Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningHow do you get a dog to How do you get a dog to salivate when he hears a bell?salivate when he hears a bell?

Pavlov's Dog

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningClassical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning: Associating a Associating a natural stimulusnatural stimulus and a and a neutral stimulusneutral stimulus

natural stimulusnatural stimulus – – produces a produces a predictable responsepredictable response

neutral stimulusneutral stimulus – – does not produces does not produces any particular any particular responseresponse

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningApplication of Classical Application of Classical ConditioningConditioning; Psychologists use: ; Psychologists use:

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulusstimulus (UCS) (UCS) – – (natural stimulus) (natural stimulus) that produces an that produces an unconditioned unconditioned responseresponse (UCR)(UCR) at at the same time as the same time as a . . .a . . .

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Conditioned Conditioned stimulusstimulus (CS) – (CS) – ((once-neutral once-neutral stimulus) producing stimulus) producing the same response, the same response, called a called a conditioned conditioned responseresponse (CR) after (CR) after several repetitionsseveral repetitions

More realistic exampleMore realistic example

Getting dental work Getting dental work done (unconditioned done (unconditioned stimulus) stimulus)

hurts (unconditioned hurts (unconditioned response)response)

Eventually the sound of Eventually the sound of the dentist’s drill the dentist’s drill (conditioned stimulus) (conditioned stimulus)

causes anxiety, fear, or causes anxiety, fear, or pain (conditioned pain (conditioned response)response)

Generalization/Generalization/DiscriminationDiscrimination

You may either You may either generalizegeneralize: respond : respond the same to all drill the same to all drill sounds (similar sounds (similar stimuli), or stimuli), or

DiscriminateDiscriminate: If you : If you learn to respond only learn to respond only to dental drill sounds to dental drill sounds (distinct stimuli)(distinct stimuli)

ExtinctionExtinction

If the conditioned If the conditioned stimulus stimulus

is NOT followed by the is NOT followed by the same unconditioned same unconditioned stimulusstimulus

It will result in It will result in extinctionextinction and the and the conditioned response conditioned response will disappearwill disappear

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

Learning from consequences of Learning from consequences of behaviorbehavior

The behavior is either The behavior is either reinforcedreinforced (increases) or (increases) or punishedpunished (decreases) (decreases)

ReinforcementReinforcement ReinforcementReinforcement – stimulus or event – stimulus or event

that that increasesincreases the likelihood a the likelihood a behavior will be repeatedbehavior will be repeated

Example: to get a dog to shake Example: to get a dog to shake hands, you must give it a treathands, you must give it a treat

(reinforcement) every time(reinforcement) every time

it raises its pawit raises its paw

ReinforcementReinforcement Primary ReinforcerPrimary Reinforcer – stimulus that – stimulus that

satisfies a biological need (food or satisfies a biological need (food or water)water)

Secondary ReinforcerSecondary Reinforcer – stimulus – stimulus like money that gives a reward by like money that gives a reward by being linked with a primary being linked with a primary reinforcer (food)reinforcer (food)

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement1.1. Fixed RatioFixed Ratio – reinforcement after a – reinforcement after a

fixed fixed number of responsesnumber of responses (paid (paid after every 10 pizzas made)after every 10 pizzas made)

2.2. Variable RatioVariable Ratio – reinforcement – reinforcement after varying after varying number of responsesnumber of responses (playing a slot machine)(playing a slot machine)

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement3.3. Fixed IntervalFixed Interval – reinforcement of – reinforcement of

first response after a fixed first response after a fixed amount amount of timeof time (picking up your paycheck (picking up your paycheck after 2 weeks)after 2 weeks)

4.4. Variable IntervalVariable Interval – reinforcement – reinforcement of first response after varying of first response after varying amounts of timeamounts of time (calling a friend (calling a friend but getting a busy signal)but getting a busy signal)Variable reinforcers

are more resistant to extinction than fixed reinforcers

ShapingShaping A process of achieving a desired A process of achieving a desired

behavior by rewarding similar behavior by rewarding similar behaviors until the desired behavior behaviors until the desired behavior is reachedis reached

Example: To get a dog to lie down Example: To get a dog to lie down and roll over, you must reward each and roll over, you must reward each act until the desired trick is learnedact until the desired trick is learned

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement A behavior A behavior increasesincreases by by

removing or preventing a painful removing or preventing a painful stimulusstimulus

Example: you take an aspirin to Example: you take an aspirin to relieve a headache – the headache is relieve a headache – the headache is a negative reinforcer to taking a negative reinforcer to taking aspirin (aspirin taking increases)aspirin (aspirin taking increases)

