citius altius fortius - efsupit.roefsupit.ro/images/stories/imgs/buletin/2008/nr 4 2008.pdf ·...

CCIITTIIUUSS AALLTTIIUUSS FFOORRTTIIUUSS

VVoolluummee 2211 NNoo:: 44 DDeecceemmbbeerr 22000088

Journal of Physical Education and Sport

(JPES)

UNIVERSITY OF PITEŞTI

ISSN: 1582 - 8131

Editor University of Piteşti

TABLE OF CONTENT CUPRINS

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LES RESISTANCES DU FOOTBALL EUROPEENAU MODELE AMERICAIN

DE GESTION DU SPORT PROFESSIONNEL.The resistance of European football to the American

model of professional sport management.

Benjamin FOURIER, Master en Management, Edhec

Bussiness School Nice.

Bernard MASSIERA, Maître de Conférence, Université

de Nice Sophia-Antipolis..................................................

ORIENTÃRI STRATEGICE ÎN ASIGURAREACALITÃÞII MANAGEMENTULUI ACADEMIC,CENTRAT PE CONSTRUCÞIA SOCIO-ECONOMICÃ A ROMÂNIEI, ÎN DOMENIULFUNDAMENTAL DE ªTIINÞE E.F.S. Prof. univ. dr. Ioan Ion Lador Inspector General M.E.C.T.

STRATEGIC ORIENTATIONS IN ENSURING THEQUALITY OF THE ACADEMIC MANAGEMENTCENTERED ON ROMANIA’S SOCIO-ECONOMI-CAL CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE PHYSICAL EDU-CATION AND SPORT (PES) SCIENCES FUNDA-MENTAL DOMAINIoan Ion Lador MINISTERY OF EDUCATION RE-

SEARCH AND YOUTH General Inspector............................................................................ ........................................................................24

.........................................................................18

LA DYNAMIQUE DE CROISSANCE DESENTREPRISES PRESTATAIRES D’ACTIVITES

SPORTIVES ET TOURISTIQUES : APPORTS ETLIMITES DU COURANT EVOLUTIONNISTEThe growth dynamics of providers of sports and

tourism-related services : contributions and limits ofthe evolutionary field

Elodie PAGET Docteur en STAPS1 Laboratoire Sport et

Environnement Social (SENS) Université de Grenoble 1

– France

Jean-Pierre MOUNET Maître de conférences – HDR

Laboratoire SENS Université de Grenoble 1 – France .........................................................................39

IDENTIFICAREA PROFILULUI CINEMATIC ALLOVITURII DE ATAC, DIN VOLEIIlinca Ilona, Roºulescu Eugenia, Zãvãleanu Mihaela.Universitatea din Craiova, Facultatea de Educaþie Fizicã

ºi Sport ..........................................................................

IDENTIFICATION CINEMATIC PROFILE INTHE STRIKE ATTACK IN VOLLEYBALLIlinca Ilona, Roºulescu Eugenia, Zãvãleanu Mihaela.Universitatea din Craiova, Facultatea de Educaþie Fizicã

ºi Sport ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

DEZVOLTAREA SOCIALÃ A COPILULUIPRININTERMEDIUL ACTIVITÃÞILOR SPORTIVEMaria Pescaru, Universitatea din Piteºti .................

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

THROUGH SPORT ACTIVITIES Maria Pescaru,

Universitatea din Piteºti ...........................................51

EFECTELE STRETCHING-ULUI ªIEXERCIÞIILOR PROPRIOCEPTIVE ÎNENTORSA DE GLEZNÃ SUBACUTÃ GRADUL IIRoºulescu Eugenia, Lect. Univ. Dr. Med.Dãnoiu Suzana, Conf. Univ. Dr. Med.Ilinca Ilona, Lect. Univ. Dr. Kt.Cãlina Mirela, Lect. Univ. Dr. Med.Zãvãleanu Mihaela, Lect. Univ. Drd. Med.UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA . . . ...... . . . . . . . .

THE EFFECTS OF STRETCHING AND PROP-RIOCEPTIVE EXERCISES IN SUBACUTE

GRADE II ANKLE SPRAINSRoºulescu Eugenia, Lecturer, PhD, MDDãnoiu Suzana, Senior lecturer, PhD, MDIlinca Ilona, Lecturer, PhD, PTCãlina Mirela, Lecturer, PhD, MDZãvãleanu Mihaela, Lecturer, MDUNIVERSITY OF CRAIOVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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INTEGRAREA/INCLUZIUNEA ªCOLARÃ ACOPILULUI CU DEFICIENÞE FIZICE/LOCOMOTORIILect.univ.dr. Dãnescu Elena Universitatea din Piteºti

SCHOOL INTEGRATION/INCLUSION OFCHILDREN WITH PHYSICAL/LOCOMOTORYDISABILITIESDãnescu Elena Universitatea din Pitesti .................65

OPTIMIZAREA PERFORMANÞELORCOPIILOR ÎNOTÃTORI ÎN PROCEDEUL CRAUL

Victor Bãdescu Universitatea din Piteºti

THE PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZING INFREESTYLE CHILDREN SWIMMERSBãdescu Victor University of Piteºti, FEFS .... . . . 69

EVALUAREA UNITÃÞII DE ÎNVÃÞARE ÎNLECÞIA DE EDUCAÞIE FIZICÃCojanu Florin – Universitatea Piteºti . . ....... ............

EVALUATION UNIT OF LEARNING IN PHYSI-CAL EDUCATION LESSONCojanu Florin - University of Pitesti . . . . ............72

CAUZE PRINCIPALE, PROFILAXIE ªIRECUPERARE ÎN TRAUMATISMELEALERGÃTORILOR DE SPRINTLiliana MihãilescuProf.univ.dr. Universitaea din Piteºti . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FIRST CAUSES, PROPHYLAXIS AND RECOV-ERY IN TRAUMATICINCIDENCE IN SPRINT RUNNERS,Mihailescu Liliana University of Pitesti, Phd. . .....77

PSIHOMOTRICITATEA COPIILOR CUDIZABILITÃÞI MOTORII ÎN VÂRSTÃ DE 3-6/7ANIAsist. univ. drd. AURORA UNGUREANU

Facultatea de Educaþie fizicã ºi Sport – Craiova

Prof. univ. dr. MUGUREL NICULESCU Facultatea de

Educaþie fizicã ºi Sport – Piteºti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PSYCHOMOTRICITY OF 3 – 6/7 YEARS OLDCHILDREN WITH MOTOR DISABILITIESUniv. Assist. drd. AURORA UNGUREANU The Fac-

ulty of Physical Education and Sports – Craiova

Univ. Prof. Dr. MUGUREL NICULESCU The Faculty

of Physical Education and Sports – Piteºti . . . . . . . . 81

CITIUS ALTIUS

FORTIUS

Journal of Physical Education and SportUNIVERSITY OF PITEªTI ROMANIA

JPES,,CITIUS ALTIUS FORTIUS ” Journal is nationally acknowledged by

C.N.C.S.I.S., being included in the B+ category publications,, CODE 354

INTERNATIONAL INDEX

The electronic edition, On-line Journal is internationally acknowledged,

being indexed in the international data base: (BDI)

Index Copernicus, Journal Master List Index Copernicus Value 2008 ICV = 3,65

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HONORIFICALLY PRESIDENT OF SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL BOARD

Prof. Tudor O. Bompa, Ph.D. Profesor Emeritus, Universitatea York, Toronto,The World Leader in Athletes’ Training PO Box 95, Sharon, On, L0G 1V0, Canadatel: +1 905-478-2666, [email protected] Ph.D. State University of New York / FreeUniversity of Brussels

THE REVIEWER TEAMProfessor Niculescu Mugurel, PhD –Dean, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

Professor Robert Donatelli, Ph.D, PT, OCS, National Director of Sport Rehabilitation for

Physo-therapy. associates in Suwanee, GA, University Rocky Mountain, USA

Professor Lador Ioan, PhD - Romanian Ministry of Education, Department Director

Professor Georgescu Luminiþa, MD, PhD, Vice-Dean Faculty of Physical Education and Sport

Piteºti

Professor Colibaba Evuleþ Dumitru, PhD - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

Professor Sbenghe Tudor, PhD - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

Professor Simion Gheorghe Ph.D - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

Maitre de conference Denis Parissot - Universite Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France

Maitre de conference Bernard Massiera - Universite Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France

Professsor Kotzamanidis Christos Ph.D - Departament of Physical Education and Sport Sci-

ence Aristotle University Thessaloniki Greece, Reffery in international journal, JSS, BJSM,

JSMS, MPC

Associate professor Malousaris Grigoris – National and Kapodistrian University of Athens,

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science

Professor Zakas Athanasios Ph.D - Aristotle University Thessaloniki Greece

Professor Gloria Rata, PhD – Sport Science of Movement and Health Faculty Bacãu

Professor Pacuraru Alexndru, PhD - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Galaþi

Professor Manolachi Viaceslav, PhD - The National Institute of Phisical Education and Sport

Chiºinãu, Moldova Republlic

Professor Ciorba Constantin, PhD – The National Institute of Phisical Education and Sport

Chiºinãu, Moldova Republlic

Professor Ilin Grigore, PhD – The National Institute of Phisical Education and Sport Chiºinãu,

Moldova Republlic

Associate professor Marian Creþu PhD - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

Associate professor Ion Mihãilã PhD - Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Piteºti

THE EDITORIAL BOARDEditor-in-chief, on-line journal - Associate professor Creþu Marian, PhD –Responsible editor print journal - Associate professor Mihãilã Ion, PhD -Editor, Scientific consultant - Professor Mihailescu Liliana, PhD – Editor, Scientific consultant - Associate professor Niculescu Ionela, PhD–Editor - Associate professor Badescu Victor, PhD -Editor - Associate professor Fleancu Leonard, PhD -Copy Editor - Assistent PhD Cojanu Florin -THE EDITORIAL RESIDENCEThe UNIVERSITY OF PITEªTIThe Physical Education and Sport Faculty of Piteºti, Research Centre of Human Performance:

str. Gheorghe Doja nr 41, telefon fax 0248/220116Contact - Marian Creþu - email: [email protected] - Fianu Sorin – University of Piteºti - [email protected]

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Information for the Authors

The Journal of Physical Education and Sport (JPES) edited by The University of

Pitesti tries to occupy a front place on the backround of the Physical Education and Sports publications from Romania.

With the purpose of selecting the best materials to be publicated in our Journal, the editorial board decided that all themanuscripts sent to be published be read by 2-3 independent reviewers.

The manuscripts selection is done in function of the lectors’ comments and decisions. The four forms of decision

regarding the received manuscripts are the following:

- The ab initio rejection, by the editing committee, without the manuscripts being forwarded to the lectors (in the

case of severe faults of writing/content, thematics)

- Accepting the manuscript without modifications;- Basically accepting the manuscript, with minor modifications;- Accepting the manuscript, but with major modifications.

The decision will be communicated to the respective author in a strictly anonimous form. During the peer-reviewprocess, the lectors will evaluate elements from the Evaluation Protocol table, one which makes direct reference to

having published a manuscripted considered an origianl article.

1 The originality of the investigation 20 points

2 Scientific topicality 15 points

3 Aplicability in the current practics 15 points

4 The quality of the design of the study 10 points

5 The quality of the results disclosure 10 points

6 The clarity and depth of discussions 10 points

7 The clarity of conclusions 10 points

8 The accuracy and timely quotes and bibliography 5 points

9 The general writing and editing quality of the manuscript 5 points

On the basis of these considerations form the Evaluation Protocol, the manuscripts will be given a number of

maximum points. A number of points of <50 leads to rejection, while if over 70, the article is to be published. I f

between 50-70, the article needs some punctual modifications.

The lectors’/ peer-review-s’ comments will be objective, clearly and decidely formulated, without discredit-

ing/ rallying the authors of the manuscript. General and unsustained affirmations will be avoided; on the other hand,

text examples will be given and concrete suggestions will me made in order to improve the manuscript.

More information http://www.efsupit.ro

With profound consideration, Univ. Lect. Dr. Marian Cretu , Editor-in-chief of the Electronic Edition of theJournal of Physical Education and Sport (JPES)

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Informaþii pentru autori

Revista Journal of Physical Education and Sport (JPES) edited by University of

Pitesti se straduieste sa ocupe un loc de frunte in peisajul publicatiilor din domeniul educaþie fizice ºi sportului din

românia. In scopul alegerii celor unei bune manuscrise pentru a fi publicate in revista noastrã, colegiul de redacþie a

decis ca toate manuscrisele inaintate spre publicare sa fie lecturate de catre 2 -3 review-eri independenti.

In functie de comentariile si deciziile lectorilor se va decide ºi selecþiona manuscriselor inaintate redactiei. Cele

patru forme de decizie privind manuscrisele inaintate sint urmatoarele:

- respingerea ab initio, de catre redactie, fara inaintare catre lectori (in cazul deficientelor grave de redactare/

continut, tematicã)

- acceptarea fara modificari a manuscrisului

- acceptarea de principiu, cu modificari minore, a manuscrisului,

- acceptarea, cu modificari majore, a manuscrisului.

Decizia va fi comunicata autorului corespondent intr-o forma strict anonimizata. In cursul procesului de peer-

review, lectorii vor evalua elementele din tabelul Protocol de Evaluare pentru ca un manuscris din categoria articol

original sa devina publicabil.

Pe baza acestor aprecieri din Protocolul de Evaluare, manuscrisele vor primi un scor, maxim de 100 puncte.

Un scor <50 duce la respingere, iar peste 70 articolul devine publicabil. Un scor între 50 – 70 presupune efectuarea unor

modificãri punctuale

Comentariile lectorilor/peer-review-erilor vor fi la obiect, formulate limpede, tranºant ºi fara a discredita/

ironiza autorii manuscrisului. Se vor evita afirmatiile generaliste, nesustinute; in schimb, vor fi date exemplificari din

text si vor fi facute sugestii concrete de imbunatatire a manuscrisului.

Nota: Regulamentul redactional detaliat de functionare il puteti gasi ºi la http://www.efsupit.ro

Cu deosebita consideratie, Redactor ºef EE, Conf.univ.dr.Marian Creþu ,

Editor al - CAF – Journal of Physical Education and Sport (JPES)

1 Originalitatea investigatiei 20 puncte

2 Actualitatea stiintifica 15 puncte

3 Aplicabilitatea in practica curenta 15 puncte

4 Calitatea design-ului studiului 10 puncte

5 Calitatea expunerii rezultatelor 10 puncte

6 Claritatea si profunzimea discutiilor 10 puncte

7 Limpezimea concluziilor 10 puncte

8 Acuratetea si actualitatea citarilor/bibliografiei 5 puncte

9 Calitatea redactarii si editarii manuscrisului in general 5 puncte

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Reviewing processStage 1 Articles must be sent in electronic format, in English (CD or by e-mail at [email protected] and printedhardcopies (for cross-reference) at: Gheorghe Doja 41, Piteºti, Jud.Argeº, RomâniaStage 2 The article sent for publishing will be accompanied by a short personal presentation and a professional CV of nomore than 120 words which must contain complete contact details, including those necessary for technical correspon-dence (phone and fax).Stage 3 The editors select the materials complying with the technical editing norms. The rest of the materials are eliminatedfrom the reviewing process.Stage 4 At least two members of the Editorial Council and the Scientific Council are to make an initial assessment of thescientific relevance of the article and nominate the reviewers to produce an informed opinion.Stage 5 The peer review takes place, involving two reviewers (per article) with expertise in the specific domain that is be-ing addressed.Stage 6 Materials respecting the scientific standards are going on a waiting list for publication. Materials in need of furtherdevelopment for achieving the scientific rigor will be returned to the author for modifications. Materials that cannotachieve the minimum of scientific quality are rejected.Stage 7 Materials are awaiting publication according to their order on the publishing list.Stage 8 After the approval of the proposed article and its publishing in the magazine, the author will receive a free copy ofthe issue.The authors are responsible for clarifying the copyrights of the various information contained in the articles.

Important General Aspects The declarations page will be sent by post, together with the manuscript and will briefly enclose the following aspects:- name, postal address, phone numbers, fax number, email of the respective author;- a declaration showing that all authors read the paper, contributted to it and gave their permission for their name to beincluded as co-authors;- a declaration mentioning that the manuscript was neither previously published, nor simultaneously sent for publicationto a different magazine. If some illustrations, graphics or parts of the text have been already published, the source mustbe entirely declared, and the written permission of the author or editing house in possesion of the copyrights must beprovided ;- If the paper implies clinical research, this must be in conformity with the directive lines of the Helsinki Declaration,and must have the ethical aproval signed by the special committee from inside the institution where the study waseffectuated, while for the experiments done on the line of the Physical Education and Sports the author must bring theassent of the institution for having the experimental data obtained there made public. The subjects’ identity must be keptsecret, both in pictures as in the texts.- conflict of interest declaration, affidavit;- the aware and signed consent of the study participants (for studies of a medical nature)- the declarations must be signed by all authors.- the copyright declaration is independently signed by each author.

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Proces de recenzareEtapa 1 Articolele se trimit obligatoriu in romana si engleza in format electronic (CD sau e-mail la [email protected] si imprimate pe hartie martor, (pentru recenzori) pe adresa revistei: Gheorghe Doja 41, Piteºti,Jud.Argeº, RomâniaEtapa 2 Articolul trimis în format electronic spre publicare va fi insotit de o scurta prezentare personala, un scurt CVprofesional, ce nu va depasi 120 de cuvinte, dar care, obligatoriu, va contine date complete de contact, inclusiv celede corespondenta electronica, telefonica si fax.Etapa3 Editorul selecteaza materialele ce respecta rigorile de tehnoredactare. Celelalte materiale sunt eliminate dinprocesul de recenzare.Etapa 4 Cel putin 2 membri din Consiliul editorial ( Redactorii ºefi) fac o evaluare initiala a relevantei ºtiinþifice aarticolului si stabilesc nominal referenþii care sa se pronunte pe fond.Etapa 5 Se desfasoara faza de evaluare peer review, în care sunt implicati 2 referenti (pentru fiecare articol), cu capacitatede expertiza în domeniul propus spre dezbatere.Etapa 6 Materialele care respecta standardele stiintifice intra pe lista de asteptare pentru publicare. Cele care pot respectarigoarea stiintifica impusa prin efectuarea unor modificari de catre autor, sunt returnate acestuia pentru a le completa.Materialele care nu pot respecta minimul de calitate stiintifica sunt respinse.Etapa 7 In ordinea listei de asteptare, articolele sunt publicate în revista.Etapa 8 Dupa acceptarea articolului propus spre publicare si aparitia acestuia in revista, autorul va primi un exemplar con-tra costAutorii sunt responsabili de clarificarea dreptului de utilizare a informatiilor cuprinse in articole.

Aspecte generale importante Pagina de declaraþii. Va fi trimisa prin poºtã odatã cu manuscrisul si va cuprinde succint urmãtoarele aspecte:- numele, adresa poºtalã, numerele de telefon, fax, e-mail ale autorului corespondent;- declaraþie din care sa rezulte ca toþi autorii au citit lucrarea, ca au contribuit la ea, si ca si-au dat permisiunea ca numelelor sa fie incluse drept co-autori;- declaraþie din care sa rezulte ca manuscrisul nu a fost publicat anterior si ca nu va fi trimis simultan spre publicare laalta revista. Daca unele ilustraþii, grafice sau parþi din text au fost publicate anterior, trebuie sa se declare sursa inîntregime, si sa se obþinã permisiunea scrisa a autorului respectiv sau a editurii care deþine dreptul de copyright;- daca lucrarea implica cercetare clinica, trebuie sa se conformeze liniilor directoare din Declaraþia de la Helsinki, si saaibã aprobarea etica semnata a comisiei de specialitate din cadrul instituþiei unde s-a efectuat studiul iar pentruexperimentele efectuate pe linia educaþiei fizice ºi sportului sã existe acordul instituþiei ca datele experimentale obþinutepot fi fãcute publice. Identitatea subiecþilor trebuie ascunsa, atât in poze cat si in text.- declaraþie de conflict de interese, pe propria rãspundere;- consimþãmântul informat, semnat, al pacienþilor participanþi la studiu; ( pentru studii de naturã medicalã)- declaraþiile trebuie semnate de toþi autorii.- declaraþia de copyright se semneazã separat de cãtre autori

(Pentru informaþii suplimentare, va rugam consultaþi http://www.efsupit.ro Journal

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MODELCopyright Transfer Statement

Each author warrants that his submission to the Work is original and that he or she has full power to enter into this agreement. Neither this Work nor a similar work has been published elsewhere in any language nor shall be submitted for publication elsewhere while under consideration by JPES Each author also accepts that the JPES will not be held legally responsible for any claims of compensation. Authors wishing to include figures or text passages that have already

been published elsewhere are required to obtain permission from the copyright holder(s) and to include evidence that such permission has

been granted when submitting their papers. Any material received

without such evidence will be assumed to originate from the authors.

We are in agreement with the statements and we accept scientific and legal responsibility of the article. Name Date Signature

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Declaraþie de copyright

Fiecare autor declară pe propria răspundere ca

materialele prezentate sunt originale şi acceptă

aceasta ca condiŃie de publicare. Se declară că

nici un alt material similar publicat în oricare altă limbă nu a fost prezentat la o altă revistă sau

conferinŃă ştiinŃifică alta decât JPES, De

asemenea fiecare autor acceptă că nu JPES are

responsabilitate legală pentru orice neânŃelegere

sau plângere de natură legală şi solicitarea de

compensaŃii. Autorii care doresc să publice figuri, grafice,

tabele sau pasaje de text care deja au fost

publicate sunt rugaŃi să obŃină permisiunea

deŃinătorului de copyright şi dovada ca această

permisiune a fost acordată. Orice material primit

fără o astfel de dovadă va fi asumat ca original

Sunt de accord cu prezentul angajament şi accept responsabilitatea ştiinŃifică şi legală a articolului Nume Dată Semnătură

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Editing rights. Publishing the article is conditioned by accepting the fact that the editor has the right to rectify thetext, with the purpose of bettering the clarity and lingustic style or to bring it to the standards of page imposition. The „proofs” pages. The manuscript will be sent back to the respective author, with the correction marked by thereaders. After the required modifications are done, the manuscripts must be returned to the editorial office in term of48 hours, via e-mail. All questions put by the readers have to be solved or answered. Please send all corrections inthe same e-mail message, as no afterwards correction are possible. The editing process and the publishing acceptance. The authors will be informed about the reception of everymanuscript. All manuscripts are peer-reviewed. The publishing decision is announced in maximum 2 months formthe manuscript’s receival. In such a case, the editor estimates the jurnal edition when that manuscript is likely to ap-pear. Colored printing. There is an additional tax for colored printing. If the authors wish their illustraions to appear incolors inside the pages of the journal, the editor will be previously consulted. If the article is accepted, the press willprovide information regarding the estimate price of the publication.

THE JOURNAL STRUCTUREThe journal structure: editorials, scientific communications, original articles, topicalities from the internationalliterature of this field of interest.

Orientation articlesContent: general, timely information on the theoretical and/or practical issues (the field of interest literature maga-zine).Dimensions: maximum 10 pages ( if necessary, the article can be divided to be published into consecutive issues).Format: compact text (not under the form of schema), without or with little subchapters.Bibliography: recent (75% of the titles being from the last 5 years), with precedence over the articels published inextenso, quoting little summaries, manual chapters or entire books, introduced in the text.

Original articlesContent: fundamental or experimental researchesDimensions: 6-8 pages, with 4-5 illustrating materials (texts, graphics or figures).Format: introduction (the actual status of the problem, premises and the research purpose ), material and methods,results, discussions, conclusions (numbered, synthetically written and refering strictly to the personal observations).Text introduced bibliography (see below).

Study caseContent: observations/studies which are either exceptional or which raise /clarify a problem from the category ofthose ending in a confirmation, evolution etc).Dimensonsi: 3-5 pages, with 1-2 original illustrationsFormat: the case presentation, commentsText introduced bibliography (see below).Instructions for writing articles or papers.

The materials sent for publication will be written in the MS Word programme. The graphics, drawings, tabels

will be inserted in the Word document.

Writing the article:- page set-up: A4 format, margins: top= 2cm, bottom =2cm, left =2cm, right =2cm- font : Times New Roman, size=10, (one row, for text) ; size=12, (bold, maxim 90 characters, in capital letters,align= center) fot the title.

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Drepturile redacþionale. Publicarea articolului este condiþionata de acceptarea faptului ca redactorul are dreptul dea corecta textul, in scopul îmbunãtãþirii claritãþii si stilului lingvistic, sau de a-l aduce in limitele impuse alepaginaþiei. Paginile „proofs”. Manuscrisul va fi trimis înapoi la autorul corespondent, cu corecturile însemnate de referenþi.Dupã realizarea modificãrilor cerute, manuscrisele trebuie înapoiate la redacþie in termen de 48 ore, pe e-mail. Se varãspunde complet la orice întrebare pusa de referenþi. Vã rugam trimiteþi toate corecturile in acelaºi mesaj de e-mail,deoarece alte corecturi ulterioare nu vor mai fi posibile. Procesul redacþional si acceptarea spre publicare. Autorii vor fi informaþi de recepþionarea fiecãrui manuscris.Toate manuscrisele sunt peer-reviewed. Decizia de publicare va fi anunþatã in maxim doua luni de la primireamanuscrisului. In acest caz, redactorul va estima exemplarul revistei in care va apare respectivul articol. Tipãrirea color. Pentru tipãrirea color se percepe taxa suplimentarã Daca autorii doresc ca ilustraþiile lor sa aparãcolor in revista, se vor consulta anterior cu redactorul. Daca articolul este acceptat, tipografia va furniza autoruluiinformaþii privind costul estimativ al publicãrii.

