengthened many of

the city-states by building forts, harbors and temples. Many tyrants

tried to add to the wealth of their polis by founding colonies, or new

Classical Europe settlements that kept ties to their home city, in other parts of the

Mediterranean.

Two of the most powerful city-states, Sparta and Athens, had to deal

with serious conflicts caused by the gap between the rich and the

poor. These city-states developed very different forms of political

and social organization to resolve the conflicts. The Spartans

adopted a harsh set of laws that placed strength of the army before

all other values. The Spartans felt that they needed a strong army

because their polis depended on the labor of helots (workers who

were virtual slaves), who outnumbered the Spartans by eight to one.

In Athens, wealthy rulers and poor farmers also found themselves in

conflict. Athens, however, avoided civil war by reforming its

government. Athens created a democracy, a government in which

citizens took a direct part. Every male citizen was allowed to attend

the assembly, where questions of government were debated and

decided by vote.

The democracy of Athens provided the foundation for modern

democratic governments. However, only about one-fifth of the

people who lived in Athens were citizens who could participate.

Slaves, foreigners, and women – even the daughters and wives of

citizens – had no say in the government.

Both Athens and Sparta faced a common threat. In 490 BCE, the

Persians, who commanded a powerful empire to the east (centered

in modern-day Iran), attacked the Greeks. Despite their small

numbers, the Greek armies resisted the invaders, winning key

battles on land and on sea. All of Greece was involved in the war,

but the Athenians suffered the most. Athenian ships and soldiers

fought in every major battle against the Persians. Athens itself was

burned to ashes although its people survived.

After the war, the Greek city-states formed an alliance called the

Delian League. The purpose of the league was to provide a defense

against further Persian attacks. The Athenians, however, began to

use their navy to control the rest of the league. Soon the league was

not an alliance, but an empire controlled by Athens.

The man who did the most to turn war-torn Athens into the seat of a

brilliant civilization was Pericles. Pericles had a gift for public

speaking that appealed to every segment of the Athenian citizenry.

The period of his leadership (461 – 429 BCE) became known as the

Age of Pericles. The Age of Pericles was to be a period of great

political and artistic achievement – a golden age – for Athens.

Pericles broadened democracy by instituting payment to public

officials, so that even the poorest citizens could afford to serve. He

made Athens more powerful by strengthening the Athenian navy

and used money from the Delian League to beautify Athens. On the

Acropolis, the high hill overlooking Athens, Pericles had artisans

build the Parthenon, a temple in honor of their patron goddess,

Athena.

Just as the Greeks used architecture and athletics to express civic

pride and honor their gods, they also developed the theater.

Dramatists competed like athletes for a wreath of ivy and the honor

of winning. The major playwrights of the Golden Age of Athens

were Aeschylus (ES-kih-lus) and Sophocles (SAHF-uh-klees). Both

men wrote a type of drama known as tragedy. A tragedy portrays

men and women of strong character whose hubris (strength, pride

and attempts to change their fate) led to their own downfall.

The Golden Age of Athens was followed by a period of conflict. In

431 BCE, tension caused by Athenian control of the Delian League

increased and led to an invasion by Sparta. The war that resulted is

known as the Peloponnesian War (Sparta is located on the

Peloponnesian peninsula). Athens had a stronger navy, but Sparta

had a stronger army. The war dragged on for 27 years. Athens

slowly became weakened by plague and the loss of its fleet and in

404 BC surrendered to Sparta. Yet the fall of Athens did not mean

the end of Athenian art and culture. During the war, a playwright

named Aristophanes (AR-is-TAHF-uh-neez) began to write a new

type of play called comedy. He made Athenians laugh at their

leaders, their institutions, and themselves, even as their power

crumbled.

The decline of Athens also led to a new attitude of questioning

among its thinkers, or philosophers. One of the greatest of these

philosophers was Socrates. Socrates forced Athenians to examine

their beliefs about democracy, patriotism and religion. Although

some considered Socrates the wisest man in Athens, many citizens

thought the old man dangerous. In 399 BCE, he was found guilty of

“corrupting the youth of Athens” and failing to revere “the gods that

the state recognizes.” Socrates was sentenced to death. Although

his friends offered to help him escape, he chose to end his life in the

city he loved and calmly carried out his sentence by drinking poison.