PunishmentPunishment An unpleasant consequence An unpleasant consequence

decreases the frequency of the decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced itbehavior that produced it

Example: Yelling “NO!!” every time Example: Yelling “NO!!” every time a child gets close to the fire will stop a child gets close to the fire will stop the unsafe behaviorthe unsafe behavior Can produce

unwanted side effects:-Rage-Aggression-Fear

Social LearningSocial Learning

Altering behavior by observing and Altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of othersimitating the behavior of others

Social LearningSocial Learning

Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning – altering behavior – altering behavior by mental processesby mental processes– Latent LearningLatent Learning – learning or remembering – learning or remembering

details without intending to (seeing the same details without intending to (seeing the same things on a regular driving route)things on a regular driving route)

– Learned helplessnessLearned helplessness –repeated attempts –repeated attempts to control a situation fail, you feel helpless to control a situation fail, you feel helpless (cannot change a situation, cannot escape (cannot change a situation, cannot escape punishment – often leads to depression)punishment – often leads to depression)

Social LearningSocial Learning

ModelingModeling – learning by imitating – learning by imitating othersothers

Social LearningSocial Learning Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification – systematic – systematic

application of learning principles to application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings change people’s actions and feelings

Examples:Examples:– Use classical conditioning to overcome Use classical conditioning to overcome

fearsfears– Operant conditioning using Operant conditioning using token token

economies economies by reinforcing desired by reinforcing desired behaviors by giving “tokens” that can behaviors by giving “tokens” that can be exchanged for rewards laterbe exchanged for rewards later

– Social learning through personal Social learning through personal systems of rewards and punishments to systems of rewards and punishments to create self-controlcreate self-control

Group ActivityGroup Activity In groups of 3, read the two behaviors In groups of 3, read the two behaviors

you are givenyou are given Decide what general kind of Decide what general kind of

conditioning they describe (Classical conditioning they describe (Classical or Operant) and if operant, or Operant) and if operant,

Determine what specific kind of Determine what specific kind of operant conditioning (positive operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment)reinforcement, punishment)

Explain the example and your answers Explain the example and your answers to the classto the class

Take notes on all examples given Take notes on all examples given (they will be on the test)(they will be on the test)

Group ActivityGroup ActivityExampleExample Type of Type of

ConditioningConditioningNotes, commentsNotes, comments

11

22

33

44

55

66

77

88

99

1010

MemoryMemory

Memory – storage and retrieval of Memory – storage and retrieval of what has been learned or what has been learned or experiencedexperienced

Processes of MemoryProcesses of Memory

1. 1. EncodingEncoding – transforming – transforming information so the nervous system information so the nervous system can process itcan process it

FAC

E

Can encode by:Seeing the lettersHearing them spokenorMaking a connection “face”

Processes of MemoryProcesses of Memory

2.2. StorageStorage – maintaining information – maintaining information over time (depends on how much over time (depends on how much effort was put into encoding the effort was put into encoding the information)information)

3.3. RetrievalRetrieval – information is brought – information is brought to mind from storage (depends on to mind from storage (depends on how efficiently it was encoded and how efficiently it was encoded and stored)stored)

3 Stages of Memory3 Stages of Memory

1.1. Sensory memorySensory memory – brief memory – brief memory storage immediately following a storage immediately following a sensory inputsensory input

7 1 V FX L 5 3

B 7 W 5

Lasts only a fraction of a second

3 Stages of Memory3 Stages of Memory

2.2. Short-term memoryShort-term memory – memory of – memory of about 7 items, lasts about 20 about 7 items, lasts about 20 secondsseconds

Lasts longer if repeated

Chunking – grouping items to make them easier to rememberPrimacy-Recency Effect

3 Stages of Memory3 Stages of Memory

3.3. Long-term memoryLong-term memory – storage of – storage of information over extended periods information over extended periods of timeof timeSemantic memory – knowledge of language – rules, words, meanings

Episodic memory – memories of your life

Declarative memory – information retrieved as needed

Procedural memory – learned skills, does not need conscious recollection

I before e except after c

a2+b2=c2

Retrieving InformationRetrieving Information

RecognitionRecognition – the retrieval of an – the retrieval of an idea, object, or situation you have idea, object, or situation you have experienced beforeexperienced before– Recognizing songs or instrumentsRecognizing songs or instruments– Recognizing answers on a multiple Recognizing answers on a multiple

choice testchoice test

Retrieving InformationRetrieving Information RecallRecall – active reconstruction of – active reconstruction of

previously learned material. Influenced previously learned material. Influenced by:by:– Reconstructive processReconstructive process – altering or – altering or

distorting our memories (“selective distorting our memories (“selective memory”)memory”)