STRUCTURA REVISTEIStructura revistei: editoriale, comunicãri ºtiinþifice, articole originale, actualitãþi din literatura internaþionalã despecialitate.

Articole de orientareConþinut: informaþie generalã de actualitate axatã pe probleme teoretice ºi/sau practice (revista literaturii).Dimensiuni: maximum 10 pagini (la nevoie, articolul poate fi împãrþit pentru a fi publicat în numere consecutive).Format: text compact (nu schematizat), fãrã sau cu puþine subcapitole.Bibliografie: recentã (75% titluri din ultimii 5 ani), cu prioritate pentru articole publicate in extenso, citând puþinerezumate, capitole de manual sau cãrþi în întregime, introdusã în text.

Articole originaleConþinut: cercetãri fundamentale sau experimentaleDimensiuni: 6-8 pagini, cu 4-5 materiale ilustrative (texte, grafice sau figuri).Format: introducere (starea actualã a problemei, premizele ºi scopul cercetãrii), material ºi metode, rezultate,discuþii, concluzii (numerotate, redactate sintetic ºi strict referitoare la constatãrile personale).Bibliografia introdusã în text (vezi mai jos).

Studiu de cazConþinut: observaþii studii de excepþie sau care pun/clarificã o problemã, din categoria celor care se încheie cu oconfirmare, evolutivã etc).Dimensiuni: 3-5 pagini, cu 1-2 ilustraþii originaleFormat: prezentarea cazului, comentarii,Bibliografie în text (vezi mai jos).Instrucþiuni pentru redactarea articolelor sau lucrãrilor

Materialele trimise pentru publicare vor fi redactate în programul MS Word.Se vor folosi obligatoriu caractere

româneºti. Graficele, desenele, tabelele vor fi inserate în documentul Word

Redactarea articolului:- setarea paginii: format A4, margini: top= 2cm, bottom =2cm, left =2cm, right =2cm- font : Times New Roman, size=10, (la un rând, pentru text) ; size=12, (bold, maxim 90 de caractere, cu majuscule,align= center) pentru titlu.- numele ºi prenumele întreg al autorilor însoþit de datele care indicã apartenenþa la o anumitã instituþie (size=10)- afilierea instituþionalã, adresa instituþiei (culese cu corp italic, size=10)

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- fullfirst and last name of the authors, accompanied by the data indicating affiliation to a certain institution(size=10)- institutional affiliation, the address of the institution ( italic letters, size=10)-English and Romanian summary of maximum 200 words and key words ( size=10, bold)-English title, summary and key words ( size=10)- Key words (3-5) from the data basis nomenclatory of the Academic Journals Database, Scietific informationScirus, ScienceDirect sau Scopus for indexing articles full text inside the categories from the data basis- a summary preferably structured on the purpose, material, methods, results, discussions and conclusions.- no abbreviations are allowedl use acronims, written in capital letters, only if a term is recurrent inside the text andattention is paid to explaining the term at its first use.- the paper text will be structured the following way: introduction, material and method, results, conclusions or discus-sions-underlines will be either in bold or italics, avoiding an actual line usage- avoid terms borrowed from different languages for those translated into Romanian and largely accepted by our specialfield literature; if this is not possible, use italics; also, use the units of the metric system and the accepted abreviations.- TABELS Are counted consecutively, in the order of their appearance, in arabic figures. It is recommended to reducethe tabels use to the minimum. The same data cannot be present both under tabels as under graphics. All tabels musthave a title placed right above it. Any tabel must be mentioned at least once in the text (as told in Table 1). Tabels areplaced as close to the place of the first quoting as possible. They are placed horizontally centered and cannot go beyonda 150 mm width. The table data are written with a TNR 10 pt. Font. Before and after the table a free line of 10 pt. Is tobe left.- FIGURESAll illustrations (graphics, schemes, diagrams, phographies etc) will be given the generic name of figures. The figuresare sequentially counted, in their order of appearance, in arabic numbers. All figures must have a title, placed rightunder the figure. Any figure must be mentioned at least once in the text (as told in Table 1). Figures are realised witha TNR 10 pt font. It is recommended to place the figures in the text as close to the first quoting as possible. Figurescannot be drawn directly in the Word document. They must be imported, either as image files (jpg, bmp, tiff, etc), or asobjects (ppt). Black and white images are sent only in high contrast and the color one, in high resolution. In the case ofgraphics, the curbes must be identified by the way they symbolize points and not by the thickness or color of the lines.It is preferable that the number of figures be reduced to that which is strictly necessary for understanding the text.Before and after each figure o free row of 10 pt is to be left. The figure must be written in the same language as that ofthe article. It is not accepted for the paper to be written in English or French and the figures text to be in Romanaian, forexample.-the bibliography will be put together in the Oxford system (adapted as bellow), the bibliographic list will not containtitles which were not mentioned in the text.-indicate the number of the bibliographic reference in the text, whenthe idea was borrowed, between brackets.-the bibliographic list will be put together alphabetically, by taking into account the authors’ names:1. example of quoting a magazine article inside a bibliography-authors, name, the surname initial, publishing year,article title, accepted acronim of the magazine (italics), volume, first and last page;2. example for a treaty or a monography-authors’ names, year of appearance, chapter title, editing house, the title ofthe book, city, pages:Booth F. W., Baldwin K.M., (1995), Muscle plasticity: energy demanding and supply processes. In: Rowell LB, Shep-herd JT (eds). Handbook of physiology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 1076-1121

The authors take full responsibility regarding the content of the articles sent for publishing by signing a commit-ment-declaration.Additional information, as well as sending the articles is obtained or done using the following addresses:

Associate professor Marian Creþu PhD Associate professor Ion Mihãilã PhD [email protected] [email protected] on line journal Editor-in-chief print journalTel: 0745145557 Tel : 0723298288

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- rezumat în limba românã ºi englezã de maximum 200 de cuvinte ºi cuvintele cheie ( size=10, bold)- titlul, rezumatul ºi cuvintele cheie în limba englezã ( size=10)- cuvintele cheie (3-5) sã fie cuprinse în nomenclatorul bazelor de date Academic Journals Database, Scietificinformation Scirus, ScienceDirect sau Scopus pentru indexarea articolelor full text in categoriile existente in bazelede date- rezumatul de preferinþã structurat pe scop, material ºi metode, rezultate, discuþii ºi concluzii- nu se utilizeazã prescurtãri; folosiþi acronime, sub formã de caractere capitale, numai dacã un termen revine de maimulte ori în text ºi aveþi grijã sã le explicaþi la prima utilizare- textul lucrãrii va fi structurat în: introducere, material ºi metodã, rezultate, concluzii sau discuþii- sublinierile vor fi de tip bold sau italic, evitându-se sublinierile cu linii- evitaþi termenii împrumutaþi din alte limbi preferând traducerea româneascã acceptatã în literaturã; dacã acest lucru nueste posibil, culegeþi-i cu corp italic; folosiþi unitãþile sistemului metric ºi prescurtãrile acceptate- TABELE Se numeroteazã consecutiv, în ordinea apariþiei, cu cifre arabe. Se recomandã reducerea la minimum anumãrului de tabele. Nu se acceptã prezentarea aceloraºi date atât sub formã de tabele, cât ºi sub formã de grafice. Toatetabelele trebuie sã poarte un titlu, amplasat deasupra tabelului. Orice tabel trebuie menþionat cel puþin o datã în text, (ex.aºa cum reiese din Tabelul 1). Tabelele se amplaseazã cât mai aproape de locul primei citãri. Se amplaseazã centrat peorizontalã ºi nu pot depãºi lãþimea de 150 mm. Datele din tabel se scriu cu font TNR 10 pt. Înainte ºi dupã tabel se lasãcâte un rând liber de 10 pt.- FIGURI Toate ilustraþiile (grafice, scheme, diagrame, fotografii, etc.) vor purta denumirea genericã de figuri. Figurilese numeroteazã consecutiv, în ordinea apariþiei, cu cifre arabe. Toate figurile trebuie sã poarte un titlu, amplasat subfigurã. Orice figurã trebuie menþionatã cel puþin o datã în text, (ex.aºa cum reiese din Figura 1). Inscripþionarea figurilorse realizeazã cu font TNR 10 pt. Se recomandã amplasarea figurilor în text cât mai aproape de prima citare. Nu seadmite desenarea figurilor direct în documentul Word. Ele trebuiesc importate, fie ca fiºiere imagine (jpg, bmp, tiff,etc.), fie ca obiecte (ppt). Imaginile alb-negru se trimit numai cu contrast puternic iar cele color cu o rezoluþie mare. Încazul graficelor, curbele trebuiesc identificate prin modul diferit de simbolizare a punctelor ºi nu prin grosimea sauculoarea liniilor Este de preferat ca numãrul figurilor sã fie redus la strictul necesar pentru înþelegerea textului. Înainteºi dupã fiecare figurã se lasã câte un rând liber de 10 pt. Textul din figuri trebuie redactat în aceeaºi limbã în care esteredactat articolul. Nu se acceptã ca lucrarea sã fie redactatã în limba englezã sau francezã, iar textul din figuri sã fieredactat în limba românã.- bibliografia va fi alcãtuitã în sistemul Oxford (adaptat ca mai jos) , lista bibliograficã nu va conþine titluri care nu aufost inserate în text- indicaþi în text numãrul titlului bibliografic de pe lista citãrilor, acolo unde ideea a fost preluatã, între paranteze- lista bibliograficã va fi întocmitã în ordinea alfabeticã a iniþialei numelor autorilor :

1. exemplu de citare în bibliografie a unui articol dintr-o revistã - autori, nume, prenumele cu iniþiale, anul publicãrii,titlul articolului, prescurtarea acceptatã a revistei (italic), volumul , prima ºi ultima paginã:2. exemplu pentru tratat sau monografie - numele autorilor,anul apariþiei, titlul capitolului, editorii, titlul cãrþii (italic),localitatea, paginile:Booth F. W., Baldwin K.M., (1995), Muscle plasticity: energy demanding and supply processes. In: Rowell LB, Shep-herd JT (eds). Handbook of physiology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 1076-1121

Autorii îºi asumã toatã rãspunderea în ceea ce priveºte conþinutul articolelor trimise spre publicare prin semnareaunui angajament - declaraþie

Informaþii suplimentare precum ºi trimiterea articolelor se va face la urmãtoarele adrese:

Associate professor Marian Creþu PhD Associate professor Ion Mihãilã PhD [email protected] [email protected] on line journal Editor-in-chief print journalTel: 0745145557 Tel : 0723298288

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Lista orientativã a tematicii promovate de JPES

Character of the publications - Scientific Carcaterul revistei – ºtiinþific Scientific disciplines: Discipline ºtiinþifice:

· Physical education and Sport Educaþie Fizicã ºi Sporto Adapted Physical Activity Activitãþi fizice adaptateo Biomechanics Biomecanicão Combat Sports and Martial Arts Sporturi de luptã ºi Arte marþialeo Comparative PE and Sport Educaþie Fizicã vesus Sporto Couching Science ªtiinþa antrenamentului sportivo Games Jocuri Sportiveo Individual Sports Sporturi Individualeo Kinanthropometry Kinantropometrieo Kinesiology Kinosiologieo Military sports Sport militaro Motor Learning and Control Învãþare motricão Neuromotor Psychology Psihololgie neuromuscularão Philosophy of Sport Filosofia Sportuluio Political Science of Sport ªtiinþa de politicã a sportuluio Sociology of Sport Sociologia Sportuluio Sport and Exercise Physiology Sport ºi fiziologia exerciþiului fizico Sport and Exercise Psychology Sport ºi psihologia exerciþiului fizico Sport Facilities Baze sportive, echipamente, instalaþiio Sport for All Sportul pentru toþio Sport History Istoria Sportuluio Sport Information Sport ºi informaþieo Sport Management Management în Sporto Sport Pedagogy Pedagogia Sportuluio Sports Law Legislaþie în Sporto Sports Medicine Medicinã Sportivã

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LES RESISTANCES DU FOOTBALL EUROPEENAU MODELE AMERICAIN

DE GESTION DU SPORT PROFESSIONNEL.

The resistance of European football to the American

model

of professional sport management.

Benjamin FOURIER, Master en Management, EdhecBussiness School Nice.Bernard MASSIERA, Maître de Conférence, Universitéde Nice Sophia-Antipolis.

Résumé : Notre propos s’intéresse au mode de gestion dusport professionnel. Il questionne le système américain desfranchises qui engendre des résultats financiers trèslargement supérieurs à ceux observés en Europe. Notretravail tente un comparatif entre les deux situations etinterroge la transposition du modèle américain de gestiondu sport professionnel à celui du football en Europe.Débutant par un état des lieux du sport professionnel enAmérique du Nord, il en explique la spécificité pourrechercher les causes structurelles et culturelles quientravent l’adoption de ce modèle de gestion dans le foot-ball européen.

Abstract: Our study is interested in the administration ofprofessional sport. It questioned the franchises Americansystem causing financial results very significantly higherthan those observed in Europe. Our work try a comparisonbetween the two situations and questions the transpositionof American model of sports management in the Europeanprofessional football. Beginning with an inventory ofprofessional sport in North America, it explains withspecific structural and cultural causes the hinder of adoptionof this management model in European football.

Introduction : Si en Europe, l’amateurisme prime dans lemouvement sportif, le professionnalisme est généralisé auxEtats-Unis, selon les principes de la libre entreprise. Cesvaleurs ont induit le développement de franchisescommerciales, au contraire de l’Europe où le sport estconsidéré comme un loisir. En Europe, la plupart des clubsont été fondés sous forme d’associations sportives,éloignées de la recherche de profit. En France, la créationdes premières Sociétés Anonymes à Objet Sportif (SAOS)apparaît en 1986, les Sociétés Anonymes SportivesProfessionnelles (SASP) ne seront possibles qu’à partirde 2001. Malgré ces avancés juridiques, on observe desdifférences essentielles entre les modèles de gestion desclubs en Europe et le développement des franchisesaméricaines. Cette divergence originelle sur le statut desjoueurs et des équipes a guidé l’actualité du sportprofessionnel. En simplifiant notre propos, les organisationsaméricaines sont foncièrement des entreprisesprofessionnelles alors que les structures européennes sontavant tout des organisations sportives.

Les franchises américaines sont des entreprises offrant unspectacle de divertissement sportif pour un très large pub-lic, lequel génère des revenus, tandis que les clubseuropéens restent principalement tournés vers l’objectifsportif, omettant le bénéfice que leur apporteraitl’exploitation d’autres ressources qu’ils possèdentcependant de manière intrinsèque.Référence méthodologique : Pour justifier notre propos,on analyse cette différence en invoquant le concept de lastratégie d’entreprise que nous adaptons aux particularitésde l’univers sportif qui empêche d’éliminer la concurrence,puisque l’organisation des compétitions nécessite lamultiplicité des équipes. Nous distinguerons deux échelonsde stratégie dans la gestion des clubs: celle du terrain,recherchant toujours la victoire face à l’adversaire, et cellede la stratégie commerciale, qui détermine ledéveloppement du club en qualité d’entreprise. La notionde « concurrence » apparaît différente de celle que l’onrencontre habituellement dans les entreprises. La notionde « marché » diffère également dans la mesure où il existeun fort sentiment d’appartenance et d’identification chezles clients (supporters) et qu’il est complexe pour un clubde conquérir chez ses rivaux des « parts de marché ». Leparadoxe réside dans l’affrontement ou chacun cherche àgagner sportivement, tout en générant des ressources sanssupprimer sa concurrence. Cette dualité n’existe pas pourune entreprise classique, qui vise à écarter la concurrencepour maximiser ses revenus. Une stratégie d’entreprise doitêtre unique, conceptualisée en interne par rapport àl’environnement extérieur et avoir pour fin la réalisationdes objectifs (Hambrick & Fredrickson, 2001). Lastratégie, c’est un plan, une manœuvre, un modèle, uneposition et une perspective qu’il ne faut pas multiplier,source de confusions (Mintzberg, 2005). Dans le mondede l’entreprise, ce modèle explique de grandes réussitesindustrielles et commerciales (Coca-Cola, IBM,Microsoft…).Exploration du modèle américain : Les franchisessportives américaines suivent un principe de stratégie dedéveloppement à l’exception de la position concurrentiellequi n’a pas pour objectif de la supprimer. Fondées àl’origine comme des entreprises, elles sont gérées par leurpropriétaire en fonction des personnalités, des ambitionset des moyens. Chaque organisation met en place unestratégie de développement avec des actions commerciales.Chaque équipe sportive est une véritable marquecommercialement exploitée. Les clubs de footballeuropéens, ne développent que rarement des stratégies àlong terme. Les discours des dirigeants évoquentessentiellement des politiques impliquant des actionscommerciales, des volontés de recrutement et des stratégiessportives. Ces politiques souvent changent ensuite au grédes résultats ou des humeurs du club. La gestion des clubsen Europe s’éloigne de cette définition de stratégie globale.Principales conséquence, les résultats financiers desclubs sportifs en Europe sont nettement inférieurs qu’auxEtats-Unis. Pour exemple, en 2006, les franchises NBAont dégagé 3,2 milliards de dollars (2,1 milliardsd’euros) de chiffre d’affaires1 , soit plus de 100 M$ (67M•) par franchise, pour un bénéfice moyen de près de10 M$ (6,7 M•) (taux de rendement : 10%).19

A titre de comparaison, les 20 clubs de la Ligue 1 françaiseont cumulé 977 M• de produits et un bénéfice de 42 M•1

(taux de rendement : 4%), soit par club un chiffre d’affairesmoyen de 48,9 M• et un bénéfice de 2,1 M•. L’exemplefrançais est assez flagrant et démontre le décalage par rap-port à la NBA. Autre différence notable, si les 20 clubseuropéens les plus riches présentent un chiffre d’affairestotal de 3,7 milliards d’euros2 (185 M• en moyenne parclub), supérieur à la moyenne NBA ; c’est parce qu’il esttiré vers le haut par quelques rares clubs très en avance surles autres (le Real Madrid et Manchester United dépassentles 300 M• de chiffre d’affaires) alors que la plupart desautres clubs sont gérés suivant un modèle de football ama-teur. Le sport professionnel aux Etats-Unis se développeainsi suivant un mode assez différent de celui de l’Europe.

Appliquer le modèle Américain à l’Europe : Certainesorganisations sportives américaines investissent dansdifférents clubs de football européens, et tentent d’yappliquer les recettes qui ont permis aux franchisesaméricaines d’enregistrer de bons résultats financiers. Ainsi,le club de football Paris Saint-Germain, en France, a étéracheté en 2006 par Colony Capital, un fonds de place-ment américain, qui réduit l’enveloppe des transferts duclub et projette un projet immobilier autour du Parc desPrinces, deux mesures typiques du modèle de gestion dusport américain. C’est en Angleterre que le phénomène s’estle plus fait sentir, où deux clubs historiques de la PremiereLeague, symboles du modèle historique européen, sontachetés par des propriétaires de franchises sportives nord-américaines. Le Liverpool FC, en 2007, est ainsi devenula propriété de Tom Hicks (propriétaire de la franchise debaseball des Texas Rangers et de hockey des Dallas Stars)et de George Gillett (propriétaire de la franchise de hockeydes Canadiens de Montréal), au grand mécontentement dessupporters du club qui se sont manifestés contre ce rachat,et continuent de s’opposer aux projets de la direction duclub. Manchester United a été acheté en 2005 par MalcolmGlazer, propriétaire de la franchise de football américaindes Tampa Bay Bucaneers. Le club sera modifié enprofondeur par son nouveau président. Ces propriétairesAméricain cherchent à recréer en Europe ce qui fait leurfortune Outre Atlantique mais dans quelle mesure le foot-ball Européen peut-il évoluer vers un managementstratégique privilégiant le profit ?

On a donc vu que les modèles de développement des deuxcôtés de l’Atlantique sont historiquement et culturellementtrès différents, voire opposés. Etudions maintenant,concrètement, dans quelle mesure il est possible (ou pas)de faire converger le modèle européen vers son homologueaméricain. Plus explicitement : est-il possible d’adapter laméthode de gestion des franchises sportives américaines àl’Europe ?

1 Source : rapport de la DNCG « Comptes des clubsprofessionnels », saison 2006/072 Source : rapport « Deloitte Football Money League2008 »

La tendance à la médiatisation : Les clips promotionnelset les bandes-annonces de match montrent, pour attirer dansles stades et devant leur télévision les spectateurs (et doncles clients) des images de jeu, des actions de matches(plaquages, buts, dunks, home-runs, tacles, etc…), choisieset orientées selon la signification qu’on veut préalablementà la partie. Plus que tout autre vecteur, le jeu donne enviede regarder du jeu, et un spectateur assistant à un « beaumatch », dans un stade ou devant sa télévision, est unspectateur satisfait, donc un spectateur qui reviendra. C’estpourquoi le jeu est systématiquement mis en avant, commeen témoigne par exemple le slogan de la NBA : « I lovethis game . On a vu ainsi ces dernières années progresserexponentiellement la qualité des retransmissions dans tousles sports : multiplication des caméras et des ralentis, re-portages en coulisses, nombreuses interviews de joueurs…Cependant, les droits télévisuels sont de plus en plus cherset occupent une part grandissante dans le budget des clubs.La Ligue 1 française a été négociée à 668 M• par saisonjusqu’en 20121 , dont 75 M• pour le champion lyonnais en20082 , ce qui représente près d’un quart de son budget,tandis que ces droits en Espagne composent 32% de celuidu Real Madrid, champion en titre3 . Aux Etats-Unis, lesdroits de la NBA ont coûté 7,4 milliards de dollars sur 8ans (période 2008-2016) à son diffuseur américain ESPN/ABC, en augmentation de 21% par rapport au derniercontrat (930 M$ annuels contre 767 M$ précédemment)4 .

On peut évoquer les stratégies des acteur du marché dutextile sportif mondial, notamment les deux géants Nikeet Adidas, qui utilisent chacun en Europe une stratégietrès agressive similaire à celle utilisée en Amérique. Cesgroupes proposent des contrats pour équiper les plusgrands joueurs (en 2006, Nike a versé plus de 400 M$ àses sportifs, hors prime5 ), en centrant leur communica-tion autour des principales vedettes dont ils exploitent lepotentiel auprès du public. Les joueurs deviennent desidoles par leurs performances et des icônes par lapublicité (cf. annexe 1 pour des exemples), un des pre-miers et meilleurs exemples étant Michael Jordan quireçut, en 1987, 4,7 M$ sur 5 ans de la part de Nike (quia développé toute une gamme de produits « Air Jordan »au nom de l’athlète). Les clubs et franchises utilisentl’assimilation d’un joueur à leurs couleurs etpersonnifient le club aux yeux du public. Cette stratégiea été poussée à l’extrême par le Real Madrid au débutdes années 2000, à l’époque où ils alignaient l’équipedite des « Galactiques ».

1 Source : communiqué de la Ligue de FootballProfessionnel du 06 février 20082 Source: communiqué OL Groupe du 28 juillet 20083 Source : Deloitte & Touche, 20064 Source : Les Echos5 Source : « Les revenus des sportifs de haut niveausont-ils trop élevés ? », par Claude Sobry, Université deLille, juin 2006

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La stratégie du président Florentino Perez, alors à la têtedu club, était de recruter à chaque intersaison une super-star, qui bien sûr renforçait l’équipe sportivement parlant,mais surtout le club financièrement, puisque le contrat signésuccessivement par Figo (2000), Zidane (2001), Ronaldo(2002) et Beckham (2003) et Owen (2004) incluaient tousla cession de 50% des droits d’image de ces joueurs à leurnouvel employeur. Cela a permis au club madrilène, grâceà la valeur médiatique de ces joueurs, d’augmentersignificativement ses revenus. Le cas Beckham estparticulièrement significatif : de par son impact médiatique(il a été en 2006 le 4ème joueur le plus médiatisé au monde,notamment dans les médias anglo-saxons et asiatiques).Or le club récupère 50% de ces revenus, donc le salairequ’il lui verse est amorti par cette seule clause de soncontrat. Lorsqu’on ajoute les autres profits réalisés par leReal grâce à Beckham (merchandising divers, etc…), onarrive à un revenu de 35 à 45 M• annuels1 , pour uninvestissement initial (et unique) de 25 M• lors de sontransfert depuis Manchester United en 2003, auquel on peutajouter les revenus des compétitions gagnées grâce àl’apport du joueur (même si les résultats sportifs sur lapériode n’ont pas été brillants). Quand on sait que Beckhamn’est pas l’élément le plus médiatisé de l’effectif madrilène(le brésilien Ronaldo le devance) et que celui-ci comporteou a comporté d’autres vedettes (Zidane, Raul, Figo, Owen,Cannavaro, Van Nistelrooy, Robinho…), on comprendmieux pourquoi le merchandising fournit 39% des revenusdu Real Madrid en 2007 (136 M•)2 . On assiste égalementà un nouveau phénomène : les clubs et/ou franchisess’appuient de plus en plus sur leurs joueurs étrangers pourpromouvoir leur marque à l’étranger. Ceci estparticulièrement marqué dans le cas de l’Asie, certainsclubs recrutant des Chinois ou des Japonais, notamment,non pas pour leurs qualités sportives mais pour le potentielcommercial qu’ils représentent dans leur pays d’origine ;le joueur est alors une célébrité dans son pays d’origine,alors même qu’il joue très peu et reste quasi-inconnu là oùil évolue.