Much of what we know about Socrates comes from his student

Plato, who wrote down the conversations with Socrates as he

remembered them. Plato also developed his own ideas about

government and philosophy. His most famous work, The Republic,

describes what he considered an ideal society, ruled by a

philosopher-king.

Classical Europe Plato’s most famous student was a young man named Aristotle, who

studied with him for twenty years. Aristotle was curious about

every branch of knowledge. Even more important than the

knowledge he collected, however, was his method of organizing and

testing ideas. Aristotle’s systems of logic marked the beginning of

the development of scientific thought.

Alexander’s conquests spread Greek culture.

Aristotle also had a famous student, young Alexander of Macedonia,

a kingdom to the north of Greece. Alexander’s father, Philip II, had

conquered and united all of Greece, after it had weakened itself

during the Peloponnesian War. When he was assassinated,

Alexander became king. In 334 BCE, Alexander led his troops across

the Dardanelles (strait separating Greece from Turkey) into Asia.

They marched for eight years and covered 20,000 miles, conquering

everything in their path. By the time he died of a fever in 323 BC,

Alexander had conquered Asia Minor (Turkey), the east coast of the

Mediterranean, Egypt, the Persian Empire and the lands of the Indus

River valley (see map below).

Alexander did not simply wage war. Everywhere he went, he

established colonies and institutions to spread Greek culture. There

Greek culture mixed with Near Eastern cultures. Even though his

generals divided his empire after his death, Greek officials continued

to develop and spread Greek culture. This mixture of Greek and

local cultures became known as Hellenism.

Hellenism brought Athenian ideas about art, architecture,

philosophy, and science to the Asian world. It also absorbed the

influences of the Jewish, Egyptian, Persian and Indian cultures and

sought to preserve them. Hellenistic influence and respect for

learning and observation led to scientific advances of Euclid, who

organized the findings of Greek geometry, and Archimedes, who

discovered the laws controlling the motions of levers, inclined

planes, pulleys, screws, wedges and wheels. The achievements of

Hellenistic civilization became a resource for the growth of later

civilizations.

The Roman Republic

After 2000 BCE, many groups of people invaded Italy and settled

throughout the Italian peninsula. Settlers called “Latins” built

villages along the Tiber River which later joined to form the city of

Rome. Over a period of several hundred years, Rome took control

of most of Italy. The defeated peoples usually became allies of

Rome.

A “republic,” a type of government in which people elect leaders to

make decisions, was established. The government was controlled by

the “patricians,” a group of powerful aristocrats. All other people

belonged to the lower class, or “plebeians.” Government officials

were elected by adult male citizens. The Senate, made up of 300

patricians, had the most power, including control over tax monies

and foreign policy. The Assembly, which represented the plebeians,

had little real power at first but gradually was given more

responsibilities. Two “consuls,” both patricians, ran the government

and commanded the army. In times of emergency, a dictator was

chosen and given absolute power to act quickly and decisively.

The Roman Republic gained lands throughout the Mediterranean

region. Rome expanded into the western Mediterranean during the

Punic Wars, a long struggle with the city of Carthage in North Africa.

Between 218 B.C. and 202 B.C., the great Hannibal of Carthage

crossed the Alps into northern Italy and overwhelmed several

Roman armies. But Hannibal was forced to return to Africa to

defend Carthage, and was defeated there. In the eastern

Mediterranean, Rome captured Macedonia and the Greek city-

states. Other victories left Rome as the sole power in the

Mediterranean world (see map below).

Classical Europe

The Roman Republic Becomes the Roman Empire

Some say the republic’s successes led to its downfall. Civil wars

broke out between the forces of loyal to different ambitious Roman

patricians and generals. After many decades of civil war between

various factions, Julius Caesar returned from Gaul and defeated the

general, Pompey, becoming the sole ruler of Rome. He soon

introduced a number of reforms. Public lands were given to the

poor. Many people in the provinces were granted citizenship.

Roads were built, swamps were drained, and other public works

programs were undertaken. A new calendar was set up that had

365 days.

Members of the Senate, who were jealous and fearful of Caesar,

stabbed him to death on the “Ides of March” –– March 15, 44 B.C.