– ConfabulationConfabulation – filling in memory gaps with – filling in memory gaps with information/experiences that were not thereinformation/experiences that were not there

– SchemasSchemas – conceptual frameworks we use to – conceptual frameworks we use to make sense of the worldmake sense of the world

– Eidetic memoryEidetic memory – a photographic memory – a photographic memory

Relearning/ForgettingRelearning/Forgetting RelearningRelearning – Can relearn previously learned – Can relearn previously learned

information with less work (reciting a information with less work (reciting a nursery rhyme or poem from your childhood)nursery rhyme or poem from your childhood)

ForgettingForgetting – Decay Decay – fading away of memory over time– fading away of memory over time

Older memories remain (can be recovered Older memories remain (can be recovered through hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)through hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)

– InterferenceInterference – blockage of memory by prior – blockage of memory by prior or later memoriesor later memories

– AmnesiaAmnesia – loss of memory from a blow to – loss of memory from a blow to the head or infant amnesia (lack of early the head or infant amnesia (lack of early memories)memories)

Improving MemoryImproving Memory Elaborate RehearsalElaborate Rehearsal – linking of – linking of

new information to material that is new information to material that is already knownalready known– Associate new information with past Associate new information with past

events, relationships, feelingsevents, relationships, feelings– Learn new information in small bits Learn new information in small bits

instead of all at once (don’t cram)instead of all at once (don’t cram)

Improving MemoryImproving Memory Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices – –

Using associations to Using associations to memorize and retrieve memorize and retrieve informationinformation– Acrostics (Queen of Acrostics (Queen of

Hearts eats raspberry Hearts eats raspberry cream tarts) cream tarts)

– Use mental pictures to Use mental pictures to learn – making up words, learn – making up words, stories, etc. to rememberstories, etc. to remember

Spacing EffectSpacing Effect

Distributing rehearsal (Distributing rehearsal (spacing spacing effecteffect) is better than practicing all at ) is better than practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem could be once. Robert Frost’s poem could be memorized with fair ease if spread memorized with fair ease if spread over time.over time.

ChunkingChunking

Organizing items into a familiar, Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers belowthe numbers below

1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-11-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American If you are well versed with American

history, chunk the numbers together history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. and see if you can recall them better.

1776 1492 1812 1941.1776 1492 1812 1941.

RehearsalRehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. rehearsal or conscious repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZnonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ

The more times the nonsense syllables The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1,were practiced on Day 1,

the fewer repetitions were required to the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.remember them on Day 2.

!!

Using only your notes, on a Using only your notes, on a clean sheet of paper, list the clean sheet of paper, list the

following:following: The 3 Processes of MemoryThe 3 Processes of Memory The 3 Stages of MemoryThe 3 Stages of Memory The 4 kinds of long term memoryThe 4 kinds of long term memory The 4 things that influence our recallThe 4 things that influence our recall The definition of mnemonic devicesThe definition of mnemonic devices

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

Test ReliabilityTest Reliability – – ability ability of a test to give the of a test to give the same results under same results under similar circumstancessimilar circumstances– Do you score about the Do you score about the

same when retaken?same when retaken?– Do different people give Do different people give

you the same score?you the same score?– Do you do about the Do you do about the

same on each section of same on each section of the test?the test?

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

Test ValidityTest Validity – – ability ability of a test to measure of a test to measure what it is intended to what it is intended to measuremeasure– Does the test Does the test

accurately predict accurately predict performance?performance?

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

StandardizationStandardization – – test test must be given the must be given the same way each timesame way each time

The test must The test must establish an average establish an average score (score (normnorm) of a ) of a large, well defined, large, well defined, group of peoplegroup of people

Norm – standard of comparison for test results

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing Questions to ask Questions to ask

when getting a when getting a scorescore– Would you score the Would you score the

same if you took the same if you took the test again?test again?

– Does the score Does the score reflect your reflect your knowledge of the knowledge of the subject?subject?

– Does your score Does your score compare fairly with compare fairly with other students who other students who took the test?took the test?