Dans d’autres cas (la plupart), l’intérêt sportif estpris en compte et il arrive que le joueur réussisse dans sonclub (le footballeur Hidetoshi Nakata en Italie ou le chinoisYao Ming en NBA, par exemple), mais cela n’empêchepas les clubs d’exploiter un maximum les atoutscommerciaux que représentent les joueurs asiatiques pour« vendre » le club, et plus globalement les ligues, en Ori-ent. Par exemple, le footballeur coréen Park Ji-sung est undes moteurs de l’incroyable popularité de son club,Manchester United, au Pays du Matin Calme (et pluslargement dans toute l’Asie), tandis le basketteur Yao Ming,des Houston Rockets, est devenu une icône en Chine,puisqu’il incarne aux yeux de ses compatriotes l’excellencechinoise capable de s’imposer chez le rival américain. C’estd’ailleurs de par la fierté qu’il inspire qu’il a été porte-drapeau de la délégation chinoise aux Jeux Olympiquesd’Athènes en 2004 et surtout de Pékin en 2008, mais cettefièvre nationaliste autour de sa personne n’empêche passon club d’exploiter au maximum le potentiel commercialqu’il représente…

La tendance à la financiarisation Si la cotation en boursedes franchises américaines, quel que soit le sport, resteassez marginale puisque c’est seulement le cas pourquelques unes d’entre elles1 , le phénomène d’introductionsur les marchés financiers des clubs de football européensest réel, bien que récent. Dans le milieu des années 90,plusieurs gouvernements européens l’ont en effet autorisé,provoquant l’apparition de plusieurs clubs dans les boursesnationales, notamment à Londres dans la mesure où c’esten Angleterre que le plus de clubs ont choisi ce mode dedéveloppement2 , parmi lesquels des cadors du championnat(Chelsea depuis 1996, Manchester Utd entre 1991 et 2005,etc…), mais aussi d’autres clubs beaucoup plus modestes(Gillingham, Preston, Millwall, etc…). En France, legouvernement s’est longtemps opposé à une telle législation(notamment du temps du gouvernement socialiste, avec lacommuniste Marie-George Buffet au Ministère de laJeunesse et des Sports), mais en 2005 la « loi sur laparticipation et l’actionnariat salarié », initiée par leministre Jean-François Lamour, répondit auxrecommandations de l’Union Européenne et aux attentesde plusieurs présidents de club. Deux clubs français ontpour le moment tenté l’expérience : l’Olympique Lyonnaiset FC Istres Ouest Provence. Les clubs cherchent par ceprocédé à lever des fonds, notamment pour financer desinfrastructures permettant de suppléer le secteur sportif entant que pourvoyeur de revenus. Istres, par exemple,cherche grâce à son introduction en bourse à créer àl’intérieur du club une nouvelle activité : un centre derééducation pour les sportifs blessés. Comme l’expliquele co-président du club, Bertrand Calvignac, « dansbeaucoup de clubs il n’existe qu’un seul poumon : lesportif. Cela ne pose pas de problème quand les résultatssont là. Mais dès que sportivement, la situation se dégrade,il manque un poumon économique celui-là, capabled’assurer la pérennité du club »3 .Le succès n’est pas toujours au rendez-vous, de nombreusesétudes (notamment celle du GREGOR en 20054 )démontrant que la valorisation des clubs côtés est largementdépendante des résultats sportifs et que peu de clubs ontvu leur valeur boursière augmenter (Galatasaray enTurquie, Manchester United en Angleterre et un clubdanois). Ainsi, tous les clubs anglais côtés depuis les années90 (sauf Manchester United) ont vu leur valeur boursièrebaisser depuis, tandis qu’en France, l’Olympique Lyonnaisa réussi sa levée de fonds lors de l’introduction du titre« OL Groupe » en février 2007 au prix de 24•5 , mais celui-ci est tombé en août 2008 à 18• (cf. annexe 4). Les fiascosretentissants ne sont pas rares non plus : la Lazio de Romeou Newcastle United se sont retrouvés en grande difficultésuite à l’effondrement de leurs cours boursier.Logiquement, au vu de cet échec apparent des clubs enbourse, qu’on peut expliquer notamment par le côtéforcément affectif (donc non rationnel) d’un telinvestissement, les introductions sont de moins en moinsnombreuses et la tendance est plutôt au rachat par despropriétaires uniques, que ce soit des particuliers ou desentreprises. Un investisseur unique est plus à même de voirà long terme, alors que le marché est trop sensible et réactifau vu de l’incertitude des résultats sportifs.21

1 Source : ESIrg-Universidad de Navarra : « What is thecontribution of Beckham to Real Madrid? », 2007,comme la plupart des données sur le Real Madrid de ceparagraphe.2 Source : rapport « Deloitte Football Money League2008 »3 Les Boston Celtics en basket-ball, les Florida Panthersen hockey sur glace et les Cleveland Indians.4 Au total, 23 des 43 clubs ayant choisi de s’introduire enbourse sont britanniques. Les autres clubs dans ce cassont danois, italiens, turcs, allemands, portugais, suisseset hollandais.5 Source : L’Equipe du dimanche 15 juillet 2007 des recrues dans leur nouvelle équipe.

Le succès n’est pas toujours au rendez-vous, de nombreusesétudes (notamment celle du GREGOR en 20051 )démontrant que la valorisation des clubs côtés est largementdépendante des résultats sportifs et que peu de clubs ontvu leur valeur boursière augmenter (Galatasaray enTurquie, Manchester United en Angleterre et un clubdanois). Ainsi, tous les clubs anglais côtés depuis les années90 (sauf Manchester United) ont vu leur valeur boursièrebaisser depuis, tandis qu’en France, l’Olympique Lyonnaisa réussi sa levée de fonds lors de l’introduction du titre« OL Groupe » en février 2007 au prix de 24•2 , mais celui-ci est tombé en août 2008 à 18• (cf. annexe 4). Les fiascosretentissants ne sont pas rares non plus : la Lazio de Romeou Newcastle United se sont retrouvés en grande difficultésuite à l’effondrement de leurs cours boursier.Logiquement, au vu de cet échec apparent des clubs enbourse, qu’on peut expliquer notamment par le côtéforcément affectif (donc non rationnel) d’un telinvestissement, les introductions sont de moins en moinsnombreuses et la tendance est plutôt au rachat par despropriétaires uniques, que ce soit des particuliers ou desentreprises. Un investisseur unique est plus à même de voirà long terme, alors que le marché est trop sensible et réactifau vu de l’incertitude des résultats sportifs.Il n’en demeure pas moins qu’en Europe, le statut des clubsévolue. D’organisations associatives, ils sont devenus pourleurs propriétaires et/ou leurs actionnaires de vrais actifs,comme cela a toujours été le cas aux Etats-Unis. Ainsi, lesclubs ou franchises (ou du moins certains d’entre eux)s’achètent et se revendent couramment, les propriétairescherchent, selon leur personnalité, à réaliser des objectifsplus ou moins sportifs, en espérant réaliser une plus-valuelorsqu’ils cèderont leur possession. Conséquence de cetteévolution : le budget des clubs a fortement augmenté (enFrance : +39,8% en moyenne pour les clubs de L1 entreles saisons 2004/05 et 2006/073 ) et celui-ci est devenu unfacteur essentiel dans le succès sportif4 : les plus richespeuvent logiquement attirer les meilleurs joueurs, qui leurpermettent de gagner des trophées et donc des primes (devictoire et de diffusion sur les télévisions). C’est ainsi queles dirigeants des clubs se servent des résultats économiquesde leurs entreprises afin d’asseoir leur domination sport-ive, le plus souvent en se donnant, grâce aux premiersbénéfices, les moyens d’en faire d’autres : dans le cas dufootball, les clubs dont on considère l’entrée en bourseréussie sont ceux qui se sont servis de la levée de fondsréalisée pour investir

La tendance au marchandising : Les clubs utilisent leurimage de marque à des fins commerciales, toujours dansl’optique de s’assurer des rendements indépendants desrésultats sur le terrain. C’est ce qu’on appelle, quelque peuabusivement, le « marketing » dans le sport. Ainsi, aussibien en Europe qu’aux Etats-Unis, les clubs principaux(voire même tous les clubs) vendent à leurs supporters desmaillots et divers produits dérivés à leurs couleurs, souventfloqués nom d’un des joueurs de l’équipe (voir plus hautl’exemple des Galactiques du Real Madrid).

1 GREGOR, cahier n°2005-04 : « La cotation des clubsde football anglais. Une analyse différenciée des facteursexplicatifs de fluctuations de cours », par J.Allouche etS.Soulez2 Source : communiqué OL Groupe du 26 janvier 20073 Source : rapport de la DNCG « Comptes des clubsprofessionnels », saison 2006/074 « La corrélation entre l’ampleur du budget et leclassement sportif tend donc à se renforcer », rapport dela DNCG « Comptes des clubs professionnels », saison2006/07

dans des infrastructures durables (stades, centres de for-mation, terrains d’entraînement…) et non pas pour financerdes transferts aventureux, sujets par essence à l’incertitudesportive de par le succès aléatoire

Le bassin de développement de ces marques est bienévidemment la ville ou la région d’implantation des équipesen question, notamment dans le cas des équipes historiquesde certaines ligues, dont le palmarès et l’histoire assurentune large popularité auprès des « autochtones ». Cependant,mondialisation oblige, l’aura de certains clubs dépassedésormais largement les frontières nationales, et nombrede dirigeants de parler maintenant de « développer lamarque » à l’étranger, alors qu’on parle d’un club censé àla base disputer des compétitions sportives. L’influenceculturelle de l’Europe et des Etats-Unis, de même que lapuissance et l’attractivité des compétitions qui y sontorganisées, leur a permis d’acquérir une renommée et unsuivi au-delà des territoires où les championnats sedisputent, faisant ainsi accéder les clubs participants à uneexposition médiatique importante partout dans le monde.C’est pourquoi le recrutement des joueurs est maintenantglobalisé dans les sports les plus universels (représentationen NBA et dans le football européen de toutes lesnationalités, présence en NHL de joueurs de l’ex-Bloc del’Est, de Cubains en MBL…), chaque nouvelle nationalitéreprésentée ouvrant un nouveau marché potentiel,notamment en Asie comme on l’a vu plus haut. Le réseaucommercial des clubs ou franchises dites « globalisées »(les plus connus) s’accroît donc, leur nom représentant danscertains cas une marque aussi reconnue que Nike ou Adidas,par exemple, parfois même diversifiée au-delà de lacommercialisation de simples articles sportifs portantl’écusson du club : Manchester United vient par exemplede lancer une chaîne de restaurants à son nom en Asie.Les fonds investis viennent également d’horizons de plusen plus divers, en particulier dans la Premiere League defootball anglaise.22

Quand auparavant, la plupart des propriétaires et dirigeantsétaient britanniques, on a assisté ces dernières années à denombreux rachats par des étrangers (Manchester Unitedet Liverpool par des Américains, Chelsea par un Russe,Portsmouth par un Israélien, Manchester City par unThaïlandais…), dont l’argent a parfois des originesdouteuses.

Les limites au modèle américain de stratégie : On voitdonc bien ici que, en Europe comme aux Etats-Unis, cequ’il convient désormais d’appeler « les entreprisessportives » sont parvenues à diversifier leurs activités etleurs ressources. S’il existe des points communs,différences structurelles et culturelles s’élèvent en obstacleà l’adaptation du modèle américain au sport professionnelen Europe.

La limite structurelle : L’une des principales différencesentre les compétitions sportives et européennes réside dansle principe de sanction sportive. En Europe, chaquecompétition consacre un vainqueur, un champion et les plusmauvaises équipes subissent la relégation en divisioninférieure ou la non-qualification pour l’édition suivante.Aux Etats-Unis, le principe de la ligue fermée permet auxéquipes de s’affronter entre elles dans un seul et mêmechampionnat, partagé en plusieurs divisions régionales,sans conséquences suites à une absence de résultats.

Inversement, les dirigeants européens ont besoin d’agirdans l’urgence, car un échec sur la saison provoque desconséquences lourdes. La principale raison de l’absencede stratégie à long terme dans le football européen résidedans cette différence : le résultat immédiat est prioritairecar il conditionne les saisons futures, et les revenus qui endécoulent. Les dirigeants européens ne peuvent pas établirde stratégie à long terme. Ceci pose clairement un problèmeaux clubs européens, car la fameuse « incertitude du sport »les empêche de prévoir et d’assurer leurs ressources à longterme, problème que n’ont pas les franchises américaines.Les clubs européens doivent prendre en considérationbeaucoup plus de paramètres que leurs homologuesaméricains. Le secteur sportif peut avoir une incidence àtrès court terme sur le développement de l’entreprise, etde mauvais résultats sont susceptibles de menacer le rangd’un club dans une hiérarchie établie. Par rapport aux Etats-Unis où les dirigeants peuvent se consacrer entièrement àla gestion des franchises en tant qu’entreprise, les présidentseuropéens doivent forcément garder un œil sur l’aspectsportif, lequel conditionne le succès économique. Ceciexplique donc la gestion parfois archaïque, d’un point devue managérial, des clubs de football européens encomparaison avec les franchises américaines.La limite culturelle : Un club en Europe possède unevéritable histoire, une propre culture forgée par un passécomposé de plusieurs décennies. Ces éléments culturelssont cristallisés par des joueurs « de légende », lescouleurs, un lieu, un stade… Les supporters sontconsidérés comme les garants de ce patrimoine, la pas-sion du club se transmet entre les générations.

L’exemple est flagrant en Espagne, où ce sont les support-ers qui, en prenant leur abonnement en début de saison,deviennent des socios, et ce faisant votent pour le présidentdu club et sont donc partie prenante dans la vie du club.Un dirigeant désireux de changer la stratégie de son clubdoit composer avec ces différentes composantes. Si leManchester United avait réussi à évoluer avec succès versun autre modèle de gestion, cela n’a pas pu se fairebrutalement ni sans conserver certains éléments propresau club. Le contre-exemple pourrait être le déménagementen 2001 du FC Wimbledon du Sud de Londres vers MiltonKeys, bourgade à 60 miles au Nord de Londres, manœuvreinédite et insolite pour un club de football qui avaitprovoqué des réactions négatives des supporters. La gloireet la victoire étant fondamentalement les objectifsqu’aspirent à atteindre un club de football, il faut justifierque toute décision prise poursuit ces buts, à plus ou moinslong terme, sous peine de se voir mettre à dos le public etl’opinion. Ce lien entre une organisation sportive et sonenvironnement social (ville, fans…) est très développé. Uneconséquence de cette particularité sociale des clubseuropéens confère à la personnalité qui en occupe la tête,une célébrité qui constitue souvent un tremplin vers d’autresresponsabilités politiques. Le président du Conseil en Italie,Mr Silvio Berlusconi, appuie sa popularité sur les succèsdu Milan AC dont il est président ; les exemples sontnombreux chez les présidents de clubs qui se sont présentésà la mairie de leur ville (Jean-Louis Borloo àValenciennes…) ou que leur poste a aidé pour développerleurs affaires (Bernard Tapie, Louis Nicollin…).Conclusion : De multiples facteurs freinent l’adaptationdu modèle américain de gestion du sport professionnelaux clubs européens de football. Si le business en lui-même semble assez comparable, en ce sens que chacunpropose un spectacle sous forme d’une opposition sport-ive entre deux équipes de haut niveau, quel que soit lesport, l’environnement propre aux sports américains etaux clubs européens apparaît lui comme différent dechaque côté de l’Atlantique : la dimension culturelle ettraditionnelle est beaucoup plus présente et importanteen Europe. En effet, le football européen est régi par desrèglements et de systèmes organisationnels qui résultentd’une longue évolution, dont les origines remontent à lacréation du jeu lui-même aux XIXème siècle (voiremême avant). De plus, à ces spécificités propres au foot-ball s’ajoute une dimension géopolitique, chaque équipereprésentant quelque chose de différent par rapport à uneautre, de par son histoire ou sa localisation, et chaquepays organisant ses compétitions domestiques dont lesmeilleurs éléments participent éventuellement à untournoi de niveau supérieur. En découlent donc denombreuses caractéristiques : aléa sportif, statutparticulier des clubs, rivalités, traditions diverses,morcellement des territoires et des compétitions… dontil faut nécessairement tenir compte dans l’organisation etl’élaboration des compétitions.A l’inverse, les championnats américains ont été créésplus récemment et sur mesure par des instancescentralisées, ce qui est facilité par le fait que les Etats-Unis ne forment qu’un seul et même pays.

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Les ligues nationales américaines ont donc été organiséesde manière à ce que chaque franchise puisse faire ce qu’elleveut, tandis que le développement du football en Europen’a pas historiquement suivi le même chemin. La fondationdes clubs y a précédé celle des fédérations, qui ont dû com-poser avec un puzzle déjà en place et souvent difficile àgérer, et dont il faut nécessairement tenir compte, avec pourconséquence (entre autres) les multiples échelons decompétition. Il serait en effet inimaginable de voir se créerune super-ligue européenne, qui serait l’équivalent desligues américaines, au détriment des championnatsnationaux, par exemple. De fait, les franchises américainesont grandi selon le modèle libéral qui régit l’économie dupays depuis toujours, ce qui a été impossible pour les clubseuropéens, héritiers d’un modèle associatif et denombreuses traditions qui sont, d’un point de vue entre-preneurial, autant de contraintes pour le développementdes marques et des firmes.

Bibliographie

- Boniface P (2006), Football et Mondialisation, Paris,Armand Colin.- Mintzberg H, Ahlstrand B, Lampel J (2005), StrategyBites Back, Upper Saddle River (New Jersey, Etats-Unis),Prentice Hall.- Hambrick D, Fredrickson J (2001), Are you sure you havea strategy, Academy of Mangement Executive.- Pujol F, Garcia-del-Barrio P (2007), What is thecontribution of Beckham to Real Madrid? technical note,ESIrg, Universidad de Navarra.

- Allouche J, Soulez S (2005), La cotation des clubs defootball anglais. Une analyse différenciée des facteursexplicatifs des fluctuations de cours, cahier de recherche,Groupe de REcherche en Gestion des ORganisations(GREGOR), Paris.- Deloitte (2008), Football Money League.- DNCG (2007), Comptes des ClubsProfessionnels 2006/07.

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ORIENTÃRI STRATEGICE ÎN ASIGURAREACALITÃÞII MANAGEMENTULUI ACADEMIC,CENTRAT PE CONSTRUCÞIA SOCIO-ECONOMICÃ A ROMÂNIEI, ÎN DOMENIULFUNDAMENTAL DE ªTIINÞE E.F.S. Prof. univ. dr. Ioan Ion Lador Inspector General M.E.C.T.

Cuvinte cheie : strategii, calitate, managementacademic, domeniu fundamental de ºtiinþe,economia cunoaºterii, programe educaþionale1. INTRODUCERE ÎN TEORIACUNOAªTERIISe cunoaºte faptul cã sistemul educaþional din

România este fundamentat pe douã componentedominante simbiotic funcþional ºi anumemanagementul academic ºi managementuladministrativ. Dacã în zona managementuluiadministrativ practica, aplicaþia socio-economicã esteevidenþiatã într-un context al pragmatismului la nivelde microsistem, managementul academic surprindeprin lipsã de pragmatism la nivel de macrosistem,atunci când ne referim la finalitãþi ale unui procesinstrucþional, la proiecþia socialã a viitoruluiabsolvent din domeniul educaþiei fizice ºi al sportului.Deasemenea, este cunoscut faptul cã managementulacademic reprezintã o ºtiinþã a procesului de formareprofesionalã, a creativitãþii, a cercetãrii prinprogramele educaþionale pe care le construieºte, lepromoveazã ºi le aplicã în sistem educaþional la nivelL – M – D ºi al cercetãrii ºtiinþifice. În susþinereaobiectivului fundamental al FEFS, aº pleca de laopinia unui mare gânditor al managementuluiperformant care opina în The Economist„managementul este principala cale de creºtereeconomicã a unei þãri ºi cã nu existã þãri bogate ºiþãri sãrace, ci existã þãri bine conduse ºi þãri prostconduse”. Prin extrapolare, pãstrând proporþiileputem spune cã nu avem FEFS-uri bune ºi FEFS-urimai puþin bune, cã existã FEFS-uri bine conduse ºiFEFS-uri prost conduse. În aceastã perspectivã aintegrãrii FEFS în construcþia economico – socialã aRomâniei putem defini managementul performantaplicat la nivel FEFS, ca un proces de coordonare aresurselor umane, informaþionale, fizice ºi financiareîn vederea realizãrii construcþiei de programeeducaþionale centrate pe calitate ºi pe finalitãþileacestora în integrarea absolvenþilor în construcþiaeconomico – socialã a României.

Proiecþia socialã a viitorilor absolvenþi FEFS pespecializãrile acreditate L – M – D, trebuie sã fiecentratã pe economia socialã specificã Românieibazatã pe cunoºtinþe ºi competenþe, Educaþia Fizicãºi Sportul, sportul de performanþã ºi înaltãperformanþã reprezintã o importantã zonã deinvestiþii. Asupra EFS se îndreaptã atenþiaspecialiºtilor în economie (economiºti), manageri,specialiºtii din domeniul financiar – contabil(finanþiºti, contabili), specialiºti din turism ºi comerþ,din sãnãtate ºi media, securitate, etc..

STRATEGIC ORIENTATIONS IN ENSURING THEQUALITY OF THE ACADEMIC MANAGEMENTCENTERED ON ROMANIA’S SOCIO-ECONOMI-CAL CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE PHYSICAL EDU-CATION AND SPORT (PES) SCIENCES FUNDA-MENTAL DOMAIN

By Univ. Dr. Ioan Ion Lador MINISTERY OF EDUCA-TION RESEARCH AND YOUTHGeneral InspectorKey words: strategies, quality, academic management,fundamental field of science, the economy of knowledge,educational programs1.INTRODUCTION INTO THE KNOWLEDGETHEORY

It is a well known fact that the Romanian system ofeducation is based on two components which are domi-nant from a symbiotically functional point of view: theacademic management and the administrative management.

If the practice or socio-economical application fromthe area of the administrative management is underlined ina pragmatic context at a micro-system level, the academicmanagement is surprising by its lack of pragmatism at amacro-system level, when reference is made to some fi-nalities of an instructional process, or to the social projec-tion of the future graduate in the Physical Education andSports domain. Likewise, it is largely known that the aca-demic management represents a science of the process ofprofessional growth, creativity, and research through theeducational programs it builds, promotes and applies in aneducational system, at a L-M-D (Licence – Master – Doc-torate) level and of the scientific research.

In the effort of supporting the PES fundamental ob-jective, I would start from the opinion of a great thinker ofthe performance management, who , in “The Economist”,sustained that “management is a country’s main means ofeconomic growth and that there are no poor countries, butwell lead countries and badly lead ones.” By extrapola-tion, but by keeping proportions, we may say that we haveno good or less good FPES-s, (Facutly of Physical Educa-tion and Sport), but well lead FPES -s and poorly leadones. From such a perspective of integrating FPES inRomania’s economical -social construction we may definethe performative management applied at FPES level as aprocess of coordinating the human resources, informational,physical and financial ones, with a view to accomplishingthe construction of educational programs centered on qual-ity and on their finalities in integrating the young gradu-ates in Romania’s economical-social construction. Thesocial protection of the future FPES graduates of the ac-credited specializations L-M-D must be focused on thesocial economy specific to Romania, based on knowledgeand competences, Physical Education and Sport, perfor-mance and high performance sport constitutes an impor-tant investing area. PES draws the attention of the economyspecialists, managers, finance and accountability special-ists, tourism, commerce specialists as well as media, secu-rity ones. PES has become an important economy “com-pany” which, if appropriately managed, may bring impor-tant benefits to Romania’s socio-economical growth.25

2. ELEMENTE DE CONÞINUT ALESOCIETÃÞII SOCIO – ECONOMICE

BAZATÃ PE CUNOªTINÞE2.1. Economia bazatã pe cunostinþe este definitã

ca un concept complex ca fiind „econimia bazatã înmod direct pe producþia, distribuþia ºi utilizareacunoºtinþelor ºi informaþiilor”. Economia bazata pecunoºtinþe „în esenþã, se caracterizeazã printransformarea cunoºtinþelor în materie primã, capi-tal, produse, factori de producþie esenþiali aieconomiei ºi prin procese economice în cadrul cãroragenerarea, vânzarea, cumpãrarea, învãþarea, stocarea,dezvoltarea, partajarea ºi protecþia cunoºtinþelordevin predominante ºi condiþioneazã decisivobþinerea de profit ºi asigurarea sustenabilitãþiieconomiei pe termen lung” (O. Nicolescu).