Caesar’s assassins were defeated by Caesar’s right-hand man, Marc

Antony, and Caesar’s heir, Octavian. But a new civil war soon broke

out between the former allies during which Octavian destroyed

Antony’s forces. The Senate, eager to end almost 100 years of

constant civil war, gave Octavian absolute power. Octavian was now

known as “Augustus,” meaning “most high” ruler. As emperor,

Augustus was given and had the authority to both make laws and

veto laws proposed by the Senate.

Under Augustus, Rome experienced its “Golden Age.” His reign

marked the beginning of “Pax Romana,” or Roman Peace, which

lasted almost 200 years. Business expanded and a sound money

system was established. New roads and aqueducts were built and

civil servants guaranteed the distribution of grain, ran an efficient

postal service and provided other government services.

Augustus was the first of a line of emperors who were worshipped

as gods and allowed to choose their own successors. Roman culture

was heavily influenced by Greek culture. Educated Romans learned

Greek, Roman emperors and wealthy citizens copied Greek

architecture. Rome borrowed much of its mythology from that of

Ancient Greece. This particular Hellenistic blending, also known as

Greco-Roman culture, flourished and spread throughout the empire.

The people of the Roman Empire followed many different religions.

Of these groups, the Jews alone were monotheists. The area of

Syria and Palestine (Judea) fell under Roman influence around 65

BCE. Jewish monotheism led to conflicts with the polytheistic

Romans. Although usually tolerated, many Jews fiercely opposed

Roman rule. It took Roman legions from AD 66 to 73 to crush Jewish

rebellions. In AD 130, the Jews rose up again and a half million Jews

were killed and the rest were banished from Judea. This is known as

the diaspora.

Another religion that challenged the might of Rome arose in Judea

as well. Jesus, a Jew, was born in Palestine when it was under

Roman rule. When he was about thirty, he began his work as a

wandering prophet and teacher. With him traveled twelve followers

or disciples. After three years of ministry, Jesus was arrested.

Because he had described the coming of a “kingdom” of God in his

teaching Jesus was charged with blasphemy and sedition (conduct or

speech inciting rebellion) and was crucified.

According to Christian tradition, Jesus rose from the dead and

continued to preach his message about the kingdom of God,

repentance for sin, salvation, love of others until he ascended to

heaven after 40 days. His followers believed he was the messiah

whom God had promised the Jewish people. His followers and later

converts like Paul used Hellenistic teachings to spread Jesus’

message throughout the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana.

As Christianity spread, Roman rulers began to oppose it. Its message

of love for God and one another appealed especially to the poor.

Christians refused to recognize Roman gods or to accept the divinity

of Roman emperors. Roman leaders saw the new religion as

challenging their authority. Both St. Paul and St. Peter were

executed while in Rome under the Emperor Nero. Because Peter,

whom Jesus called the “rock” upon which his church would be built,

died in Rome, early leaders of the church, called bishops, claimed

that they outranked Christian bishops in other regions. Eventually,

they established the office of pope, or father of the Christian

Church.

The peaceful years of Pax Romana were followed by a century of

warfare and disorder. To make administration of the huge empire

easier, it was divided into an eastern Greek-speaking portion and a

western Latin-speaking portion. Each part had its own emperor.

Civil wars often broke out between rival political groups.

Constantine, who believed he had experienced a sign from God

before winning a crucial battle, issued the Edict of Milan which

legalized Christianity and ended the persecutions. Eventually, Rome

would make Christianity its official religion and outlaw all other

faiths.

Classical Europe

The Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, came to an

end in 476 A.D. This happened for many reasons. When emperors

limited personal freedom, they lost the support of the people. The

empire was too large to govern effectively. While some people

were very rich, most were poor and often did not own their own

land. The increased use of slaves put many Romans out of work.

The population declined because of war, hunger, and disease.

Finally, the Huns, Goths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Franks, and other

barbarian tribes overran the empire. However, the Christian (Roman

Catholic) Church based in Rome became the chief civilizing force in

Western Europe. The Church’s ceremonies and institutions would

help preserve the Latin language, Roman literature and learning

through the times of turmoil that lay ahead.

Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at

Constantinople, became even more Greek culturally after the fall of

the West. Historians have come to refer to this civilization as the

Byzantine Empire. It becomes the center and origin of Eastern

Orthodox Christianity that is prevalent in Greece, parts of Eastern

Europe and Russia, today. The Byzantine Empire lasted for another

thousand years as it slowly declined until it was conquered by the

Muslim Ottoman Turks in 1453 A.D.