Intelligence TestingIntelligence Testing IntelligenceIntelligence

– The ability to The ability to acquire new ideas acquire new ideas and new behavior and new behavior and to adapt to and to adapt to new situationsnew situations

– OrOr– The ability to do The ability to do

well on intelligence well on intelligence tests and in schooltests and in school

Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence In groups of 4-5 read about the In groups of 4-5 read about the

theory of intelligence on your theory of intelligence on your card in Section 2 of Chapter 13 card in Section 2 of Chapter 13 (p. 349-352)(p. 349-352)

Summarize the main features of Summarize the main features of the theorythe theory

Present them to the class who Present them to the class who will complete a chart in their will complete a chart in their notes on the theoriesnotes on the theories

Theories of IntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

TheoryTheory Main Main FeaturesFeatures

Issus, Issus, CriticismsCriticisms

SpearmanSpearman

ThurstoneThurstone

GardnerGardner

SternbergSternberg

Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

Intelligence TestsIntelligence Tests Stanford-Binet Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale Intelligence Scale (1973)(1973)– Children tested one at a Children tested one at a

timetime– Define words, draw Define words, draw

pictures, explain events pictures, explain events in daily lifein daily life

– Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Mental – Mental Age/Chronological Age X Age/Chronological Age X 100100

Intelligence TestsIntelligence Tests Wechsler Tests (1981)Wechsler Tests (1981)

– Tests for adults and childrenTests for adults and children– One overall score, plusOne overall score, plus– Percentile scores in several areas Percentile scores in several areas

(vocabulary, math, picture (vocabulary, math, picture arrangement)arrangement)

– More detailed picture of individual’s More detailed picture of individual’s strengths and weaknessesstrengths and weaknesses

Percentile – percent of people taking the test who scored lower than your score

Intelligence TestsIntelligence TestsYou should complete these questions in 60 You should complete these questions in 60

seconds or less!seconds or less!– 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of

fourteen legs. fourteen legs. True   FalseTrue   False

– 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven pieces by making four diameter cuts. pieces by making four diameter cuts. True   FalseTrue   False

– 3.Two of the following numbers add up to 3.Two of the following numbers add up to thirteen.thirteen.1, 6, 3, 5, 11 1, 6, 3, 5, 11 True   FalseTrue   False

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

Personality Tests – assess personality Personality Tests – assess personality characteristics and identify problemscharacteristics and identify problems– Objective testsObjective tests – –

limited or forced-choice formatlimited or forced-choice format Used to study personality Used to study personality

characteristicscharacteristics

– Projective testsProjective tests – – unstructuredunstructured Test-taker can respond freely with their Test-taker can respond freely with their

own interpretation of various stimuliown interpretation of various stimuli

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

ObjectiveObjective Test Examples: Test Examples:– MMPI MMPI (Minnesota (Minnesota

Multiphasic Personality Multiphasic Personality Inventory)Inventory) 567 true-false questions567 true-false questions Used to assess major Used to assess major

patterns of personality patterns of personality and extreme emotional and extreme emotional disordersdisorders

Usually given with other Usually given with other tests or interviewstests or interviews

MMPIMMPI

1. I like mechanics magazines1. I like mechanics magazines

2. I have a good appetite2. I have a good appetite

3. I wake up fresh & rested most mornings3. I wake up fresh & rested most mornings

4. I think I would like the work of a librarian4. I think I would like the work of a librarian

5. I am easily awakened by noise5. I am easily awakened by noise

6. I like to read newspaper articles on 6. I like to read newspaper articles on crimecrime

7. My hands and feet are usually warm 7. My hands and feet are usually warm enough enough

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

ObjectiveObjective Test Examples: Test Examples:– CPI CPI (California Psychological Inventory)(California Psychological Inventory)

true-false questionstrue-false questions Measures traits such as responsibility, Measures traits such as responsibility,

self-control, and toleranceself-control, and tolerance Used to predict adjustment to stress, Used to predict adjustment to stress,

leadership, and job successleadership, and job success Usually follow-up test with counseling Usually follow-up test with counseling

or discussion with a psychologistor discussion with a psychologist

Personality TestingPersonality Testing ObjectiveObjective Test Examples: Test Examples:

– Myers-Briggs TestMyers-Briggs Test Characterizes personality on four Characterizes personality on four

different scalesdifferent scales Shows test takers how they relate to Shows test takers how they relate to

others and how others relate to themothers and how others relate to them

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

ProjectiveProjective Test Examples: Test Examples:– Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test

Inkblot designs are shown to the test-Inkblot designs are shown to the test-taker who says what he/she seestaker who says what he/she sees

Reveals aspects of the person’s Reveals aspects of the person’s personalitypersonality

Results often depend on the Results often depend on the psychologist’s expectationspsychologist’s expectations

Rorschach TestRorschach Test

Rorschach TestRorschach Test

Personality TestingPersonality Testing ProjectiveProjective Test Examples: Test Examples:

– TAT TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)(Thematic Apperception Test) Pictures of vague but suggestive Pictures of vague but suggestive

situationssituations Subjects are asked to tell a story about Subjects are asked to tell a story about

the picturethe picture Used to assess personality problems of Used to assess personality problems of

the test-takerthe test-taker

TATTAT