Trãsãturile definitorii ale economiei bazatepe cunoºtinþe au un impact dominant în orientãrilestrategice în asigurarea calitãþii managementului aca-demic în E.F.S. Economia bazatã pe cunoºtinþeimpune o nouã clasã socialã, specialiºti bazaþi pecunoºtinþe focalizaþi pe: dedicare profesionalã,mobilitate profesionalã, organizaþionalã ºi geograficã,capital intelectual, învãþare continuã. Pentru FEFSºi managementul acestora o importanþã fundamentalão are cunoaºterea strategiei Uniunii Europene deconstruire a economiei bazate pe cunoºtinþe avândca obiectiv strategic global „sã devinã pânã în anul2010 cea mai competitivã economie din lume, bazatãpe ºtiinþã…” Redãm mai jos elementele esenþiale alemediului macroeconomic bazat pe cunoºtinþe înUniunea Europeanã. (sursa O. Nicolescu, adaptatãºi modificatã de autor)

C Domeniul fundamental de ºtiinþe E.F.S.,cãruia i se consacrã politici specifice.

U Studenþi, cadre didactice, educaþie,trening, e-Europa, parteneri sociali ºi reforma

N socialã.O Creativitate, cercetare, spaþiul european

al cercetãrii ºtiinþifice, educaþie, e-Europa ºi

ª stimulente financiare.T Dezvoltare, evoluþie creativã, inovare,

activitãþi sociale, infrastructurã decunoºtinþe,

I stimulente fiscale.N Finanþarea creativitãþii, piaþa europeanã

de capital integratã, Banca Europeanã deÞ Investiþii.E Pieþe globale, politici privind piaþa ºi

comerþul european.2.2 Organizatia bazata pe cunoºtinþe este definitã

ca „o structurã de piaþã, a cãrei resursão constituie cunoºtinþele, activitãþileprincipale axându-se asupra creãrii,achiziþionãrii, protecþiei, utilizãrii,învãþãrii, partajãrii, integrãrii ºivalorificarii acestora în vederea obþinerii

de performanþe economice ºi sociale”.

The E FS economical effects are appreciated as ex-tremely efficient and attractive even in the area of the ap-plied sciences, where competence, knowledge, cognitiveabilities and creativity may contribute to the socio-eco-nomical growth in Romania. From this point of view, anew way of thinking imposes itself, a new concept in form-ing specialists in the PES science fundamental domain,being centered on quality inside the social protection ofthe future PES graduates. From this point of view also, weappreciate as being necessary to construct educational pro-grams inside PES and to center them on the three contentelements of the Romanian society: the knowledge basedeconomy, knowledge based organization, and a manage-ment process based on knowledge.

2. CONTENT ELEMENTS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMICAL SOCIETY BASED ON KNOWL-EDGE

2.1. The economy based on knowledge is defined as acomplex concept, that is the ”economy directly based onthe production, distribution and use of knowledge and in-formation.”

The knowledge based economy is mainly character-ized by the knowledge transformation into basic matter,capital, products, essential production factors of theeconomy, not to mention the economic processes insidewhich generating, buying, selling, learning, stocking, de-veloping, dividing and protecting knowledge become pre-dominant and decisively condition the profit gain and en-suring of the long term economy sustainability”(O.Nicolescu).

The defining features of the knowledge based economyhave a dominant impact on the strategic orientations inensuring the quality of the academic management insideFPES.

The knowledge based economy imposes a new socialclass, specialists focused on professional dedication, pro-fessional, organizational and geographic mobility, intel-lectual capital and continuous learning.

For FPES and their management it is of great impor-tance to know the European Union strategy on buildingthe knowledge based economy having as a global strategicobjective that of “ becoming the most competitive worldeconomy, based on science, up to 2010…”

Here are the essential elements of the European Unionmacro-economic environment, knowledge based (source;O.Nicolescu, adapted and modified by the author).

E.F.S fundamental field of science, to which spe-cific politics are afforded.

Students, teachers, education, training, e-Europe,social partners and social reform.

Creativity, research, European space of the sci-entific research, education, e-Europe, and

financial stimulants. Development, creative evo-lution, innovation, social activities, knowledge infrastruc-ture; fiscal stimulants.

Financing creativity, the integrated European capi-tal market, the European investition Bank.

Global markets, politics regarding the Europeanmarket and commerce.

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Organizaþia internaþionalã a viitorului inclusiv îndomeniul fundamental EFS, nu poate fi alta decâtuna bazatã pe cunoºtinþe.

Cunoºtinþele sunt elementul definitoriiale organizaþiei viitorului, sunt materia prima de bazãºi factorul de producþie esenþial, dar ºi un produs finitde bazã a organizaþiei.

Capitalul de cunoºtinþe reprezintã ceamai importantã componentã din economiaorganizaþiei.

Capitalul intelectual se utilizeazafrecvent în literatura de specialitate, incluzând ºicapitalul de cunoºtinþe, bazându-se pe treicomponente: umanã, structuralã ºi relaþionalã.

2.3 Managementul bazat pe cunoºtinþe este definitca activitate practicã, constând în abordãrile,metodele, tehnicile din organizaþie centrate asupraproducerii ºi utilizãrii cunoºtinþelor, prin care seasigurã o valorificare superioarã comparativ cuperioadele precedente, cu multiple valenþe alecunoºtinþelor. ªtiinþa managementului bazat pecunoºtinþe, constã în cercetarea proceselor ºirelaþiilor manageriale bazate pe cunoºtinþe îndescoperirea legitãþilor care le guverneazã ºi înconceperea de noi sisteme, metode, tehnici, etc. învederea creºterii funcþionalitãþii ºi performanþelororganizaþiilor, valorificând marile valenþe alecunoºtinþelor. În concluzie cele trei componentefundamentale: economia, organizaþia ºimanagementul bazate pe cunoºtinþe, conduc la o nouãgândire în asigurarea calitãþii managementului aca-demic, a programelor educaþionale.

3. ELEMENTE MANAGERIALE ªICALITATEA ÎN CONSTRUIREA DEPROGRAME EDUCAÞIONALE CENTRATEPE COMPONENTA SOCIO - ECONOMICÃ ÎNEFS În demersul nostru ºtiinþific, referitor laconstrucþia programelor educaþionale, am plecat dela obiectivul fundamental stabilit, ca misiune adomeniului educaþie fizicã ºi sport, al Facultãþilorde EFS, al Catedrelor de EFS, al cadrelor didacticeuniversitare ºi anume, integrarea acestora în procesulde construcþie socio – economicã a României încondiþii de þarã integratã european, precum ºi aglobalizãrii afacerilor ºi al internaþionalizãriiorganizaþiilor.

Se poate defini misiunea ca raþiune deexistenþã insituþionalã ºi ceea ce ea sperã sã devinã.

În acest sens, misiunea absolvenþilor FEFSintegralþi este aceea de a contribui la consolidareasocietãþii democratice bazatã pe cunoºtinþe.

Misiunea FEFS ºi a cadrelor didactice universitareeste aceea de a asigura

armonizarea dezvoltãrilor în România cu cele ce serealizeazã la nivel european ºi internaþional în formulareapoliticilor ºi strategiilor privind învãþãmântul de EFS. FEFS ºi cadrele didactice universitare trebuie sãcontribuie la dezvoltãrile metodologice referitoare laplanificarea ofertei educaþionale la dezvoltarea capacitãþii

2.2 The knowledge based organization is defined as a“market structure whose resource is represented by knowl-edge, the main activities being focused on creating, buy-ing, protecting, learning, dividing, integrating and valuingthem with a view to obtaining economical and social per-formances. The international future organization of thePES field also can only be based on knowledge.

Knowledge is the defining element of organizing thefuture, are the raw matter and essential factor, but also abasic finite product of the organization.

The knowledge capital represents the most impor-tant component of the organization economy.

The intellectual capital is often used in the specialfield of literature, including the knowledge capital, basedon 3 components: human, structural and relational.

2.3 The knowledge based management is defined asa practical activity consisting of the approach, methods,organization techniques focused on producing and usingknowledge by which a superior valued is ensured, if com-pared with the precedent periods of multiple knowledgeaspects. The science of the knowledge based managementconsists of researching processes and the managerial rela-tions based on knowledge in discovering the rules thatgovern them and in conceiving new systems, methods, tech-niques etc for increasing the organizational functionalityand performance, valuing the great possibilities broughtby knowledge. In conclusion, the three fundamental com-ponents: economy, organization and knowledge based man-agement lead to a new way of thinking in what concernsthe ensuring of the academic management quality, and ofthe educational programs.3. ABOUT MANAGERIAL ELEMENTS ANDQUALITY IN PUTTING TOGETHER EDUCA-TIONAL PROGRAMS FOCUSED ON THE PESSOCIO-ECONOMICAL COMPONENT

In our scientific endeavour concerning the educa-tional programs construction, we started from the funda-mental objective established as a mission of the PhysicalEducation and Sport domain, of the PES Faculties, of thePES teachers, of university teachers, that is their integra-tion inside the Romanian socio-economical constructionprocess as a Europe integrated country and the businessglobalization and organizations gone on an internationalplan. The mission can be defined as an institutional exist-ence reason and what it aspires to become. With such aregard, the mission of the PES integrated graduates is thatof contributing to the consolidation of the democratic so-ciety based on knowledge. PES and university teachersmission is that of ensuring the harmony between the Ro-manian developments and what is accomplished on anEuropean and international scale in formulating politicsand strategies concerning the PES learning. In PES, theuniversity teachers have to also contribute to themethodologic development referring to the educationaloffer planning, to developing of the institutional capacity,to elaborating, organizing and unfolding of the educationalprograms of the teaching-learning-research process, to theexamination and certifying of the professional training, toensuring the PES learning quality.

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instituþionale, la elaborarea , organizarea ºi desfãºurareaprogramelor educaþionale a procesului de predare – învãþare – cercetare, laexaminarea ºi certificarea pregãtirii profesionale la asigurarea calitãþii învãþãmântului deEFS. Având în vedere toate aceste elemente se pune firescîntrebarea : Ce îºi propun sã aducã în practicã programeleeducaþionale ?

Rãspunsul este acela cã, noi nu ºtim ceea cevrem sã producem !

Aceasta, o considerãm ca o slabã preocupare ºiimplicare a managementului academic la nivelul FEFS înprocesul de elaborare ºi construcþie a programeloranalitice, a finalitãþilor acesteia, precum ºi în ceea cepriveºte proiecþia socialã a viitorilor absolvenþi înidentificarea, definirea ºi legiferarea ocupaþiilor, în finalreglementarea calificãrilor în România ºi armonizareaacestora cu cele din spaþiul European în domeniul funda-mental de ºtiinþe EFS.Ce este de fãcut ?Considerãm cã este necesar, în regim de urgenþãmobilizarea comunitãþii academice din domeniul EFS ºiangajarea noastrã pe urmãtoarele activitãþi :

O remodelare a programelor analitice comparativ cu celpuþin 70 % la nivel naþional ºi cu cel puþin 60 % cu celedin Uniunea Europeana.

O redirecþionare a formaþiunilor de învãþãmânt centrate peproiecþia socialã a viitorului absolvent, pe componenteledominante ale construcþiei socio – economicã a României.

O recunoaºtere a disciplinei, ca unitate de bazã a sistemuluiEFS.

O coagulare a disciplinelor în module centrate pecomponente socio – economice.Pentru aceasta estenecesara elaborarea unei strategii.

4. METODOLOGIE, CA STRATEGIE ÎNASIGURAREA CALITÃÞII (MCT) ÎNCONSTRUCÞIA PROGRAMELOREDUCAÞIONALE CENTRATE PECALIFICÃRIPropunem, ca la baza strategiei sã se aibã învedere diagrama, din ccadrulManagementului Calitãþii Totale (MCT), dupãSir Frederick Crawford – 1991 adaptatã de autorºi prezentatã mai jos. Managementul CalitãþiiTotale (MCT) se coreleazã cu procesul deschimbare ºi dezvoltare instituþionlã, depromovare în obþinerea de eficienþã maximã înconstrucþia de programe educaþionale centrate peeconomia socialã a României. Bazat pe acestconcept al MCT care conferã un cadru al uneigândiri operaþionale ºi strategice, se poatepromova, elabora ºi aplica diagramamanagementului academic la nivel educaþionalcentrat pe construcþia programelor educaþionaleavând ca dominantã asigurarea calitãþii specificeocupaþiilor ºi calificãrilor la nivel L-M-D.

Considering all these elements, the question: “ Whatdo the educational programs propose to bring into prac-tice?” is only natural.

The answer is that we don’t know what we want toproduce!

We consider this as a weak preoccupation and impli-cation of the academic management at the PES level in theprocess of elaborating and construction of the analyticalprograms, of its finalities, as well as in what regards thesocial projection of the future graduates in identifying,defining and delimiting occupations, in the law consider-ation of the Romanian qualifications, and their harmoniz-ing with the ones from the European space in the PES fun-damental science domain.

What can be done?We consider that it is necessary to urgently mobilize

the academic community form the PES area and to strivein the following directions of activity:Ø A remodeling of the analytical pro-grams compared with at least 70% on a national level andat least 60% of the European Union.

Ø A redirecting of the learning formscentered on the social projection of the future graduates,on the dominant components of the Romanian socio-eco-nomical constructions.

Ø Discipline recognition, as a baseunit of the PES system.

Ø Uniting the disciplines in modulescentered on socio-economic components. This is why it isnecessary to elaborate a certain strategy.

3. METHODOLOHY, AS A STRAT-EGY OF ENSURING THE QUALITY(MCT) OF THE EDUCATIONAL PRO-GRAMS FOCUSED ON QUALIFICA-TIONS

We propose that the starting point of the strategybe the graphic of Total Quality Management (MCT), bySir Frederick Crawford – 1991 , adapted by the author andresented bellow.

The management of the total quality (MCT) iscorrelated with the process of institutional change and de-velopment, of promoting in order to obtain maximal effi-ciency in the construction of educational programs basedon the Romanian social economy.

Based on this MCT concept which provides abackground for the operational and strategic thinking, onecan promote, elaborate and apply the graphic of the aca-demic management at the educational level which is fo-cused on the construction of the educational programs hav-ing as a dominant that of ensuring the quality specific tothe L-M-D level of occupations and qualifications.

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4.2. În pregãtirea, formarea ºi promovarea proiecþiei sociale a viitorului absolvent din alte profile de învãþãmânt alsocializãrii acestora, un rol deosebit de important au catedrele de educaþie fizicã ºi sport, ca celule de bazã a sistemuluieducaþional. Metodologic, în prima etapã se identificã profilele de învãþãmânt ºi specializãrile viitorului absolvent. Dupã aceasta etapã se descriu nevoile ºi se identificã cerinþele, centrate pe calificãrile ºi ocupaþiile profilelor de învãþãmânt(tehnic, economic, medical, agricol, socio-uman ºi vocaþional). Se identificã si se descriu capabilitãþile instituþiei (profilului) pecomponente distincte ºi anume: resurse umane, infrastructurã, echipamente, etc. Se descriu programele de studiu construitepe obiective de formare, mijloace utilizate, dozare / etapizare, indicaþii metodice ºi reprezentãri ºi, centrate pe componenteleeconomiei de piaþã a viitorului absolvent specific pe profile de învãþãmânt. Toate aceste elemente, conduc spre un învãþãmântcentrat pe competenþe rezultate din cunoºtinþele ºi abilitãþile cognitive dobândite.

3.2. In preparing, forming and promoting the social projection of the future graduate of other learning profiles of theirsocialization, an especially important role is held by the Physical Education and Sport teachers, as base cellules of the educa-tional system. From a methodological point of view the first stage is that of identifying the learning profiles and the majors ofthe future graduates. After this stage, needs are described and requests are identified, centered on the qualifications and occupa-tions of the learning profiles (technical, economical, medical, agricultural, socio-human and vocational). The institution (profile)abilities are identified and described on distinctive components, that is: human relations, infrastructure, equipment etc. Thencomes the description of the study programs constructed on forming, used means, dosage/staging, methodical indications, andrepresentations centered on the market economy components of the future graduate in function of the major area. All these ele-

ments lead to a learning that is focused on competences resulted from the knowledge and cognitive abilities attained.

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4.3. Acest concept, în învãþãmânt centrat pecompetenþele absolvenþilor altor profile de învãþãmânt vafi articulat cerinþelor managementului socio-economic alpieþei muncii ºi va fi materializat cu un curs teoretic depredare în educaþie fizicã ºi sport, specific pentrustudenþii din profilele tehnic, economic, medical, agricol,socio-uman ºi vocaþional.

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4.3. Inside the learning focused on the competencesof the graduates from other learning profiles, this con-cept will be articulated on the demands of the socio-economic work market and will be materialized by atheoretic course of Physical Education and Sport teach-ing, a course specific for the students of profiles such asthe technical, economical, medical, agricultural, socio-human and vocational one.

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CONCLUZII ªI PROPUNERI, ÎN SINTEZÃ Dominant, pentru consolidarea domeniului de ºtiinþeE.F.S. în constelaþia domeniilor fundamentale de ºtiinþã ºiculturã acreditate prin H.G., este capacitatea comunitãþiiacademice din educaþie fizicã ºi sport, de a promova ostrategie de management performant prin al cãrui obiectivfundamental sã constituie integrarea absolvenþiloruniversitari în construcþia socio-economicã a României, laconsolidarea societãþii democratice bazate pe cunoaºtere.Facultãþile de educaþie fizicã ºi sport, catedrele de educaþiefizicã ºi sport din structura universitãþilor de alt profil,cadrele didactice de educaþie fizicã ºi sport, vor asiguraarmonizarea dezvoltãrilor din România cu cele ce serealizeazã la nivel european ºi internaþional în formulareapoliticilor ºi strategiilor privind învãþãmântul de educaþiefizicã ºi sport ºi integrarea acestuia în construcþia socio-economicã a României. Considerãm necesar remodelareaprogramelor analitice, comparabile cu cel puþin 70% lanivel naþional ºi cu cel puþin 60% cu cele din UniuneaEuropeanã, precum ºi o redirecþionare a formaþiunilor deînvãþãmânt centrate pe proiecþia socialã a viitoruluiabsolvent, pe componentele dominante ale construcþieisocio-economice a României. Deasemenea, considerãmnecesar aplicarea elementelor de management performantîn asigurarea calitãþii în construcþia de programeeducaþionale centrate pe componenta socio –economicã,în reglementarea calificãrilor ºi ocupaþiilor din educaþiefizicã ºi sport la nivel naþional ºi european, precum ºi înconstrucþia de programe educaþionale pentru studenþii dinînvãþãmântul de alt profil ºi elaborarea unui curs teoreticspecific de predare pentru studenþii din profil tehnic, eco-nomic, medical, agricol, socio – uman, ºi vocaþional.

BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIVÃLador I.I. – Un nou concept de aprofundare prin

master a disciplinelor teoretice de predare, îndomeniul fundamental de ºtiinþe educaþie fizicã ºisport. Consiliul ªtiinþei Sportului din România – 2008 Lador I.I. – Un nou concept naþional de evaluare ºirecunoaºtere profesionala bazat pe competiþia ºtiinþificãîn domeniul fundamental educaþie fizicã ºi sport.Prezentãri în cadrul Sesiunilor de comunicãri ºtiinþificecu participare internaþionalã, Universitatea din Piteºti,Universitatea „Ovidius” din Constanþa ºiUniversitatea„Transilvania” din Braºov, 2007

Lador I.I. – Relatia sistemicã în plan manage-rial, în sistem educaþional, privind implementareaProcesului Bologna în domeniul educaþie fizicã ºi sportdin România. Prezentare în cadrul Conferinþei Naþionalea Decanilor, ANEFS din Bucureºti, 2005.

Lador I.I. – Bazele teoretice ale anagementuluiîn sport. Ed. Universitãþii din Piteºti, 2000 H.G. 676 /2007 privind domeniile fundamentale de ºtiinþe, artã ºiculturã ºi a specializãrilor în instituþiile de învãþãmântsuperior.xxx, H.G. 404 / 2006 privind organizarea ºidesfãºurarea studiilor universitare de master xxx, Legea288 / 2004, privind organizarea studiilor universitare. H.G. 890 / 2008 privind calificãrile ºi titlurileconferite absolvenþilor învãþãmântului universitar delicenþã. xxx documente ARACIS - 2008-10-23

SYNTHETIC CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSI-TIONS Dominant for the PES science domain consolidationamong the HG accredited fundamental areas of scienceand culture, is the ability of the Physical Education andSport academic community of promoting a performantmanagement strategy by whose fundamental objective toaccomplish the university graduates’ integration inRomania’s socio-economical construction and to consoli-date this democratic society based on knowledge. ThePhysical Education and Sport faculties, the Physical Edu-cation and Sport cathedras included in the structure of theuniversities of a different profile, the teachers of PhysicalEducation and Sport will ensure the equilibrium and har-mony of the Romanian progress with what is done at anEuropean and international level in formulating the poli-cies and strategies regarding the Physical Education andSport learning and its integration in Romania’s socio-eco-nomical construction. We consider necessary to remodelthe analytical programs, compared with at least 70% at anational level and at least 60% on an European Union scale,as well as to redirect the learning forms centered on thesocial projection of the future graduate, on the dominantcomponents of the Romanian socio-economic construction.

Likewise, we find as a must the application of theperformant management elements in ensuring the qual-ity of the construction of educational programs centerdon the socio-economical component, in thereglementation of the qualifications and occupations frominside the Physical Education and Sport at a national orEuropean level, as well as in the construction of educa-tional programs meant for the students of a different pro-file and elaborating a specific theoretical teaching coursefor the students of a technical, economical, medical, ag-ricultural, socio-human, and vocational profile.

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LA DYNAMIQUE DE CROISSANCE DESENTREPRISES PRESTATAIRES D’ACTIVITES

SPORTIVES ET TOURISTIQUES : APPORTS ETLIMITES DU COURANT EVOLUTIONNISTE

The growth dynamics of providers of sports andtourism-related services : contributions and limits of

the evolutionary field

Elodie PAGETDocteur en STAPS1

Laboratoire Sport et Environnement Social (SENS)Université de Grenoble 1 – France

Jean-Pierre MOUNETMaître de conférences – HDR

Laboratoire SENSUniversité de Grenoble 1 – France

Résumé : Cet article étudie la croissance de la petiteentreprise prestataire de sport et de tourisme en utilisantun modèle théorique particulier, celui de Churchill et Lewis(1983), issu du courant évolutionniste.

La recherche s’appuie sur l’étude monographique de Delta,petite entreprise française connaissant un plein essor.L’analyse met en évidence une croissance de l’entreprisepar une lente maturation au cours de quatre phases. Cesdernières apparaissent au regard de nombreux indicateursqui montrent une augmentation de la production et desressources humaines, financières et matérielles, ainsi qu’undébut de structuration des fonctions de gestion.

Mots-clés : petite entreprise, sport, tourisme, phase decroissance, évolutionnisme

Abstract : This article studies the growth of small busi-ness provider of sports and tourism-related services byusing a specific theoretical model, that of Churchill andLewis (1983), stemming from the evolutionary field.

The research is based on the case study of Delta, a smallFrench company experiencing a strong growth. The analy-sis highlights a growth of the company by a slow matura-tion during four phases. The latter appear considering manyindicators that show an increase of the production and thehuman, financial and material resources, as well as a be-ginning of structuring of the functions of management.

Key-words : small business, sport, tourism, growth phase,evolutionism

1 Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques etSportives.

IntroductionLe sport, dans la société française contemporaine,

a bénéficié ces dernières décennies de la montée en puis-sance du loisir et des mutations socio-culturelles qui l’ontaccompagné. Ainsi, une demande de plus en plusimportante en activités de loisir sportif est apparue. Pourrépondre à ces besoins exprimés, de nombreuses structurescommerciales se sont créées. Ces dernières, centrées nonseulement sur le sport mais également sur le tourisme, sontmajoritairement des petites entreprises. Paget, Mounet etGuilhon (2007) ont montré que les entreprises prestatairesde services sportifs et de touristiques présentent desspécificités : ce sont des petites entreprises au sens de Julien(2005) et Marchesnay (2003), insérées dans un secteurparticulier, celui du sport et du tourisme. En effet, d’unepart ces entreprises sont de petite taille, peu formalisées,et fortement liées à leur environnement pertinent (Crozieret Friedberg, 1977). Leur dirigeant centralise leur gestion,les acteurs de l’entreprise (employés) sont polyvalents, lesinformations en interne se transmettent essentiellementoralement, et les relations avec l’extérieur (autres que deroutine) sont réservées au dirigeant. D’autre part, cesentreprises possèdent des caractéristiques qui leur sontpropres, liées à la nature des services (sportifs ettouristiques) qu’elles proposent. Celles-ci s’observent entermes de saisonnalité, de formation des acteurs, de motifsde création d’entreprise et de buts de leur dirigeant, deréseau de partenaires.Parmi ces petites entreprisesprestataires de sport et de tourisme, certaines connaissentun plein essor. Cet article se propose d’étudier cettecroissance à partir d’un modèle théorique particulier, celuide Churchill et Lewis (1983), appartenant au courantévolutionniste. Nous testerons ce modèle à partir d’uneanalyse monographique d’une entreprise implantée dansles Alpes (France). Outre l’apport de connaissance auquelil contribue, nous montrerons les limites de l’utilisationd’un tel modèle pour la compréhension de la croissancede la petite entreprise prestataire de services sportifs ettouristiques.Cadre théorique

Le courant de l’évolutionnisme, ou modèle desmétamorphoses, aborde la croissance de l’entreprise selonle cycle de vie organisationnel. Ce dernier est calqué sur lecycle de la vie c’est-à-dire sur un processus allant de lanaissance à la mort. Il se décline en plusieurs étapes parlesquelles passent toutes les entreprises. Ce courant est unvaste champ de recherche au sein duquel les apports deChurchill et Lewis (1983) ont été marquants du point devue de leurs travaux sur l’entrepreneuriat. Ces dernierspeuvent donc permettre l’analyse de la croissance de lapetite entreprise du secteur sportif et touristique.

Churchill et Lewis (1983) ont développé un modèlethéorique s’appuyant sur la métaphore biologique ducycle de vie et axé sur le dirigeant-entrepreneur. Lesauteurs transposent la métaphore du cycle de vie desproduits à l’entreprise et montrent que l’entreprise passepar cinq étapes de développement. Chacune estcaractérisée par un indice de taille, de diversité et decomplexité, et par cinq facteurs de gestion qui sont lemode de gestion, la structure organisationnelle,39

l’importance des systèmes formels, les principauxobjectifs stratégiques et la participation du dirigeant-propriétaire. Ainsi, le premier stade d’existence correspondà une structure simple où l’entrepreneur fait tout. Il estsuivi d’une étape de survie (ou maintien) qui est atteint parles entreprises ayant montré qu’elles étaient productives.Ces entreprises peuvent grandir et passer au stade suivant,se maintenir à cette phase, être vendue si elles sont viablesd’un point de vue économique, ou encore disparaître. Letroisième stade est la réussite, qui offre deux opportunitésau dirigeant : soit d’en rester là et de maintenir sonentreprise, soit de continuer à l’exploiter et poursuivre sondéveloppement. Le stade suivant est alors l’essor, qui cor-respond à une structure divisionnalisée dont l’objectif estla croissance. Plusieurs issues sont possibles : soitl’entrepreneur réussit les paris financiers et managériauxliés à la croissance et son entreprise pourra devenir unegrosse firme (passer au stade cinq), soit il échoue danscette tâche. Dans ce dernier cas, il pourra décider de vendreson entreprise ou de la maintenir à un état d’équilibre, seraforcé de retourner au stade précédent, ou encore si lesproblèmes sont trop importants de retourner au stade desurvie, voire même de disparaître. Enfin, le cinquième stadeest celui de la « maturité des ressources » (exploitationmaximale des ressources). L’entreprise a une gestiondécentralisée et ses systèmes formels sont très développés.

Chacune des phases de développement décrite parChurchill et Lewis se caractérise par des problèmes àrésoudre et par huit facteurs-clés de succès d’importancevariable, concernant d’une part, l’entreprise (ressourcesfinancières, humaines, technologiques et commerciales) etd’autre part, l’entrepreneur (ses objectifs, ses capacitésopérationnelles, managériales et stratégiques). Ainsi, mêmesi chaque entreprise est en soi unique, toutes font face àdes problèmes similaires à des stades identiques de leurexistence, et font l’objet de changements. Analyser lacroissance de la petite entreprise prestataire de sport et detourisme selon Churchill et Lewis (1983) revient donc àétudier les différentes étapes par lesquelles passel’entreprise, à partir d’indices qui peuvent être la taille, ladiversité et la complexité de ses facteurs de gestion.Méthodologie de la recherche

Cette recherche s’appuie sur l’analysemonographique d’une petite entreprise prestataire de sportet de tourisme (Delta), implantée dans les Alpes françaiseset connaissant une forte croissance. Cette démarche s’inscritdans une perspective qualitative.L’entreprise, objet de la monographie

L’entreprise Delta est une société créée en 1998,qui compte au moment de l’enquête, une dizained’employés permanents. Son siège social est basé àMorzine (Haute-Savoie) mais l’entreprise possèdeégalement une antenne à Arc 1950 (Savoie) et souhaites’implanter dans la station de l’Alpe d’Huez (Isère). Deltaproduit des activités insolites et variées (plongée sous glace,montgolfière, challenge multi-activités…) et réalise del’assemblage touristique c’est-à-dire coordonne différentesprestations (transport, hébergement, restauration,activités…) pour les vendre à un prix tout compris. Lasociété s’adresse plus particulièrement à une clientèle detourisme d’affaires1 .

Les méthodes d’enquête et d’analyse

Selon Yin (2003), la validité des connaissancesest conditionnée par le recours à au moins deux sourcesd’investigation différentes. Dans le cadre de cette recher-che, notre choix s’est porté sur la réalisation d’entretienssemi-directifs et la collecte de documents, ce qui a mené à« la construction d’une chaîne logique d’indices et depreuves » (Miles et Huberman, 2003, 31).

Ainsi, quinze entretiens semi-directifs (Berthier,1998), d’une durée moyenne d’une heure à une heure trente,ont été menés durant le mois de février 2006, auprèsd’acteurs appartenant à l’entreprise Delta. Ils ont fait l’objetd’un enregistrement numérique (avec l’accord des acteurset sous réserve d’anonymat) et ont tous été retranscritsintégralement. En parallèle des entretiens, le chercheur s’estégalement préoccupé de trouver tous les documents, dansl’entreprise notamment, qui pourraient aider à lacompréhension du problème (tels que les statuts del’entreprise, les documents comptables et financiers, lesoutils de communication...). Les données récoltées ontfait l’objet d’un traitement quantitatif et qualitatif paranalyse de contenu (Bardin, 1993). Nous avons en effetmis en œuvre ce que Thiétart (2003, 102) appelle la trian-gulation qui consiste à « utiliser simultanément les deuxapproches pour leurs qualités respectives ». Celle-ci apermis d’aborder sous deux angles complémentaires notreproblème.Résultats

La croissance de la petite entreprise prestatairede sport et de tourisme se décompose en phasescorrespondant à différents changements vécus par elle. Cespériodes de rupture au sein de l’entreprise ont été mises enévidence par de nombreux indicateurs qui concernent d’unepart, les facteurs de production de l’entreprise et d’autrepart, les fonctions de gestion de l’entreprise.

Tout d’abord, l’évolution de l’entreprise Delta aété identifiée à partir d’une augmentation de ses facteursde production c’est-à-dire de ses :

- ressources productives (nombre de contrats,nombre de prestations…),- ressources humaines (nombre d’employés –

permanent, saisonnier –, type de contrats detravail, transformation des contratssaisonniers ou de stagiaires en Contrat àDurée Indéterminée…),

- ressources matérielles (volumed’équipements sportifs, location ou propriétédes locaux de travail…),

- ressources financières (chiffre d’affaires,résultat de l’entreprise).Ensuite, l’évolution de l’entreprise Delta a été

identifiée à partir de l’examen de la structuration de sesfonctions de gestion c’est-à-dire de sa :

- fonction production (organisation des process– employés et méthodes –),- fonction comptable (délégation ou non),- fonction financière (autofinancement,endettement, versement de dividendes),- fonction commerciale (démarchecommerciale, politique marketing…).

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Enfin, l’évolution de l’entreprise Delta aégalement pu être mise en évidence par d’autreschangements au niveau de :

- ses statuts (nombre d’associés, volume ducapital, domiciliation du siège social),

- son métier de l’entreprise (autorisationsd’exercice d’activité sportive et licencestouristiques obtenues auprès des instancesnationales concernées),

- ses locaux de travail.Cependant, deux constats empiriques sont à faire

par rapport à la société Delta. Premièrement, l’entrepriseest peu formalisée (e.g. il n’existe pas de grille tarifaire, depolitique de produit formalisée, beaucoup de procédures– de recrutement, de production… –sont informelles) etles documents ne sont pas accessibles à certaines périodes(e.g. la comptabilité réelle ne commence qu’en juillet1999). Il est donc très difficile de faire un inventaire précisde tous les indicateurs de croissance au fur et à mesure dela croissance de l’entreprise. L’aspect informel est trèsprésent dans l’entreprise Delta et l’aspect formel n’apparaîtqu’à la fin de la période d’étude de l’entreprise.Deuxièmement, pour comprendre la croissance de la sociétéDelta, l’année n’est pas un indicateur significatif : le métiersportif et l’activité liée au tourisme d’affaires comportentun aspect saisonnier, fluctuant sur l’année. Il faut plutôtfonctionner par période et par rapport aux saisons.

Ainsi, l’analyse des données à partir desindicateurs identifiés (cf. supra) a permis de mettre enévidence que la croissance de l’entreprise Delta sedécompose en quatre phases (Figure 1) :

- la phase 1 : été 1998 à été 1999 inclus,- la phase 2 : automne 1999 à automne 2001

inclus,- la phase 3 : hiver 2002 à hiver 2005 inclus,- la phase 4 : printemps 2005 à hiver 2006

inclus et plus.

Nous allons maintenant analyser cette croissance de Deltaen montrant les différentes évolutions qu’a connuesl’entreprise.Premier stade de croissance : la phase d’existence

Cette phase d’une durée de quinze mois corre-spond à la période de création de l’entreprise, c’est-à-direà la naissance de Delta.

L’entreprise Delta a été créée durant l’été 1998avec deux associés principaux et un capital social de 7500•.Le siège social et le lieu d’exercice d’activité de l’entreprisesont le domicile du gérant (qui est l’un des deux associés).L’entreprise est déclarée « établissement sportif ». Cetteautorisation de la Direction Départementale de la Jeunesseet des Sports1 lui permet d’organiser l’activité de plongéesous glace.1 Service déconcentré de l’Etat français.

Deuxième stade de croissance : la phase de survie

L’automne 1999 marque la rupture avec la phasede « simple » existence. Le dirigeant trouve deux nouveauxassociés apportant des capitaux qui lui permettent definancer d’une part, son salaire à l’année et d’autre part,de nouveaux produits (notamment avec l’achat de matérielsde production tels qu’une montgolfière, des luges, lerenouvellement du matériel de plongée). Le dirigeantsalarié à l’année, travaille régulièrement avec desindépendants privilégiés et du personnel saisonnier ou à lamission (temporaire). Un employé travaille cependant demanière quasi permanente avec lui. Mais le dirigeantcentralise entièrement la gestion de Delta. Cette dernières’autofinance et le dirigeant avec l’aide d’un des associésgère un temps sa comptabilité en interne, avant de la confierà un cabinet comptable. Son chiffre d’affaires augmentemais le résultat financier reste cependant négatif. Unepremière brochure commerciale est créée.

L’entreprise déménage également dans des bu-reaux spécialement dédiés à l’activité de la société maisqui ne sont cependant qu’une annexe du logementsecondaire de l’un des nouveaux associés. L’entrepriseacquiert une « habilitation touristique » lui permettant devendre des produits à forfait1 mais sous certaines condi-tions.

Ce stade de croissance correspond à la phase desurvie de l’entreprise (Churchill & Lewis, 1983), ou en-core de démarrage de la société (Sammut, 2001), c’est-à-dire à une période où Delta commence à être productive.

1 La loi française du 13 juillet 1992 définit le forfaittouristique comme une prestation résultant de lacombinaison préalable d’au moins deux opérations portantrespectivement sur le transport, le logement ou d’autresservices touristiques non accessoires au transport ou aulogement et représentant une part significative dans leforfait, dépassant vingt-quatre heures ou incluant unenuitée, vendue ou offerte à la vente à un prix tout compris.

La loi française du 13 juillet 1992 définit le forfaittouristique comme une prestation résultant de lacombinaison préalable d’au moins deux opérations portantrespectivement sur le transport, le logement ou d’autresservices touristiques non accessoires au transport ou aulogement et représentant une part significative dans leforfait, dépassant vingt-quatre heures ou incluant unenuitée, vendue ou offerte à la vente à un prix tout compris.

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Troisième stade de croissance : la phase de réussite

L’embauche de personnel permanent à l’hiver2002 marque le changement avec la phase précédente oùle dirigeant de Delta travaillait pratiquement seul dans lasociété (avec un employé qui a démissionné à la fin de ladeuxième phase de croissance). De même l’acquisition dela « licence d’agent de voyages » permet à l’entreprise devendre des produits à forfait dans le respect de la législationen vigueur. Cette période est marquée par ledéménagement de la société dans de nouveaux locauxréellement dédiés à la pratique d’une activité commerciale(avec un bail commercial) et ayant la capacité d’accueillirles nouveaux employés. Ceux-ci comprennent un espacecommun pour les employés (avec chacun un poste de tra-vail), une pièce spécialement dédiée au directeur, et ungarage faisant office de local pour le matériel et l’archivage.Un standard téléphonique est mis en place ainsi qu’unréseau informatique. Un an et demi plus tard, les locauxs’agrandissent avec la location d’une pièce supplémentaire.

Une politique de communication commence à semettre en place : un site Internet est créé ainsi qu’une bro-chure été/hiver et deux flyers différents (un pour la plongéesous glace et un autre pour le vol en montgolfière). Deplus, durant cette phase, le chiffre d’affaires de la sociétéaugmente et le résultat de l’entreprise devient positif. Celapermet l’autofinancement de l’entreprise (la société investitdans de nouveaux produits et acquiert de nombreuxmatériels de production) et l’embauche de nouveau per-sonnel. Par ailleurs, l’entreprise contracte un premieremprunt afin d’investir dans une société indépendante baséedans une autre station des Alpes. D’un point de vueorganisationnel, dès l’embauche des deux premiers salariés,une dissociation est faite entre la gestion administrative del’entreprise et la partie production du métier. Au cours dela période, avec le développement de l’entreprise, unnouveau mode d’organisation sera testé puis abandonné.De plus, une politique commerciale est engagée avec lerecrutement d’une personne. La croissance de l’entreprisese traduit également par le versement de dividendes sur ledernier exercice (2004) de cette période. Enfin, lepartenariat entre associés évolue : l’un des associés se re-tire de la société et il se trouve aussitôt remplacé par unenouvelle personne (un travailleur indépendant travaillantrégulièrement pour l’entreprise). Le dirigeant, gérantminoritaire jusque là, devient majoritaire. Cette périodecorrespond à la phase de réussite de Delta (Churchill &Lewis, 1983).Quatrième stade de croissance : la phase d’essor

Une rupture nette apparaît au printemps 2005 avecplusieurs changements. La société Delta connaît toutd’abord une augmentation de ses ressources humaines.Corrélativement, elle déménage dans des locaux beaucoupplus vastes où les bureaux sont organisés par services :une pièce est dédiée à la production et à la technique, uneautre à la partie administrative, un bureau est réservé audirigeant, une salle pour l’archivage, un espace communservant de cuisine et enfin une salle de réunion. Un localpour le rangement et l’entretien du matériel est égalementloué en plus. A noter que la société modifie alors ses statutsparce qu’elle change de siège social (qu’elle domicilie dansces nouveaux locaux).

Cette organisation particulière des espaces de travail cor-respond à la mise en place d’une structuration formelle del’entreprise et des employés avec la création de différentsservices (service technique, service de production, serviceadministratif, service commercial) et la désignation deresponsables de service. De plus, le chiffre d’affaires del’entreprise augmente de manière fulgurante avec +62,5%à l’exercice 2005 par rapport à celui de 2004. La politiquede communication évolue avec l’élaboration d’une nouvellebrochure et de nouveaux flyers pour la montgolfière et pourla plongée sous glace. Pour la réalisation de ceux-ci, Deltafait appel à une agence de communication. Enfin, la sociétépasse d’une politique d’autofinancement quasi total (unseul emprunt) à de l’endettement bancaire et immobilierimportant, pour l’achat de matériels de production coûteuxet pour l’installation de l’entreprise dans une autre stationdes Alpes (achat foncier). Le versement de dividendes sepoursuit.Cette période de croissance correspond à la phased’essor décrite par Churchill & Lewis (1983).Discussion

La croissance de la société Delta apparaît au re-gard de nombreux indicateurs quantitatifs et qualitatifs quimontrent une augmentation de sa production et de sesressources humaines, financières et matérielles, ainsi qu’undébut de structuration de ses fonctions de gestion. Cettecroissance s’est faite par une lente maturation de la sociétéau cours de quatre phases. Ces périodes correspondent àdifférents changements vécus au sein de Delta. Ainsi,l’entreprise est passée par une phase de création (Phase1), puis de démarrage (Phase 2) où elle a fait preuve de saproductivité. Elle est ensuite passée par la phase de réussite(Phase 3) dans laquelle le dirigeant aurait pu choisir demaintenir son entreprise. Mais celui-ci a décidé depoursuivre son développement et d’aller vers une struc-ture divisionnalisée. L’entreprise se trouve actuellement(au moment des entretiens menés pour cette étude) dansune phase d’essor (Phase 4) dont l’objectif est la croissance.Malgré tout, la société Delta reste peu formalisée et sesprocédures de production sont complexes et résultent pourbeaucoup de routines et d’un bricolage des acteurs. Lasociété Delta n’a donc pas atteint le cinquième stade décritpar Churchill et Lewis (1983). A partir d’une étude de cas,cette recherche contribue à un apport de connaissances surles petites entreprises prestataires de sport et de tourisme,et plus particulièrement sur leur dynamique de croissance.Elle s’appuie sur le modèle théorique de Churchill et Lewis(1983) issu du courant évolutionniste, qui s’avère perti-nent dans l’étude des phases de croissance de la petiteentreprise. Cependant plusieurs limites sont à avancer quantà l’utilisation unique de cette théorie pour comprendre lacroissance de l’entreprise de services sportifs ettouristiques. La plus importante est qu’elle repose sur ladescription de la structure adoptée par l’entreprise et surla ou les influences des facteurs internes ou externes àl’organisation. Elle ne prend donc pas en compte lesacteurs. En effet, selon ce modèle, toutes les entreprisessont vouées à suivre le même développement et les mêmestransformations organisationnelles, soit de manièreincrémentale, soit par rupture à partir de changements vécuspar la firme.

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Ces approches laissent donc peu de place à lamarge de liberté que possèdent les acteurs (Crozier etFriedberg, 1977) ou à d’autres formes de croissance (parle réseau par exemple). La sociologie des organisations montre qu’une organisation est le fruit d’un jeu des acteurs(elle est un construit humain) et qu’elle n’est jamaiscomplètement soumise à son environnement. De même, lalittérature en sciences de gestion met en évidence que dansla petite entreprise c’est plutôt une co-construction de lacroissance qui s’observe, entre tantôt une adaptation àl’environnement (changements subits) et tantôt une réellevolonté de la part du dirigeant de la faire progresser et dechanger (changements voulus). Ainsi, si le modèleévolutionniste de Churchill et Lewis est pertinent pourl’étude de la dynamique de croissance des petitesentreprises prestataires de sport et de tourisme (parce qu’ilapporte des éléments de compréhension sur les phases dedéveloppement par lesquelles elles passent), il seraitintéressant de le compléter, du fait de la spécificité dusecteur sportif et touristique, avec l’analyse des logiquesd’action (Amblard, Bernoux, Herreros et Livian, 2005) dudirigeant et des acteurs de l’entreprise (employés, associés),pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes de cettecroissance.

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(2005). Les nouvelles approches sociologiques desorganisations (3ème ed.). Paris : Seuil.

Bardin, L. (1993). L’analyse de contenu. Paris : PUF.Berthier, N. (1998). Les techniques d’enquête : méthode

et exercices corrigés. Paris : Colin.Churchill, N.C., & Lewis, V.L. (1983). Growing concerns

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Crozier, M., et Friedberg, E. (1977). L’acteur et le Système.Les contraintes de l’action collectives. Paris : Seuil.

Julien, P.A. (Ed.) (2005). Les PME : bilan et perspectives(3ème ed.). Cap-Rouge : Presses Inter-Universitaires.

Marchesnay, M. (2003). La petite entreprise : sortir del’ignorance. Revue Française de Gestion, 144, 107-118.

Miles, M.B., &. Huberman, A.M. (2003). Analyse desdonnées qualitatives (2ème ed.). Paris : De BoeckUniversité.

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Paget, E., Mounet, J.P., et Guilhon, A. (2007). Les petitesentreprises prestataires de sport et de tourisme et leursdirigeants : spécificités et stratégies. RevueEuropéenne de Management du Sport, 17.

Sammut, S. (2001). Processus de démarrage en PE :système de gestion et scénarios, Revue del’Entrepreneuriat, vol.1, n°1, 61-76.

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IDENTIFICAREA PROFILULUI CINEMATIC ALLOVITURII DE ATAC, DIN VOLEI

Ilinca Ilona, Roºulescu Eugenia, Zãvãleanu Mihaela.Universitatea din Craiova, Facultatea de Educaþie Fizicãºi SportABSTRACTSCOP. Realizarea analizei tridimensionale a membruluisuperior implicat în lovitura de atac din volei în vedereaprognozei riscului traumatic, pentru a oferi o mai bunãintelegere asupra mecanismelor ce contribuie la apariþiatraumatismelor de suprasolicitare, la jucatoarelevoleibaliste de înaltã performanþã.MATERIALE ªI METODÃ. Loviturile de atac realizatede 8 jucãtoare de volei, din lotul de senioare al echipeiClubul Universitatea Craiova au fost înregistrate ºi analizaþiparametri specifici cinematici ai miºcãrii. Am determinatîn dinamicã valoarea maximã a unghiurilor articulaþieiumãrului, s-au selectat pentru analizã doar momentele cândarticulaþia umãrului joacã un rol important.CONCLUZII. Metodele de modelare a miºcãrii folosindSimi Motion fac posibilã aprecierea în timpul miºcãrii avalorilor variabile ale unghiurilor ºi axelor articulaþieiumãrului în timpul antrenamentelor. Capacitatea de aprevenii apariþia leziunilor depinde de înþelegereapatternurilor traumatice ºi a factorilor intrinseci ºi extrinsecicare duc la acestea. Sistemul de captura de miºcare esteideal pentru aplicaþii în cercetarea sportivã, recuperare,educaþie fizicã, pentru a îmbunãtãþii tehnica de joc asportivului ºi obþinerea unor performanþe mai bune.Cuvinte cheie – analizã cinematicã, risc traumatic,lovitura de atac

IntroducerePerformanþele sportivilor din zilele noastre din toate

ramurile sportive, comparativ cu cele din deceniile trecute,diferã mult.Întotdeauna sportivii amatori sau profesioniºtiºi toate persoanele implicate în domeniul sportiv vor fi încãutarea performanþei maxime. Atât antrenorii cât ºi atleþiidoresc sã îºi creascã performanþa, sã alerge sau sã înoatemai repede, sã sarã mai mult, sã aibã mai multã forþã; suntinteresaþi deasemenea sã trateze leziunile datorate efortuluisportiv mai rapid ºi mult mai important sã previnã viitoareleziuni printr-o abordare tehnicã mai eficientã aantrenamentului sau competiþiei. Un nivel satisfãcãtor deperfomanþã depinde de factori psihologici, antropometrici,fiziologice, de alimentaþia ºtinþificã, de înþelegereamiºcãrilor specifice din sportul respectiv. Biomecanicacombinã aspectele cantitative din ramura inginerieiºtinþifice cu aspectele calitative ale ºtiinþei biologice. Prinînþelegerea structurilor mecanice ale corpului omenesc,putem determina miºcãrile ºi vitezele potenþial dãunãtoare,acceleraþiile ºi forþele care se asociazã unui evenimenttraumatic. Dispozitivele actuale din domeniul informaticoferã o altã perspectivã de examinare obiectivã apatternurilor acþiunilor tehnice, a centrului de greutate, atimpului de reacþie, a schimbãrilor de direcþie, a poziþieisportivului, a simetriei miºcãrilor, a unghiurile optimale ºivelocitatea miºcãrii, prin sistemele modulare conþinute de

IDENTIFICATION CINEMATIC PROFILE INTHE STRIKE ATTACK IN VOLLEYBALL

Ilinca Ilona, Roºulescu Eugenia, Zãvãleanu Mihaela.Universitatea din Craiova, Facultatea de Educaþie Fizicãºi Sport

ABSTRACTAIM. The present research aims to realize a prognosis forthe trauma risk by using the computerized tridimensionalanalysis for the strike attack.MATHERIAL AND METHODS: The present study wascarried on a group formed of 8 women volleyball players,training level seniors, components of the team Universityof Craiova, of which 4 middle hitters and 4 outside hitters.The research is based on utilization of the newestcomputerized technologies, more accurate and efficient fordata collection, that included dynamic measurements ofspecific cinematic parameters in strike attack by using theaquisition and movement analysis system 3D “SimiMotion”.CONCLUSION. By SIMI MOTION movementmodelling methods make possible to appreciate the timehistories of shoulder joint angles and axes variables duringtraining. Injuries prevention ability depends on the capacityof understanding the trauma patterns together with theintrinsic and extrinsic risk factors that lead to the damage.Motion capture is ideal for a wide range of sportsapplications in research, rehabilitation, physical education,to improve a player’s technique for better results in varioussports applications.

Key word – cinematic analize , traumatic risc,strike attack

AIM. We undertake an observational study to realize aprognosis for the trauma risk measuring kinematics andquality parameters in the movement of volleyball spikesby computerized tri dimensional musculoskeletal model.MATHERIAL AND METHODS: Spike movementscarried out by 8 volleyball female players, training levelseniors, components of the team Club University Craiova,were recorded and analyzed the specific cinematicparameters. We determine in dynamic the shoulder jointupper limb angles values, selecting for analyze only themoments when the shoulder joint activity are moreimportant.CONCLUSION. By SIMI MOTION movementmodelling methods make possible to appreciate the timehistories of shoulder joint angles and axes variables duringtraining. Injuries prevention ability depends on the capacityof understanding the trauma patterns together with theintrinsic and extrinsic risk factors that lead to the damage.Motion capture is ideal for a wide range of sportsapplications in research, rehabilitation, physical education,to improve a player’s technique for better results in varioussports applications. Key word – risk trauma, muscularforce, modelling, ANYBODY software

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camere video multiple, de platforme de forþãsincronizate. Aceste tehnici computerizate pot fi utilizatepentru a analiza modul în care apar traumatismele, ºi celmai important, pot oferi soluþii ºi metode prin care acesteapot fi reduse. Cheia succesului stã însã în capacitatea deîmbinare a experienþei antrenorului cu obiectivitateaanalizei miºcãrilor sportive, cu scopul de a crea un planeficient focalizat pe creºterea competitivitãþii sportive.

Scopul lucrãrii îl constituie realizarea analizeitridimensionale a membrului superior implicat în loviturade atac din volei în vederea prognozei riscului traumatic,pentru a oferi o mai bunã intelegere asupra mecanismelorce contribuie la apariþia traumatismelor de suprasolicitare,la jucatoarele voleibaliste de înaltã performanþã.

Obiectiv. Identificarea profilului cinematic alarticulaþiei umãrului în lovitura de atac cu ajutorulsistemului de captare ºi analizã 3D a miºcãrii „SimiMotion”.

Materiale ºi metodeDatoritã complexitãþii miºcãrii, analiza miºcãrii

loviturii de atac din voley trebuie sã fie abordatã în modcomplex.

Am evaluat execuþia loviturii de atac la 8voleibaliste, componente ale echipei de volei a ClubuluiUniversitatea Craiova dintre care, 4 jucãtoare ocupã postulde atacant principal, 4 ocupã postul de atacant secund.Fiecare sportivã a fost înregistratã în miºcare folosind unsistem 3D „Simi Motion” de achiziþie ºi analizã a miºcãrii.

Am determinat în dinamicã valoarea maximã aunghiurilor articulaþiei umãrului, s-au selectat pentruanalizã doar momentele când articulaþia umãrului joacãun rol important. Miºcãrile înregistrate simultan cu douãcamere video, ale cãror axe optice au fost orientate sub ununghi cuprins între 60º þi 120º, au fost transformate în datecantitative pentru a putea calcula unghiurile articulare,acceleraþia, forþa, elasticitatea, deformaþia, posturacorporalã, echilibrul ºi alþi parametrii.

Filmãrile s-au realizat în Sala Sporturilor dinCraiova în timpul antrenamentelor. Înregistrãrile au vizatlovitura de atac pe direcþia elanului, din zona 4 a terenului(Zimmerman 2005), filmarea începând în momentul în carejucãtoarea a iniþiat miºcarea de pasare la ridicãtor,finalizându-se dupã aterizarea atacantului pe sol.

În cadrul analizei cinematice a loviturii de atac s-auconsiderat numai acele lovituri reuºite, care au depãºit fileulºi au atins spaþiul de joc.

Cinematica modelului geometric uman a avut la bazãdatele rezultate din analiza imaginilor video obþinute prinînregistrarea sportivului în timpul unei activitãþi fizice. Amidentificat pe fiecare cadru ºi am considerat importanteurmãtoarele puncte: capul, umãrul drept/stâng, cotul drept/stâng, palma dreaptã/stângã, ºoldul drept/stâng, genunchiuldrept/stâng, talpa dreaptã/stângã (Fig.1.).

INTRODUCTIONNowadays athlete’s performance across all fields

of sports activity is very high in comparative with the pastdecade. Always, the amateurs or professional athletes andall the persons implied in sports field will be in the searchfor a competitive edge. Both coach and athlete want tomaximize performance, run and swim faster, jump higher,have more strength; they are interested in treating sportinjuries faster and most important to prevent further injuriesby more proficient technical approach of the training orcontest. Performing exercises at a satisfactory level dependson physiological, anthropometric, psychological factors,scientific alimentation, and biomechanical comprehensionof sport specific movements’. Biomechanics combines thequantitative aspects required in engineering sciences to thequalitative aspects of biological science. By understandingthe mechanical structures of a human body, we candetermine the likely movements and potential injuriousspeeds, accelerations, and forces associated with an event.

The dispositive from informatics area can providealso a new objective perspective in the assessment oftechnical actions patterns, using modular systems containedin multiple video cameras with synchronized forceplatforms analyze. Those computerize techniques can beutilized for the estimation of trauma apparition, and mostimportant; can suggest preventive solutions and means. Thekey of success of using these techniques is the capacity ofblending the trainer experience with the objective to analyzethe sport motion. The purpose is the elaboration of aefficient plan focus on increase the sport competitively.

AIM. By 3D „Simi Motion” acquisition andmovement analysis system we try to establish the cinematicpattern of shoulder joint during the strike attack.

PURPOSE. We undertake a comprehensive studyto realize a prognosis for the trauma risk measuringkinematics and quality parameters in the movement ofvolleyball spikes by tridimensional musculoskeletal modelin a computerized tridimensional analysis, with the purposeto better understanding of mechanism that contribute tooveruse trauma apparition at women professional volleyballplayers.

MATHERIAL AND METHODSBased on the variety of movements, the analysis

of volleyball spike must have a complex approach.We have assessed 8 women volleyball female

players’, members of the University of Craiova Club, duringthe spike move. 4 players were middle hitters and 4 outsidehitters, with the training level seniors’. Each woman wasrecord during motions using the acquisition and movementanalysis system 3D „Simi Motion”.We determine indynamic the shoulder joint upper limb angles values,selecting for analyze only the moments when the shoulderjoint activity are more important. Movements recorded withtwo cameras synchronously were transformed inquantitative data in order to calculate the joint angles,acceleration, force, elasticity, deformations, body posture,balance and other parameters. The cameras optical axeswere an angle between 60º and 120º. Our experiment wasregistered in Craiova Sport Halle, during training sessions..45

Figura 1. Poziþionarea markerilor pe corpuljucãtoarei de volei

Protocolul de execuþie a loviturilor:Fiecare sportivã a realizat o serie de câte 5 lovituri

de atac pe direcþia elanului, din zona 4 a terenului.Coordonatele spaþiale ale mingii trebuie sã respecte ariastabilitã prin calibrarea sistemului, aria fiind un pãtrat culatura de 2 m pe sol. Jucãtoarele au realizat miºcãrilenormale pentru acest tip de loviturã, cu particularitãþile saleindividuale.

Prin procesarea imaginilor cadru cu cadru,simultan pentru ambele camere, s-au obþinut evoluþiile întimp ale markerilor ºi s-au trasat curbele cinematice pentruaceºtia ºi pentru segmentele membrelor. Poziþiilemarkerilor au permis crearea diagramei tridimensionale dinsegmente a fiecãrei sportive ce permite un studiu mai simplual miºcãrilor (fig.2. ).

Figura 2. Diagrama segmentalã tridimensionalãgenericã în timpul miºcãrii de atac în volei

cu punctele caracteristice urmãrite pe cadrele video.SIMI Motion permite în urma analizelor video,

calculul în timp al coordonatelor, vitezelor ºi acceleraþiilormarkerilor, identificaþi pentru fiecare sportivã. Prin calculecinematice, se pot apoi determina unghiurile ºi vitezeleunghiulare ale segmentelor pentru fiecare sportiv.

Pentru fazele caracteristice loviturii, rezultatele suntprezentate mai jos în cadrul graficelor, pentru unghiul deabducþie/adducþie, flexie/extensie, rotaþie internã/rotaþieexternã în articulaþia humeralã, precum ºi pentru vitezaunghiularã a umãrului, cotului, palmei, pentru cele 8 sport-ive studiate. S-a realizat ºi o medie a valorilor, care va ficonsideratã în continuare ca fiind modelul optim al lovituriide atac. Unghiurile articulaþiilor au fost calculate în modulrecomandat de literatura de specialitate.

We focus on the strike attack, the recording startwith the preparation for strike move initiation, and it endwhen the attractant attaint the ground.

We built the data base for the cinematic analyzeselecting only the successful strike/attacks when the ballpasses over the net and land in the field area.

The kinematic geometric model was based uponthe results from the analysis of images recorded when theathletes performing the strike. Body points were digitizedper each recorded frame. We identify on each frame andconsider important the following points: head, right/leftshoulder, right/left elbow, left hip, right/left knee, and right/left feet. (Fig.1).

Figure 1: Placement of the points for video analysisof a volleyball spike

The protocol for strike executionsEach volleyball player performed 5 serial strikes

on élan direction, from the field area position 4(Zimmermann, 2005). The spatial coordinates of the ballmust respect the area establish on the system calibration,the area is a square with 2 m side on the ground. Theplayers realized normal movements for this strike tip, eachof them in their own way. Processing the images frame byframe, simultaneously for each camera, are obtained themarkers evolutions in time. Then, using the software systemwe establish the kinematics curve for the body points,specially for limb segments. The points permit to create atridimensional diagram for each player and facilitate themovements study. (Fig.2).

Figure 2. The tridimensional segmental genericallydiagram for strike attack in volleyball with the

digitized points per frame.

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RezultateÎn cadrul analizei cinematice a loviturii de atac, o

primã analizã a fost cea a duratei loviturii de la momentuldesprinderii de sol ºi pânã în momentul aterizãrii, dupãrealizarea impactului membrului superior cu mingea(Tabelul 1).Tabelul 1. Durata medie a loviturii de atac a celor 8sportive atacante

Analizând tabelul anterior, împreunã cu dateleantropometrice ale sportivelor, se poate concluziona cãdurata medie a unei lovituri de atac nu depinde evident deînãlþimea sau greutatea sportivei, ci de tehnica de execuþieproprie ºi de nivelul de pregãtire fizicã. De aici, se poatetrage concluzia cã atacanþii prezintã un nivel de forþãmuscularã, vitezã, coordonare mai ridicat, ceea ce lepermite o execuþie mai rapidã ºi mai puternicã faþã dejucãtorii ridicãtori ºi libero.

Urmãtoarea etapã în analiza cinematicã a lovituriide atac constã în determinarea în dinamicã a valorilorunghilare în articulaþia umãrului membrului care executãlovitura. Dintre cele cinci faze ale loviturii sau ales pentruanalizã numai acele momente în care miºcãrile în articulaþiaumãrului joacã un rol important.

Din analiza graficului se observã o variaþie aunghiurilor de adducþie/abducþie pe parcursul fazelor deatac analizate. În intervalul de timp 0-0,35 sec. cecorespunde sãriturii, unghiul de abducþie are o valoarecuprinsã între 20°-25°, ce corespunde iniþierii miºcãrii de

abducþie a braþului, atingând un vârf de 65° pe framul

0,15sec. ºi un vârf de 68°pe framul, 0,35sec., ca urmare adepãrtãrii braþului de corp în vederea pregãtirii lovituriide atac (Fig. 3.).

Figura 3. Urmãrirea în dinamicã a unghiului deadducþie/abducþie a umãrului (grade)

Therefore, the software “SIMI Motion” wasutilized to carry out motion analysis. It calculate the timehistories for the spatial coordinates, velocities andaccelerations, joint angles, digitizing per frame the athletesbody points. For the strike phases, the results are presentedbelow in the graphics that show the abduction/adductionangle, the flexion/extension and internal/external rotationmotions in shoulder joint. Also the angular speed forshoulder, elbow, hand in all 8 athletes. The medium valuewas considered the optimum movement pattern for thestrike attack. The joint angles were calculated using therecommended way from literature.

RESULTSDuring the kinematic analyze of strike attack, the

first phase was to establish the period corresponding tothe moment of jump, when the athlete was in the air, afterthe strike of ball with the hand. (Table 1).

From the anterior table and athletesanthropometric evaluated data analysis, we conclude thatfor the medium period of strike attack is not important theathletes height or the weight, but only the own executionpattern technique and the level of training. So, we can saythat comparative with the other members of team the strike-position athletes must have a muscular force, coordinationand speed higher level to conclude a faster and strongerexecution.

The next step in the kinematic analysis is toestablish shoulder joint different angles values in dynamicfor the upper limb that perform the strike. Only the frameswhen the shoulder joint was most involved in the strikewere analyzed.

Form the graphic it can be observed a variationof adduction/abduction angles during the strike attackphases.During the time interval 0-0,35 s, that correspond to thejump, the abduction angle has a value between 20°-25°.This value match to arm abduction movement initiation,with a 65° peak on the frame 0,15s and a 68° peak on theframe 0,35s due to arm deviation from the body to preparethe striking.

Figure 3. Shoulder adduction/abduction angle indynamic (degre)

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Urmãtoarea fazã a atacului se încadreazã înintervalul de timp (0,4s.-0,8s). La începutul aceastei fazese observã o valoare minimã a unghiului de abducþiedatoritã apropierii membrului superior de corp ºi o valoaremaximã a unghiului la sfârºitul fazei, ce variazã intre 75°ºi 85°, în funcþie de tehnica fiecãrui jucãtor, atunci cândbraþul este în rotaþie externã maximã.

În faza de lovire a mingii, cu o duratã cuprinsã între(0,86-0,95s), unghiul de abducþie scade datoritã miºcãriide coborâre a braþului, a miºcãrii de rotaþie internã aumãrului si a flexiei cotului. Din punct de vedere cinematic,cea mai mare forþã a muºchiului deltoid este atinsã înmomentul execuþiei sãriturii (la iniþierea acestei faze) cândmembrul superior este în poziþie aproape anatomicã ºilungima fibrelor deltoidului este la nivel de repaus, iarmuºchiul are potenþial cea mai mare forþã. Pe mãsurã cebraþul este elevat (faza a doua a atacului) aceastã forþãscade.

Dacã musculatura deltoidianã, dintr-un motiv saualtul, este mai scurtatã decât în mod normal, valoarea forþeimusculare dezvoltatã va fi mai micã, iar raportul de forþeîntre deltoid ºi coafa rotatorilor se modificã, ducând latranslatarea superioarã a capului humeral din cavitateaglenoidã, lezând structurile subacromiale ºi determinândproducerea „sindromului de impingement”.

Muºchiul supraspinos, alãturi de muºchiul deltoidanterior, acþioneazã împreunã pentru a eleva ºi stabilizaumãrul pe parcursul întregii miºcãri. În momentul iniþieriisãriturii muºchiul supraspinos participã alãturi de deltoidºi la miºcarea de îndepãrtare a braþului de trunchi (abducþiepânã la 90°).

Figura 4. Unghiul de rotaþie internã/externã aumãrului (grade)

Din graficul corespunzãtor analizei miºcãrii de rotaþieinternã/externã a umãrului se observã un arc al miºcãriitotale de rotaþie peste 200° la jucãtoarele atacante, miºcareaatingând un vârf în momentul pregãtirii loviturii. În fazade lovire a mingii, rotaþia internã este maximã, dupã lovireaacesteia, datoritã miºcãrii de abducþie a braþului ºi de flexiea cotului (Fig.4.). Chiar dacã activitatea muºchiuluiinfraspinos scade pe parcursul miºcãrii, acesta acþioneazãîmpreunã cu rotundul mic pentru a rota umãrul extern ºipentru a stabiliza humerusul în fosa glenoidã, în faza depregãtire a loviturii. Muºchiul rotundul mic se contractãcu o forþã ce atinge vârful maxim în faza de pregãtire aloviturii de atac ºi acþioneazã împreunã cu infraspinosul

pentru a rota umãrul extern.

The next phase of strike match the interval 0,4s -0,8s. At the beginning of this phase can be observe a minimvalue for the abduction angle because the upper limb comeclosely to the body and also an maximum value of the angleat the end of this period, between 75° and 85°, when thearm is in maximal external rotation. The values varies dueto the player own pattern technique. (Fig. 3.).

During the period 0,86-0,95s, that match to theball strike phase, the abduction angle reduce because thearm slide down, and the shoulder move in internal rotationand the elbow is in flexion. From the cinematic point ofview, the greater force of the deltoid is reach in the jumpingmoment (at the beginning) when the superior arm is almostin anatomical position and the length of deltoid fibres arethe same with the rest, the muscle has the maximal potentialforce. By the elevation of the arm (the second phase) thisforce decrease.

If the deltoid, from any reason, is shorter thenusually, the value of muscular force developed will be weak,and the rapport between the deltoid and rotator cuff ismodify, that can lead to superior translocation of humerusaway from glenoid socket, with the trauma of subacromialstructures. This can be the pathogenically pattern for theimpingement syndrome.

The supraspinatus and the anterior deltoid acttogether to raise and stabilize the shoulder duringmovement. In the moment of jump initiation thesupraspinatus and the deltoid move off the arm from thetrunk (the abduction until 90°).

Figure 4. The angle of internal/external rotation ofshoulder (degrees)

The movement of shoulder in internal/externalrotation graphical conversion we distinguish an over 200°curbed corresponding to total rotation movement; the movehas a peak in the moment of the preparation for strikingthe ball. When the ball is strike, the internal rotation ismaximal because the arm is in abduction and the elbow inflexion (Fig.4.). Even if the activity of infraspinatusdecrease during the movement, this act together with theteres minor to complete the external rotation of the shoulderand to stabilize the humerus in the glenoid socket in thestrike preparation phase. Teres minor contract with a forcethat reach his peak during the strike preparation phase andact together with infraspinatus to do the external rotation.

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În timpul miºcãrii de acceleraþie a braþului cei doimuºchi acþioneazã independent; rotundul mare rãmâne laun nivel înalt în timp ce forþa infraspinosului scade

Urmãrind figura 5 se evidenþiazã pentru miºcareade flexie/extensie, în cadrul sãriturii (0-0,35), o extensie aumãrului ce corespunde framului 0,05, urmatã apoi de oflexie a acestuia ce atinge o valoare maximã (framul 0,25),scãzând ulterior aproape de faza de pregãtire.

Figura 5. Unghiul de flexie/extensie a umãrului(grade)

Muºchiul subscapular alãturi de muºchii subspinosºi rotundul mic sunt consideraþi depresori ai humerusului,având o activitate continuã în timpul miºcãrilor de abducþieºi flexie.

Cea mai intensã activitate a acestui muºchi esteprezentã spre sfârºitul momentului de pregãtire a lovituriide atac ºi în momentul de lovire al mingii când braþulexecutã o miºcare de adducþia ºi rotaþie internã.

Muºchiul rotund mare nu participã la miºcãrilelibere decît în situaþia în care braþul este în hiperextensiepentru adducþie. În momentul în care se opune rezistenþãmiºcãrilor, (în cazul nostru prezenþa mingii), rotundul mareintrã în acþiune pentru miºcãrile de rotaþie internã adducþieºi extensie. Alãturi de muºchiul rotund mare, marele dor-sal este un extensor puternic ºi un adductor al braþului. Înmiºcarea cu rezistenþã este extensor adductor ºi rotatorintern. În ceea ce priveºte evoluþia lui pe parcursul lovituriide atac, acesta atinge un nivel maxim de forþã la sfârºitulfazei de pregãtire a loviturii ºi în momentul de lovire aacesteia. Muºchiul subscapular, rotundul mare ºi mareledorsal au rolul de a decelera humerusul în timpul fazei depregãtire a loviturii ºi acþionezã ca rotatori interni ºiadductori în timpul lovirii mingii.

DISCUÞII ªI CONCLUZIICercetãrile epidemiologice au demonstrat cã

sportivii ce participã la diferite ramuri sportive sunt expuºidiverselor tipuri de traumatisme care au la bazã factori unicispecifici pentru fiecare sport ºi sportiv implicat.Articulaþia umãrului nu este predisposã la diferite leziunisau traumatisme doar în volei, deasemenea sporturi precumînotul, tenisul, handbalul implicã miºcãri repetate de„overhead” peste nivelul planului orizontal, sportiviiexecutând acþiuni repetitive, de abducþie ºi rotaþie externã,urmate de extensie ºi rotaþie internã. În plus, contactul cumingea în momentul atacului se realizeazã în punctul încare abducþia membrului superior este maximã, ceea ceconduce la creºterea forþei de împingement.

During acceleration of the motion this twomuscles act independently, teres major force is maintainedand infraspinatus force decrease.

The figure number 5 present the flexion/extensionmotion, in the jump period , un shoulder extension in theframe 0,05 followed by an extension that reach a highmaximum value (frame 0,25) that decrease after almostlike in the strike preparation period.

Figure 5. Flexion/extension shoulder angle (degre)

The subscapularis muscle with the subspinatusand the minor teres are considered to be humerusdepressors, their activity continues also in the abductionand flexion movement.

The most important activity of subscapularis ispresent at the end of the preparation for strike attack andin the moment of ball strike when the arm executes anadduction and an internal rotation.

The teres major participate to free movementsonly when the upper limb is in hyperextension to executethe adduction movement. If the movement is blocked (bythe ball), the teres major start his action to complete theinternal rotation, adduction and extension. Teres major isimportant in extension movement and to realize theadduction of arm. In the movement with resistance he doesthe adduction and internal rotation. During the strike attack,he had a maximum level of strength at the end of faze topreparation and in the moment of ball strike.

Subscapularis, teres major, latissimus dorsi havethe role of humerus deceleration during the preparationperiod and they act as internal rotators and adductors.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSEpidemiological statistics show that the athletes

are exposed to different trauma with different andcharacteristically risk factors for each sport field.

But not only in the volleyball the shoulder jointis predispose to different injuries and trauma, also inswimming, tennis, handball the overhead repeatedmovement of shoulder joint over the horizontal angle, withextreme rotations abductions followed by external andinternal rotation. Furthermore, the ball contact during strikeis realized in the moment when the abduction is maximal,this increasing the impingement force also. For this reasons,the most commune shoulder trauma in volleyball are thetendinitis of rotator cuff and impingement syndrome.

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Din aceste considerente, cele mai comune traumatismeîntâlnite în volei, la nivelul articulaþiei umãrului sunt,tendinita coafei rotatorilor ºi „sindromul de impingement”.

Aceastã tehnicã de analizã 3D Simi Motion poateajuta antrenorii sã formuleze instrucþiuni ºi feedbackcorectiv pentru a optimiza programul de antrenament ºipatternurile de miºcare ale sportivilor. Abilitatea de apreveni aceste leziuni depinde de capacitatea de înþelegerea patternurilor lezionale de miºcare ºi a factorii de riscintrinseci sau extrinseci ce stau la baza producerii acestora,precum ºi de posibilitatea realizãrii analizei complexe atehnicii de execuþie caracteristicã fiecãrei ramuri sportive.

Un sistem de capturã de miºcare 3D poate sã fieun instruement ideal pentru a înþelege mecanismul deproducere a leziunii ºi de prevenire a traumatismelor. Poatesã fie deasemenea folosit pentru a îmbunãtãþii tehnicajucãtorilor pentru obþinerea unor rezultate mai bune îndiverse ramuri sportive.

This technical analyze can help trainers toformulate instructions and corrective feedback in order tooptimize the athletes training program and movementpatterns. The ability to prevent these lesions lay upon thecapacity of understanding the bad movement patterns andupon the understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic factorsthat produce trauma.

Motion capture can be an ideal instrument tocomplete this understanding of injury mechanisms andprevention. It can also be used to improve a player’stechnique for better results in various sports fields.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Christopher, G.A., (2001), Shoulder biomechanics involleyball spiking-implication for injuries. Thesis to theFaculty of Brigham Young University.Coleman, S., Benham, A., (1993), A three-dimensionalcinematographical analysis of the volleyball spike. Journalof Sports Sciences 11, 295-302.Ilinca, I., Dragomir, M., (2004), Analize de miºcare însport- aspecte cinematice, Ed. Universitaria, Craiova.

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DEZVOLTAREA SOCIALÃ A COPILULUIPRIN INTERMEDIUL ACTIVITÃÞILORSPORTIVE

Maria Pescaru, Universitatea din PiteºtiAbstractActivitãþile sportive reprezintã un instrument fun-

damental în favoarea sãnãtãþii ºi dezvoltãrii fizice, dar ºipentru dobândirea valorilor necesare coeziunii sociale ºidialogului intercultural.

Sedentarismul care a crescut alarmant ºi sedatoreazã în mare mãsurã inadvertenþelor din cadrulformativ (educaþia fizicã ºcolarã are misiunea de a dezvoltadeprinderi ºi cunoºtinþe de practicare independentã aexerciþiilor fizice), iar numãrul de programe adaptatevârstei, nivelului de pregãtire ºi preferinþelor copiilor suntinsuficiente.

Învãþarea tehnicii, tacticii, efectuarea pregãtiriifizice, teoretice, psihologice, însuºirea tehnicilor derefacere în sport presupun dezvoltarea personalitãþiicopilului care îºi însuºeºte conduite specifice sportului pecare îl practicã, aflându-se permanent într-o interacþiuneînnoitoare cu mediul.

Realizatã în cadrul familiei, sub supraveghereapãrinþilor, apoi la nivelul ºcolii, în lecþiile de educaþie fizicãsau în activitãþile sportive extraºcolare, pregãtirea fizicã acopiilor este strâns corelatã cu cea intelectualã, dândcopiilor mai multe responsabilitãþi proprii, aceºtia îºi potforma, sub o atentã supraveghere, conºtiinþa socialã ºi eticã.

Practicarea sportului în rândul copiilor prezintão importanþã deosebitã în dezvoltarea echilibratã ºiarmonioasã a personalitãþii lor, îndeplineºte funcþii socio-educative importante ºi creeazã mediu favorabilsocializãrii. Dobândind obiºnuinþe sociale, copilul estepus în situaþia de a se raporta la un comprtament civilizat,manifestã control în relaþiile cu ceilalþi, manifestãpreocupare de a-i ajuta pe cei din jur ºi înþelege cã arenevoie de anumite abilitãþi, priceperi ºi cunoºtinþe.

Prin sport îºi creeazã o viziune mai largã asupravieþii sociale ºi este conºtient de importanþa dezvoltãriicalitãþilor majore personalitãþii sale.Activitatea sportivãprezintã importanþã, deoarece contribuie la dezvoltarea uneiimagini pozitive despre sine, la formarea unor mecanismede autoreglare a stãrilor psiho-comportamentale. Cadimensiune formalã a educaþiei, sportul se practicãîncepând cu perioada preºcolarã ºi continuã pe întregulpraseu educaþional. Copilãria timpurie este perioada în caresportul are o importanþã deosebitã pentru dezvoltareasocialã, copilul învãþând în aceastã perioadã sã construiascãrelaþii cu ceilalþi, sã adopte diferite roluri sociale.

Practicarea activitãþilor sportive influenþeazãpozitiv personalitatea tinerilor, întãreºte respectul de sineºi creazã efecte pozitive asupra corpului ºi asupra minþii.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

THROUGH SPORT ACTIVITIES

Maria Pescaru, Universitatea din Piteºti

AbstractSports activities represent a fundamental instru-

ment favouring health and physical development, and alsoacquiring values indispensable to social cohesion and in-tercultural dialogue.

Sedentarism has increased alarmingly and islargely due to inadvertencies of formative processes (physi-cal education curriculum aims at developing skills andabilities in independent practicing of physical exercises),and the amount of programmes adapted to age character-istics and children’s level of schooling and preferencesare insuficient..

Learning techniques and tactics, carrying physi-cal, theoretical and psychological training into effect, as-similating recovery techniques in sports imply the devel-opment of child’s personality, the acquisition of lines ofcoduct specific to the sports he/she practices, being in acontinuous and innovating interaction whith the environ-ment.

Achieved within familial background, under par-ents’ surveilance, at school level afterwards, during thephysical activity lessons or the extra-curricular sports ac-tivities, physical training of children is closely connectedto the intelectual one, providing incresed personalresponsabilities and enabling them to acqire, under care-ful surveilance, social and ethical consciousness.

Acquring social behaviours, the child is forced toadopt civilized manners, manifests controle in relationshipwith the other members of society, preocupation to helpthe ones around him, and understands that he needs cer-tain abilities, skills and knowledge.

Trough sports, the child gets a larger perspectiveof social life and becomes more conscious in regard to theimportance of developing major qualities of his personal-ity.

Sports activity is important becose it contributesto forming a positive image of himself/herself, of certainmechanisms of phychological behaviour self-regulation.

As a formal dimension of education, sports ac-tivities are practiced starting with the kindergaten and con-tinuing through the child’s whole professional route. Earlychildhood is the period in which sports have a distinct im-portance for the child’s social development. He/she learns,during this period of time, to build retationships with theothers, to adopt different social roles.

Practicing sports positively influences the younggeneration’s personality, strengthens their self-respect andcreates positive effects upon their body and upon their mind.

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Pentru a se integra în mediul social, copilul trebuiesã acumulezr competenþe ºi capacitãþi care sã-i permitãasamblarea beneficã în contextul respectiv. În termeniipsihologici, trebuie sã acumuleze aptitudini cu rezonanþãsocialã, adicã acele atitudini care fac posibilã acceptareade cãtre organizaºie a comportamentului sãu conform curegulile specifice manifestãrii rolurilor asumate sauatribuite. Interiorizarea normelor ºi valorilor sociale decãtre copil permite însuºirea regulilor sociale de cãtre omulsupus socializãrii.

Formarea copilului pentru viaþã, pentru muncã,pentru profesie etc. necesitã acceptarea unor acþiuni relativindependente în care educaþia este parte semnificativã.

Sportul trebuie sã-ºi reia locul cuvenit înansamblul factorilor care contribuie la dezvoltarea socialãa copiilor.

Se impun trei direcþii de acþiune:- schimbarea orientãrii sistemului educativ;- schimbarea organizãrii, a structurii sistemului

educativ;- schimbarea conþinutului ºi tacticii educative.Schimbarea orientãrii sistemului educativ prin

sport înseamnã, în principal, definirea corectã a idealuluieducativ prin sport. Standardizarea competenþelor ºicapacitãþilor de format reprezintã calea spre organizareaºi desfãºurarea activitãþilor educative prin sport.

Schimbarea organizãrii, a structurii sistemuluieducativ reprezintã substratul funcþional ºi este cerutã dedezechilibrele prezente în interiorul sistemului actual întrenecesitãþi ºi realitãþi, între ceea ce trebuie fãcut ºi ceea ceface. Lipsa schimbãrii în acest domeniu determinãrãmânerea în urmã a rolului sistemului educativ ºi caurmare, apar oameni inapþi pentru a satisface necesitãþilesociale, incapabili sã sesizeze ºi sã urmeze tendinþele celemai fireºti ale procesului economico-social.

Schimbarea conþinutului ºi tacticii educativeconstã în înoirea tacticii educative, a metodelor ºimijloacelor ºi combinarea lor eficientã, în democratizarearelaþiilor educaþionale.

Educaþia prin sport reprezintã un principiu majoral regenerãrii educaþiei, în mãsurã sã orienteze ºi sãregularizeze continuu organizarea ºi desfãºurarea educaþiei,atât prin programe, cât ºi prin activitãþile practice,presupunând integrarea tuturor factorilor sociali educogeniîntr-un sistem în mãsurã sã acþioneze asupra fiecãrui individpe toatã perioada vieþii lui, în modaliitãþi variate, specifice,dar corelate, cu scopul de a asigura continuu performanþaindividualã.

Prin sport se poate orecta ceea ce este util ºiinovator acolo unde este cazul ºi se poate orienta educaþiapentru a satisface atingerea de cãtre copil a niveluluieducaþional care sã-i permitã împlinirea disponibilitãþilorsale umane, într-o lume aflatã într-o continuã ºi dinamicãschimbare. Obiectivele dezvoltãrii sociale prin sports-aucristalizat continuu, printre cele mai importante fiind:

To integrate in the social environment, the childhas to acquire skills and abilities which enable him to jointhe respective context. Psychologically he has to get so-cial abilities which make it possible for the group to ac-cept his behavior according to the specific rules of assumedor attributed roles manifestation. The child’s acquirementof social values enables a person subject to socializationto get the social rules. Training the child for life and work, profession,means to accept some independent actions in which edu-cation is a major part. Sports have to take back their proper place in theassembly of factors which have a great contribution inchildren’s social development. Three directions of action are to be taken into con-sideration: -changing the orientation of the educationalsystem, -changing the organization, the structure of theeducational system, -changing the content and the strategy of edu-cation. Changing the orientation of the educational systemthrough sport means mainly a correct definition of the edu-cational ideal through sport. Standardization of the com-petence and skills to be acquired represents the way to theorganization and development of educational activitiesthrough sport. Changing the organization, the structure of the edu-cational system represents the functional background andit is demanded by the lack of balance within the existingsystem, between necessity and reality, between what mustbe done and what is actually being done. The lack of changein this domain brings about a lagging of the role of theeducation system, and consequently there may appearpeople who are unable to satisfy the social requirements,unable to understand and follow the most natural trends ofthe social-economic process. Changing the content and the strategy of the educa-tion system implies the renewal of the educational strat-egy, of the methods and means and their efficient combi-nation, as well as the democratization of the educationalrelationships. Education through sport represents a major factorof education revival able to continually orientate and regu-late the organization of education both by programs andby practical activities, meaning the integration of all so-cial and educational factors in a unique system able to actupon each individual along his lifetime, in various specificways, for the purpose of ensuring the individual’s perfor-mance continually. Through sport we can correct what is useful and in-novative and we can orientate education to provide for thechild that level of education which enables him the fulfill-ment of his human availability, in a continually changingand dynamic world. The objectives of social developmentthrough sport have evolved continually and some of themost important are the following:

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- sportul contribuie la socialiyarea fiecãruiindivid. Este factorul sine qua non al socializãrii în toateformele sale. Aceasta înseamnã cã educaþia prin sport nulipseºte nici un moment din activitatea ºcolarã, ea fiindparte a introducerii omului în societate, în profesiune, înviaþa privatã ºi cea cetãþeneascã;

- sporirea rolului activit[‚ilor sportive ]nreyolvarea unor probleme sociale, cum sunt consumul dedroguri, sãnãtatea, mediul înconjurãtor, interetnicitatea;

- activitãþile sportive contribuie decisiv laînvãþarea ºi operaþionalizarea regulilor comunitãþii;

- foloseºte timpul liber al copiilor pentrua-ºi consolida finalitatea. Acest timp nu trebuie lãsat învoia dezordinii, la dispoziþia întâmplãrii, ci atras în câmpulacþiunii educative, fãrã a ºtirbi însã din autonomia care-iconferã identitatea;

Dezvoltarea socialã prin sport submineazã dintemelii monopolul ºcolii, organizaþie care a dominat subraport educaþional epoca modernã, fãrã sã înlãture însã rolulsãu central în realizarea educaþiei. ªcoala, cu fiecare dintreptele sale, continuã sã joace un rol esenþial în educaþie,chiar în condiþiile acceptãrii principiului educaþieipermanente.

La nivelul microgrupului social, activitãþilesportive îndeplinesc câteva cerinþe absolut necesare;

- existenþa obiectivelor de acþiune comune, arelaþiilor ierarhice;

- recunoaºterea unui sistem de norme ºi valorica îndrumar în acºiune;

- structura permite satisfacerea nevoilor,aspiraþiilor fiecãrui membru al grupului;

- existenþa unor condiþii materialenecesare manifestãrii practice (sedii, fonduri funciare), darºi a unei reprezentãri simbolice, semne distinctive (insigne,steaguri etc.). Activitãþile sportive satisfac concomitent lanivelul microgrupului educaþional douã rosturi corelate:pe de o parte, genereazã norme ºi modele educaþionale (înacest fel este mediul educogen) ºi, pe de altã parte, suntorganizate astfel încât permit exercitarea forþei educativea educatorului asupra tuturor celor de educat, fie individual,fie în grup. Sociologia educaþiei prin intermediul sportuluiare în vedere simultan ambele aspecte, atât dimensiunea„logicã”- a conºtientului, raþionalului, normãrii ºi dirijãrii(studiatã detaliat de Makarenco)- cât ºi pe cea „non-logicã-a relaþiilor interpersonale dominate de sentimente ºi emoþiidiverse (a excelat prin studii pertinente K. Lewin).

Sociologia educaþiei este preocupatã sãdesluºeascã rolul ºi statutul profesorului ºi elevului, adicãpoziþia socialã datã de drepturile ºi îndatoririle fixate desocietate, dar ºi atitudinile, valorile, comportamentulasociate statutului profesorului ºi elevului. Relaþiileinterumane în cadrul activitãþilor sortive se manifestã ladouã niveluri care se întrepãtrund: cel al relaþiilor dintreprofesor ºi elev ºi cel al relaþiilor dintre elevi. Se nasc relaþiiafective care sunt de mare diversitate ºi de un accentuatdinamism, generate de interese de mare diversitate care leanimã, proprii fiecãrui comportament. Putem susþine, faptpuþin observabil de psihologia socialã, cã relaþiile afective,calitatea lor nu atârnã atât de greu pe cât se apreciazã laîndeplinirea scopului.

-sport contributes to each individual’s socializa-tion. It is the “sine qua non” factor of socialization in allits forms. This means that education by sport must not beomitted at any moment in the school activity, being part ofman’s stepping forward into society, profession, privateand public life. -enlarging the role of the sports activities in solv-ing some social problems such as drug consumption, health,natural environment, inter-ethnicity. -the sportive activi-ties contribute to the learning and operalization of thecommunity’s rules;-they use the children’s free time to reinforce their pur-pose. This free time doesn’t have to submit to disorder,but to attract to the field of the educative action, but with-out diminishing the autonomy that gives it the identity; The social development by sport undermines theschool monopoly, organization that prevailed the modernage educationally, without giving away its central role inachieving education. School, with each of its stages, goeson playing an essential role in education, even in the con-ditions of accepting the principle of permanent education. At the level of the social micro group, the sportiveactivities fulfill some absolutely necessary demands:-the existence of the objectives of common action, of thehierarchical relations;-the organizing of a system of norms and values as a guideof action; -the structure permits the meeting of require-ments, aspirations of each member of the group;-the existence of some material conditions necessary tothe practical manifestations (headquarters, land funds) butto a symbolical representation, distinctive signs (badges,flags)

The sportive activities concomitantly satisfy twocorrelated aims: at the level of the educational micro group;on one side, they generate norms and educational models(this way is the educogen medium) and on the other sidethey are organized so that they can permit the practicing ofthe educative force of the teacher upon all those who mustbe educated, either individually, or in the group. The soci-ology of education by means of sports refers to the bothaspects simultaneously, both “the logical dimension”-of theconscious, rational, of the rate-setting and the guidance (indetail studied by Makareno) – and “the non-logical” one-referring to the interpersonal relations prevailed by vari-ous feelings and emotions.(K.L. excelled by pertinent stud-ies) The sociology of education is preoccupied to distin-guish the teacher’s and pupil’s role and statute, namely thesocial position given by the rights and obligations settledby the society, but also the attitudes, values, behavior as-sociated with the teacher’s and pupil’s statute.

The interhuman relations as part of the sportiveactivities are manifested at two levels which overlap eachother: the one of the relations between teacher and pupiland the one of the relations among pupils. The affectiverelations which are of a great variety and have an accenteddynamism generated by interests of great diversity whichanimate them, suitable to each behavior are born. We cansustain, a fact a little bit observable by the social psychol-ogy, that the affective relations, their quality are not soimportant as they seem to fulfill the purpose.53

La nivelul grupului social, activitatea sportivãreprezintã acþiunea comunã pentru realizarea unui scopcomun. Competiþia este singura acceptatã. Copii învaþãnormativitatea socialã generalã ºi sunt diferenþiaþi,apreciaþi, li se fixeazã satatutul nu dupã baze biologice(aºa cum se întâmplã în familie, unde, structurafundamentalã de status se construieºte- aratã T. Parsons-în termenii poziþiei biologice, respectiv de generaþie sex ºivârstã). Existã inevitabil diferenþa de prestigiu în raportcu aceasta, ºi ele sunt recompensate ºi sancþionate pe cãicare duc la o formare diferenþiatã a caracterului, dupãperformanþele sortive, dupã calitatea îndeplinirii sarcinilorcare le au de rezolvat.

În cadrul activitãþilor sortive se stabilesc relaþiide mare complexitate, multiple ºi dinamice, formalizate ºiierarhizate.

Cunoaºterea de cãtre profesor a însuºirilor,trãsãturilor ºi funcþionalitãþii microgrupului social îideterminã în mod necesar tendinþa de a utiliza valenþeleformative, de a modifica sensibil sistemul de cerinþe edu-cative prin cre individul se formeazã pentreu viaþã.Individul în formare îi apare într-o nouã luminã, favorabilãelaborãrii ºi practicãrii metodelor adecvate obiectivelor pecare ºi le propune. Profesorul nu trebuie sã fie absolvitînsã de rezultatele cercetãrii sociologice care pun grupulînaintea altor componente ale funcþionãrii procesuluieducativ. Educaþia fizicã este o componentã indispensabilãa educaþiei, strâns legatã de educaþia moralã, urmãrindformarea la elevi a unor trãsãturi ºi sentimente morale ca:simþul dreptãþii, curajul, stãpânirea de sine, cinstea etc.

Dimensiunea corporalã a educaþiei fizice esterealizatã prin:

- educaþia fizicã ºi ºcoala (educaþie a miºcãrii);- educaþia psihomotorie realizatã prin

programul ºcolar (educaþie prin miºcare);- activitãþi educative care implicã

coordonatele motorii ºi psihomotorii (cercuri degimnasticã, înot, sculpãturã, picturã, drumeþie, excursiietc.).

- sportul practicat atât în cadrul ºcolar, câtºi în cel al educaþiei nonformale sau chiar informale.

UNESCO acordã o imprtanþã deosebitã educaþieifizice ºi sportului, stabilind printre altele: efectul beneficasupra soluþionãrii unor probleme sociale, politice ºieconomice, fiind ºi mijloc de diminuare a delincvenþei,violenþei, criminalitãþii ºi toxicomaniei, contribuþia laintegrarea socialã, inclusiv a persoanelor dezavantajatefizic; contribuþia la sporirea productivitãþii muncii, prinîmbunãtãþirea formei fizice ºi a sãnãtãþii, contribuþia laprelungirea vârstei active de muncã, a pensionãrii etc.

Educaþia fizicã cuprinde un cumul de activitãþice contribuie la dezvoltarea fiinþei umane prin cultivareaºi potenþarea dimensiunii psihofizice a fiinþei, prin pãstrareaunei armonii între fizic ºi psihic, prin psihomotricitate ºiintelectivitate, voinþã, emotivitate. Educaþia fizicã estefiziologicã prin natura exerciþiilor sale, pedagogicã prinmetodã, biologicã prin efectele sale ºi socialã prin modulde organizare ºi prin activitate. Prin intermediul activitãþiisportive se pot perfecta legãturile dintre toate dimensiunilepersonalitãþii, ca o posibilitate de perfecþionare a fiinþeidin mai multe puncte de vedere.

As a part of the sportive activities multiple, dynamic, for-malized and formed relations of great complexity are es-tablished. Teacher’s knowledge of a social group’s character-istics, features and functionality causes an immediate ten-dency to use formative valences, to considerably modifythe educational system through which the individual isformed for life. The individual, in a training process, ap-pears in a new light, develops friendly and uses propermethods for the objectives that they have set themselves.A teacher should not be exempted from the results of so-ciological research which put the group ahead of other partsof the education officials.

Physical education is an indispensable componentof education, closely related to moral education, aiming attraining students of moral traits and feelings such as a senseof justice, courage, self-mastery, honesty, etc.Body size of physical education is achieved through:-Physical education in school (education of movement) -Psychomotor education program conducted by school (edu-cation through movement); - Educational activities involv-ing motor coordinates and psychomotor (gymnastics, swim-ming, sculpture, painting, hiking, excursions, etc.).- Sports both in the school activities as well as in formaland informal ones.UNESCO attaches great importance to physical educationand sport, establishing among other things: beneficial ef-fects on solving problems of social, political and economicmeans and the reduction of crime, violence, crime and drugabuse, contributing to social integration, including thephysically disadvantaged; contribution to increasing laborproductivity by improving the physical shape and health,contributing to an extension of active working age, retire-ment, etc.Sport includes an overlapping of activities that contributeto the development of the human being and enhanced bythe growing size of human being’s physique, by maintain-ing a harmony between the physical and psychological part,through physique and intellect, will and sensitivity. Physi-cal education is physiologic in the nature of its exercises,pedagogical in its method, biological through its effectsand social through its organization and activities. Throughsports activities all the links of personality dimensions canbe perfected, as a way of perfecting the individual fromseveral points of view. By carrying out sports activities we do not track alimited intrinsic purpose, that of physical development thatwould be made parallel and independent of other aspectsof human being, on the contrary, physical education, aspart of a system works along with the other sides on fulldevelopment of personality, stimulating and strengtheningtheir physical qualities. This statement aims at the unity ofthe human being, demonstrated by the biological socialsciences, especially anthropology. It aims to achieve greaterharmony, psychological and physical balance through thesimultaneous elements of the biological and psychologi-cal aspect. Organizing and conducting physical exercisesand games offer the opportunity to educate the moral con-duct and conscience, building positive features of a person’swill and character.

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Prin desfãºurarea activitãþlor sportive nu seurmãreºte un scop limitat, intrinsec, acela al dezvoltãriifizice ce s-ar realiza paralel ºi independent de alte aspecteale personalitãþii umane, din contrã, educaþþia fizicã, caparte componentã a unui sistem acþioneazã paralel cucelelalte laturi asupra dezvoltãrii integrale a personalitãþii,stimulând ºi fortificând calitãþile psihofizice ale acesteia.Aceastã afirmaþie vizeazã principiul unitãþii fiinþei umane,demonstrat de ºtiinþele biologice ºi socioumane, cuprecãdere de antropologie. Se urmãreºte realizarea uneiarmonii ºi a unui echilibru psihofizic prin valorificareaconcomitentã a elementelor biologice ºi a celor psihice.Organizarea ºi desfãºurarea exerciþiilor fizice ºi a jocuriloroferã prilejul educãrii conºtiinþei ºi conduitei morale,formãrii trãsãturilor pozitive de voinþã ºi caracter.

Ca proces de rezolvare a problemelor, gândireaeste intens solicitatã de exerciþiile fizice ºi jocurile sortive.Aceste activitãþi creeazã situaþii la care elevii trebuie sãrãspundã cât mai rapid ºi în funcþie de condiþiileschimbãtoare ale situaþiei în care sunt plasate. Cu cât soluþiase gãseºte mai rapid ºi mai prompt, cu atât ºansele de câºtigsunt mai mari. Rezolvarea unor probleme tactice constãtocmai în analiza, sinteza, compararea tuturor factorilor ºiîmprejurãrilor pentru a depista ºi a alege varianta cea maibunã. Elaborarea unui plan tactic, cât ºi aplicarea acestuiaîntr-o situaþie concretã nu sunt posibile fãrã prezenþaoperaþiunilor gândirii. Descoperirea celei mai bune soluþiiîntr-o situaþie concretã depinde ºi de particularitãþileindividuale de gândire sau calitãþi ale acesteia cum ar fi:rapiditatea, supleþea, independenþa, creativitatea etc. Faptulcã în aceastã activitate elevul se aflã continuu în faþa unorsituaþii noi, rezolvarea lor nefiind posibilã prin aplicareaunor soluþii ºablon, ritmul derulãrii lor fiind deosebit deintens, solicitarea calitãþilor de mai susu este inevitabilãpentru descoperirea variantei optime de rãspuns. Educaþiafizicã favorizezã, prin excelenþã, apariþia unor stãri deafectare provocate de ambianþa în care se desfãºoarãactivitatea (estetica ambianþei, a terenului, a sãlii etc.);bucurie, încredere, dorinþa de a face totul pentru reuºitãetc. Toate aceste stãri afective îºi pun amprenta asupraîntregii personalitãþi umane. Preuate ºi integrate încomponentele superioare ale personalitãþii, cum ar fi celeintelectuale ºi morale, ele continuã sã acþioneze ca mobiluriinterne cu funcþie energizantã ºi stimulatoare asupraconduitei umane, în ansamblul sãu.

Activitãþile fizice ºi jocurile au un rol importantîn educarea voinþei ºi a calitãþilor ei. Efortul de voinþã esteprezent în orice activitate unanã, facilitând învingereaobstacolelor externe sau interne ce pot interveni peparcursul desfãºurãrii activitãþii respective. Educarea luinu este posibilã decât în ºi prin activitate. O datã formatpoate fi transferat ºi folosit ºi în alte condiþii, în alteîmprejurãri ºi în alte situaþii. Funcþiile efortului de voinþãse manifestã în douã direcþii complementare: dirijare ºifrânare. Prima vizeazã direcþionarea activitãþilor umanespre atingerea unui scop, canalizarea tuturor resurselor saleinterne în aceastã direcþie, cealaltã vizeazã stãpânirea unorreacþii, a unei stãri afective negative care intervin ºideregleazã activitatea persoanei orientatã spre un scopanume.

As a process of solving problems, intense thinking is re-quired by exercise and sports games. These activities cre-ate situations in which students must respond more quicklyand depend on the changing situations in which they haveto act. The faster and more promptly the solution is found,the greater the chances of winning become. .Solving sometactical problems consist precisely in the analysis, synthe-sis, comparing all the factors and circumstances in orderto identify and select the best. The development of a tacti-cal plan, and also putting into practice this actual situationis not possible without the thinking operations. The dis-covery of the best solution in a real situation also dependson the individual’s particularities of thinking or on quali-ties such as : promptitude, flexibility, independence, cre-ativity etc.

The fact that during this activity the student hasto face new situations continuously , their solving not be-ing possible just by using some rules and its pace beingvery rapid, makes the above qualities indispensable toolsfor the discovery of the best answer.

Physical education facilitates, above all, the ap-pearance of some emotional states caused by the ambi-ance where the activity takes place ( the aesthetics of theambiance, of the field, of the gym hall ), like joy, trust, thewish of doing everything for the sake of succeeding, etc.Putting together all the components of the superior per-sonality, like the intellectual and moral ones, they continueto act as inner activities which have an energizing and stimu-lating function on the human conduct entirely.

Physical activities and games have an importantrole in the education of volition and its qualities. The ef-fort of somebody’s volition is present in any human activ-ity, facilitating the overcoming the internal and externalobstacles which can disturb the process of the respectiveactivity. The education of volition is possible only in andthrough the activity. As soon as it is formed, it can betransferred and used in other conditions, circumstances,or other situations. The functions of the effort of the willmanifest themselves into two complimentary directions:guidance and braking. The first one deals with the guid-ance of the activities towards the achievement of a certainaim, the control of all its internal resources towards thisdirection and the other one aims at the control of somereactions of a negative emotional state which might inter-fere and disturb the activity of the respective person whois focused towards a certain aim. The education of the willlies in the formation of those indispensable needed for thetwo functions. For this we can mention : courage, firm-ness, perseverance, determination, self-control, spiritualorder and discipline, consistency etc.

The character includes all the essential and rela-tive stabile characteristics through which there are ex-pressed the attitudes of the man towards other people, to-wards work or towards himself. It is formed during child-hood. Because of this, the early influence of educationhas a decisive role in the shaping of the character traits.Through content and development these sports activitiescontribute to the formation and the stability of these traits.A systematic development , according to some set rules, educates the students’ perseverance, tenacity, the senseof discipline etc.55

Educarea voinþei constã în formarea acelor calitãþiindispensabile realizãrii celor douã funcþii. Pot fimenþionate în acest sens: curajul, dârzenia, perseverenþa,hotãrârea, stãpânirea de sine, spiritual de disciplinã ºiordine, consecvenþa etc.

Caracterul înglobeazã totalitatea trãsãturiloresenþiale ºi relativ stabile prin care se exprimã atitudinileomului faþã de ceilalþi oameni, faþã de muncã ºi faþã desine. El se contureazã în perioada copilãriei. Din aceastãcauzã influenþa timpurie a educaþiei are un rol hotãrâtorasupra conturãrii ºi stabilizãrii trãsãturilor de caracter. Princonþinutul ºi modul de desfãºurare, activitãþile sportivecontribuie la formarea ºi stabilizarea acestor trãsãturi.Efectuarea lor sistematicã, conform regulilor impuse, educãla elevi perseverenþa, tenacitatea, simþul ordinii, dorinþade afirmare etc. Competiþiile sportive contribuie la educareaspiritului de echitate, a respectului ºi stimei faþã de partenerºi adversar, a sentimentului de prietenie, a spirituluicooperant, a atitudinii disciplinare etc.

Efortul pe care îl presupun contribuie lafortificarea voinþei ºi la educarea calitãþilor acesteia. Prinrezultatele obþinute ele formeazã formarea spiritului deiniþiativã, capacitãþii de organizare, ambiþiei ºi dorinþei deautodepãºire, independenþei, spiritului de echipã etc. Catrãsãturã a personalitãþii, interesul imprimã un conþinut ºiun sens activitãþii umane.

Formarea deprinderilor este influenþatã deabilitãþile existente, acestea constituind o condiþiefavorabilã în procesul automatizãrii ºi fixãrii lor; pe dealtã parte, ca instrumente operante deprinderile stimuleazãºi conferã o finalitate motricã abilitãþilor; împreunãînscriinduse într-o structurã de ansamblu a respectiveiacþiuni motrice. Din perspectiva derulãrii unei acþiunimotrice, deprinderile sunt mijloace de realizare, iarabilitãþile condiþiile îndeplinirii cu succes, la un grad maiînalt de perfecþionare. Împreunã conduc la dobândireafineþii miºcorilor ºi, implicit, a unui randament mai bun.Literatura de specialitate consemneazã asemenea abilitãþicum ar fi: simþul muscular, simþul orientãrii, simþulechilibrului, simþul plasamentului, ritmului etc.

În structura de ansamblu a personalitãþii umaneputem include ºi deprinderi igienico-sanitare. Acestea sereferã la igiena corporalã (spãlare, îngrijire etc.) la igienalocuinþei ºi a sãlilor de clasã (curãþenie, aierisire, înviorare,poziþie în bancã etc.) la igiena alimentaþiei etc. Educaþiafizicã se implicã în formarea lor prin asimilareacunoºtinþelor teoretice, prin conºtientizarea regulilor ºicerinþelor igienice ºi prin stimularea elevilor în vederearespectãrii ºi aplicãrii lor.

Unitatea ºi diversitatea în cadrul acþiuniiieducaþionale se coreleazã cu unitatea ºi diversitatea îninteriorul personalitãþii umane. Activitãþile sportive seconstituie într-un sistem, contribuind, astfel, la dezvoltareaarmonioasã a organismului ºi personalitãþii umane.

Se ºtie ca succesul ºi eºecul activitãþii deautoeducaþie profesional-pedagogicã depinde în cea maimare masurã de factorul uman cu care se lucreazã. În acestcontext trebuie sã þinem cont cu mare rigurozitate destructura autoeducaþiei care evidenþiazã esenþa unorelemente comune, aproape identice, situate la nivelulstructurii acþiunii educaþionale.

Sports competitions contribute to the education of the prin-ciples of equity , respect towards his partners and his com-petitors, the feeling of friendship, the teem spirit and a dis-ciplinary attitude.

The implied effort contributes to the strengthen-ing of the will and to the education of its qualities. Withthe help of the results they form the spirit of initiative, or-ganization abilities, ambition, the need of self develop-ment, independence, team spirit, etc. As a trait of person-ality, the interest gives content and sense to the humanactivity.

The skill building is influenced by the existingabilities , this being a propitious condition in the processof their automatization; on the other hand as operating in-struments the skills stimulates and offers a motrical final-ity to the skills, together becoming part of the respectivemovement action. From the point of view of a motric ac-tion the skills are means of achievement, and … the condi-tions to fulfil successfully, with the highest level of devel-opment. Together they lead to acquire the finesse of move-ment and also a better outcome. The specialists’ literaturementions some of these abilities such as: flexibility ofmuscles, sense of orientation, of balance, of placement,rhythm etc. In the whole structure of the human personal-ity, we can also include the practice of hygiene. This re-fers to body hygiene (washing, general caring etc) the hy-giene of the home and the classroom (cleaning, fresh air,physical exercises, the position in the benches etc) foodhygiene etc. Physical education contributes to their devel-opment through learning the theory, through awareness ofthe rules and the hygienic requirements and through stimu-lating the pupils to respect and apply them. The unity anddiversity of the educational activities correlates with theunity and diversity of the human internal personality. Thesport activities constitute a system, thus contributing to theharmonious development of the human body and person-ality. It is known that the success and failure of the profes-sional and pedagogical self learning activities depend to agreat extent on the human elements with which one works.In this context we need to take into account rigorously thestructure of self learning which highlights the essence ofsome common elements, almost identical, which are to befound at the level of the structure of the educational activi-ties. The social expectations, continually increasing, ne-cessitate changes on the psychological formation of thepersonality of the future teachers of physical education andsport through highlighting the aspirations and expectationsof society. Today one cannot find any sphere of humanactivities, which is not depending, directly or indirectly,on physical and sportive culture.

Through the nature of social contacts offered byvarious sports, it is considered that ethical and moral values,which sport promotes, can be integrated at the individual,group, and community level, and can be transferred to otherspheres of social life. Part of the educational system, sportcontains the essential values of living in community,favouring group integration by learning some values, suchas: respect for others, for the law (rules and regulations)discipline and self-discipline. The necessity of obtainingthese values is indisputable.

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Cerinþele sociale mereu crescute necesitãmodificãri în formarea psihologicã a personalitãþii viitorilorprofesori de educaþie fizicã ºi sport prin punerea în valoarea aspiraþiilor ºi cerinþelor societãþii. Astãzi nu se poate gãsinici o sferã a activitãþii umane, care sã nu fie dependentãdirect sau colateral de cultura fizicã ºi cea sportivã Prinnatura contactelor sociale oferite de diverse sporturi, seconsiderã cã valorile etice ºi morale, pe care le promoveazãsportul, pot fi infuzate la nivel de individ, de grup, decomunitate ºi pot fi transferate ºi in alte sfere ale vieþiisociale. Componentã a demersului educativ, sportul conþinevalori esenþiale ale vieþii în colectivitate, favorizândintegrarea în grup prin asimilarea unor valori, cum sunt:respectul faþã de ceilalþi, faþã de lege (reguli ºi regulamente),disciplina ºi autodisciplina. Necesitatea de a dobândi acestevalori este incontestabilã. Susþinerea direcþiilor socializãriiprin sport ( Dragnea, A. ºi col., 2002) reprezintã pentruspecialiºtii domeniului responsabilitãþii majore: “educareaunor trãsãturi morale, stabilitate emoþionalã, stabilirea ºiperfecþionarea relaþiilor interpersonale, autorealizare ºiautoîmplinire”.

Sportul ºi activitãþile fizice contribuie lasocializarea oamenilor ºi, îndeosebi, a tinerilor, în condiþiileîn care existã o bunã dirijare. Se spune cã socializarea însport nu poate fi promovatã decât atunci când sunt puse înevidenþã calitãþi morale. Atitudinile, deprinderile ºi regulileasimilate în activitatea sportivã pot fi transferate în oricealtã sferã socialã ºi pot fi adaptate la specificul oricãreialte instituþii sociale.

Exerciþiile fiyice au apãrut ºi s-au perfecþionatcontinuu în concordanþã cu comanda socialã. Apariþia ºievoluþia exerciþiilor fizice au o condiþionare clarã de ordinsocial. Acestea nu sunt determinate de instincte, de factoribiologici etc. Contrar unor teorii, apariþia ºi evoluþiaexerciþiilor fizice au fost determinate nu numai de laturamaterialã a vieþii sociale ci ºi de alþi factori: ºtiinþã, nivelde culturã, religie etc. În contextul construirii educaþieifiyice ca activitate socialã, cadrele de specialitate s-auformat mult mai târziu. În România procesul de formare aspecializãrilor pentru domeniul practicãrii exerciþiilorfizice, a cãpãtat un status clar începând cu anul 1922 cânds-a înfiinþat ANEFS. În etapa actualã procesul de pregãtireal cadrelor de specialitate în educaþie fizicã ºi sportivã s-aamplificat ºi diversificat. A apãrut ºi învãþãmântul particularîn educaþie fizicã.

Esenþa constã în aceea cã practicarea exerciþiilorfizice vizeazã întotdeauna, indiferent de formaorganizatoricã ºi de formaþiunea social-economicã ºipoliticã în care se realizeazã perfecþionarea dezvoltãriifizice ºi a capacitãþii motrice ale subiecþiilor. Cu altecuvinte, scopurile practicãrii exerciþiilor fizice. Au fostrelativ diferite de la o formaþiune social-economicã ºipoliticã la alta, dar esenþa a rãmas mereu aceeaºi.

Este necesar sã se acorde prioritate posibilitãþilordestinate copiilor ºi tinerilor în vederea practicãriiactivitãþilor fizice ºi sportului, în astfel de condiþii încâtacest lucru sã le facã plãcere, sã-i înveþe sã coopereze, sãadopte o atitudine pozitivã faþã de miºcare, ca activitatede recreere ºi sã le ofere ocazia de a participa la luarea dedecizii legate de activitãþile desfãºurare de ei.

Supporting the means of socialising through sport(Dragnea, A., col., 2002) represents for the specialists inthe area of major responsibility: “forming some moralvalues, emotional stability, establishing and developinginterpersonal relationship, self achievement and selffulfilment”.

Sport and physical exercises contribute to people’ssocialising, and especially, to that of young people, whenthere is good guidance. It is said that socialising in sportcan be promoted only when moral qualities are highlighted.The attitudes, skills and regulations which are learnedthrough sportive activities can be transferred to any othersocial setting and can be adapted to the specificcharacteristics of any other social institution.

Physical exercises began and continued to developaccording to social demands. The appearance andevolution of physical exercises are conditioned by society.They are not determined by instinct or by biological factorsetc. Contrary to some theories, the appearance andevolution of physical exercises were determined not onlyby the material side of social life but also by other factors:science, cultural level, religion.

In the context of building physical education as asocial activity, the specialists were trained later on. InRomania, the training process of specializing in the domainof physical exercises, gained a clear statute starting in 1922when ANEFS was founded.Nowadays the process of training of specialists in physicaland sportive education has improved and varied. Privateeducation has also become a part of physical and sportiveeducation. The essence lies in the idea that irrespective ofthe organisational form and the social, economic or politicalgroup where it occurs, practising physical exercises hasalways targeted to the training of the physical developmentand the motive abilities of the subjects: In a few words, thepurposes of practising physical exercises. These have beenspecific to different social, economic or political groupsbut the essence has always remained the same.

It is essential that priority should be given to thepossibilities dedicated to the children and the younggeneration in order to practice physical and sportiveactivities, in such a way that doing it may please them,teach them how to cooperate and consider movementpositively, as a leisure activity and may give the opportunityto take part in making decisions about the activitiesperformed/carried out. The European Manifesto for youthand sport embraced by the 8th Conference on Sport ofEuropean Ministers (Lisbon 17-18 May 1995) is a vividproof of how to carry out such objectives. It is advisable totake into consideration team games as ways of givingchildren the opportunity to get involved in varied socialroles and therefore to develop their moral sense and thatof responsibility in the life of a group. European Manifestofor youth and sport embraced by the 8th Conference onSport of European Ministers (Lisbon 17-18 May 1995) isa vivid proof of how to carry out such objectives. It isadvisable to take into consideration team games as waysof giving children the opportunity to get involved in variedsocial roles and therefore to develop their moral sense andthat of responsibility in the life of a group.

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Manifestul european privind tineretul ºi sportuladoptat la a 8-a Conferinþã a miniºtrilor europeni peprobleme de sport (Lisabona, 17-18 mai 1995) constituieuna din c[ile de realizare a acestor obiective.

Este bine sã se þinã[ seama de faptul cã jocurilede echipã le dau copiilor posibilitatea de a se implica îndiverse roluri sociale ºi de a-ºi dezvolta astfel conºtiinþamoralã ºi simþul de rãspundere în viaþa în colectivitate.

În aceastã societate contemporanã, apãsatã desedentarism, de stres, de agresivitate, activitatea sportivãare un rol social major. Fenomenul sportiv a devenit oactivitate socialã, economicã ºi de recreere cu valenþedeosebite. Avem convingerea cã miºcarea în aer liber,practicarea sportului amelioreazã condiþia umanã, implicitcalitatea vieþii, iar practicantul activitãþilor sportivedobândeºte un ansamblu de cunoºtinþe ºi abilitãþi beneficeatât pentru sine cât ºi pentru societatea din care face parte.Miºcarea, exerciþiile fizice, activitatea sportivãcompetiþionalã ºi necompetiþionalã contribuie ladezvoltarea unei imagini pozitive despre sine, laimplementarea în activitatea zilnicã a unor mecanisme deautoreglare a stãrilor psiho-comportamentale.

Viaþa ºcolarã ºi socialã îl dezvoltã pe copil ºi îlpregãteºte pentru adaptarea eficientã la mediul ambiant.Ca dovadã, spre sfârºitul perioadei copilul devine maipuþin dependent de familie ºi de ºcoalã ºi devinepreocupat de a-i ajuta pe cei din jur, preocupare ce îl vaajuta sã înþeleagã mai bine cã pentru tot ceea ce face arenevoie de anumite abilitãþi, de priceperi ºi cunoºtinþe.Astfel va avea o viziune mai largã asupra vieþii sociale ºia nevoii de a-ºi dezvolta calitãþile majore alepersonalitãþii sale. La aceastã vârstã copilul descoperã cãpentru a desfãºura anumite activitãþi trebuie sã dispunãde un sistem de cunoºtinþe, priceperi ºi deprinderi, fãrãde care nu ºi-ar putea îndeplini scopurile propuse.Aceastã descoperire îl face sã încerce sã se cunoascã maibine ºi acest lucru se realizeazã, poate nu totdeaunaconºtient, în cadrul activitãþilor sportive la care copilulparticipã cu mare interes ºi pasiune.

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Nowadays when sedentary life, stress and aggressivenesshang heavy upon the contemporary society, sportive activityplays a major social role. The sportive phenomenon hasbecome a social, economical and entertaining one. We arepositive that physical movement in the open, that practicalsport may improve the human condition, the quality of lifeimplicitly, and that the practitioner of the sportive activitiesacquires a set of knowledge and abilities beneficial to him/her and the community he is a member of. The movement,the physical exercises, the sportive activity, either carriedout in competitions or not may bring about the developmentof self-positive ideas, the implementation of mechanismsof self-regulation of both psychic and behaviour.

School life and social life develop the child andmake him ready to efficiently adapt to the environment.As proof of this, towards the end of childhood, the childbecomes less and less dependent on family and school andmore anxious about helping those around him/her, concernthat may help him better understand that he needs certainabilities, skills and knowledge to succeed in everything heundertakes. In this way he may reconsider social life andhis/her need to develop/improve the major qualities of his/her personality.

At this age the child discovers that he/she needs asystem of knowledge, abilities and skills in order to performcertain activities. This discovery propels him/her to trybetter knowing himself/herself which, not alwaysconsciously, can be performed during the sportive activitiesthe child takes part in passionately.

Nowadays when sedentary life, stress andaggressiveness hang heavy upon the contemporary society,sportive activity plays a major social role. The sportivephenomenon has become a social, economical andentertaining one. We are positive that physical movementin the open, that practical sport may improve the humancondition, the quality of life implicitly, and that thepractitioner of the sportive activities acquires a set ofknowledge and abilities beneficial to him/her and thecommunity he is a member of. The movement, the physicalexercises, the sportive activity, either carried out incompetitions or not may bring about the development ofself-positive ideas, the implementation of mechanisms ofself-regulation of both psychic and behaviour.

School life and social life develop the child andmake him ready to efficiently adapt to the environment.As proof of this, towards the end of childhood, the childbecomes less and less dependent on family and school andmore anxious about helping those around him/her, concernthat may help him better understand that he needs certainabilities, skills and knowledge to succeed in everything heundertakes. In this way he may reconsider social life andhis/her need to develop/improve the major qualities of his/her personality.At this age the child discovers that he/she needs a systemof knowledge, abilities and skills in order to performcertain activities. This discovery propels him/her to trybetter knowing himself/herself which, not alwaysconsciously, can be performed during the sportiveactivities the child takes part in passionately

58

THE EFFECTS OF STRETCHING AND PROP-RIOCEPTIVE EXERCISES IN SUBACUTE

GRADE II ANKLE SPRAINS

Roºulescu Eugenia, Lecturer, PhD, MDDãnoiu Suzana, Senior lecturer, PhD, MDIlinca Ilona, Lecturer, PhD, PTCãlina Mirela, Lecturer, PhD, MDZãvãleanu Mihaela, Lecturer, MDUNIVERSITY OF CRAIOVA

AbstractObjective: To evaluate the impact of 8-weeks addedstretching and proprioceptive exercises to a standard physi-cal therapy programme on the pain free active range ofmotion (ROM) and lower limb functional ability for gradeII subacute lateral ankle sprain.Material and methods: 23 patients were randomised intwo physical treatment groups with or without stretchingand proprioception exercises. The main outcome measureswere: pain score using VAS, ankle active range of motion(ROM) and Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS)score.Results: The results of the study showed a significant de-crease in pain of the stretching group (mean 0.8,95%CI=0.3-1.4) when comparing with control group (mean1.5, 95%CI=1.1-2.0) at the end of the study. At the bothfollow-up, the stretch group showed a more increased plan-tar dorsiflexion in the injured ankle (at 4 weeks p=0.02, 8weeks p<0.01). Improvement in lower limb functional abil-ity on LEFS score was similar in both groups.Discussion and Conclusion: Addition of stretching andproprioceptive exercises to the standard rehabilitation pro-tocol in the management of grade II ankle sprains was moreefficient in achievements of pain-free dorsiflexion and plan-tar flexion than classical physiotherapy alone.Key words: stretching, proprioceptive exercises, anklesprain, physical therapy.IntroductionAll around the world people are participating in sports forpersonal interest, relaxation, fitness and sport training. Butsports is one of the major causes of injuries causing pain,loss of playing or working time, as well as high medicalexpenditure. Ankle injuries are one of the most commonacute soft tissue injuries, with a significant treatment costto both the individual and society. An epidemiological studyabout sport injuries in 43 sports showed that ankle sprainwas the most common injury (33 sports, 76.7%) and insome sports, all of the reported ankle injuries were anklesprains (100%) [1].Ankle sprains vary in severity and consequential disabilitybased on the degree to which the ligaments are damaged.In most cases, ankle sprains are graded as I-mild, II-mod-erate, or III-severe. Grade II (moderate) sprains arecharacterised by a partial macroscopic tear of the ligament,leading to moderate pain, swelling and tenderness.

EFECTELE STRETCHING-ULUI ªIEXERCIÞIILOR PROPRIOCEPTIVE ÎN

ENTORSA DE GLEZNÃ SUBACUTÃ GRADUL II

Roºulescu Eugenia, Lect. Univ. Dr. Med.Dãnoiu Suzana, Conf. Univ. Dr. Med.Ilinca Ilona, Lect. Univ. Dr. Kt.Cãlina Mirela, Lect. Univ. Dr. Med.Zãvãleanu Mihaela, Lect. Univ. Drd. Med.UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA

RezumatObiective: Evaluarea efectului a 8 sãptãmâni de stretch-ing ºi exerciþii proprioceptive adãugate la programul stan-dard de terapie fizicalã asupra durerii la mobilizarea activãarticularã ºi abilitãþii funcþionale a membrului inferior înentorsa lateralã subacutã de gleznã gradul II.Materiale ºi metodã: 23 de pacienþi au fost randomizaþiîn douã grupuri de tratament fizical cu sau fãrã stretchingºi exerciþii proprioceptive. Principalele rezultate evaluateau fost: scorul durerii folosind VAS, amplitudinea demiºcare activã a gleznei (AM) ºi scorul Scalei Funcþionalea Membrului Inferior (LEFS).Rezultate: Rezultatele au demonstrat o reduceresemnificativã a durerii la grupul cu stretching (media 0.8,CI95%=0.3-1.4) în comparaþie cu grupul control (media1.5, CI95%=1.1-2.0) la finalul studiului. La evaluãrile con-secutive, grupul cu stretching a avut o amplitudine demiºcare mai mare a gleznei afectate (la 4 sãptãmâni p=0.02,la 8 sãptãmâni p<0.01). Îmbunãtãþirea scorului LEFS aabilitãþii funcþionale a membrului inferior a fost similarãla ambele grupuri.Discuþii ºi Concluzii: Adãugarea stretching-ului ºi aexerciþiilor proprioceptive la protocolul recuperator stan-dard în managemenul entorsei de gleznã gradul II a fostmai eficientã în obþinerea unei miºcãri de dorsiflexie ºiflexie plantarã nedureroase faþã de fizioterapia clasicã.Cuvinte cheie: stretching, exerciþii proprioceptive, entorsãgleznã, terapie fizicalã.IntroducereOriunde în lume oamenii participã la activitãþi sportivepentru relaxare, fitness ºi antrenament sportiv. Dar sportuleste una din cauzele majore de leziuni ale gleznei cedeterminã durere, scãderea perioadei active ºi de muncã,ºi, de asemenea, cu costuri medicale crescute.Traumatismele gleznei sunt unele din cele mai comuneleziuni ale þesuturilor moi cu costuri de tratamentsemnificative pentru individ ºi societate. Un studiu epide-miologic al traumatismelor sportive în 43 de sporturi aarãtat cã entorsa de gleznã a fost cel mai frecvent trauma-tism (în 33 sporturi, 76.7%), iar în anumite ramuri sport-ive, toate leziunile gleznei au fost entorse de gleznã (100%)[1].Entorsele de gleznã variazã ca severitate ºi ca dizabiliatateconsecutivã în funcþie de gradul afectãrii ligamentare. Îngeneral, entorsele de gleznã sunt clasificate ca gradul I-uºoare, II- moderate sau III- severe.

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Some loss of motion and mild to moderate instability re-sult, with recovery times of 10 to 21 days.The incidence of recurrent ankle sprain is high and leadsto further ligamentous damage as well as damage to themechanoreceptors [2]. Proprioception is defined as theability to establish a sense of position in space, especiallyat a joint. It is associated and interrelated with the jointmechanoreceptors. If the mechanoreceptors are damagedwhen an ankle sprain occurs, proprioception will be af-fected, which results in a reduction in the body’s ability tobalance. Thus, proprioception will not be an effectivemechanism for reducing the chance for further injury. Re-education of the mechanoreceptors becomes a vital key toreturning an individual to a perceived sense of stabilityand a complete lower limb function [2].Despite the high incidence, cost and long term morbidity,the optimal method of managing subacute ankle sprainsremains controversial [3].

ObjectiveTo evaluate the impact of a 8-weeks added stretching andproprioceptive exercises to a physiotherapeutical and clas-sic exercise programme on the active range of motion(ROM) and lower limb functional ability for grade II sub-acute ankle sprain in adults. We hypothesized that stretch-ing the gastrocnemius, soleus muscle and associated anklejoint soft tissue, and proprioceptive exercises three ses-sion per week would enhance outcome of the standardphysiotherapy programme, at least in short term.

Material and methodsInclusion criteria were: patients (aged 20-48 years) withan ankle joint supination trauma of grades II, normal ra-diographs and time from injury to treatment more than 48hours. Patients with recurrent sprains, neurological diseasesor other injuries in the lower extremities were excluded.All subjects received a standardized physical therapy pro-tocol (antalgic and anti inflammatory electrotherapy, ac-tive and passive range of motion exercises). At the time ofthe initial examination (T0), the patients were allocated toeither treatment with a stretching exercises (manual andstanding gastrocnemius stretch, manual and standing so-leus stretch started when bearing weight on the affectedextremity was tolerated), proprioceptive exercises (singleleg stance initially with, than without additional support,then in progression taking away vision, eyes closed, andankle disk training) – the treatment group, or only classi-cal physical therapy program – the control group. Exer-cises and physiotherapy had a frequency of three times/week and each stretch was held for an initial duration of15 seconds (four weeks), then 30 seconds (the next fourweeks), repeated five times.Follow-up examination was performed after 4 (T1) and8 weeks (T2) of therapy and included: clinical examina-tion with regard to localized ankle pain (using visualanalog scale VAS, pain score), active range of plantarflexion and dorsiflexion (measured by goniometry),lower limb activity limitation (measured by the LowerExtremity Functional

Entorsele de gradul II (medii) sunt caracterizate de o rupereligamentarã macroscopicã parþialã care determinã dureremoderatã, edem ºi redoare. Apare reducerea miºcãriiarticulare ºi instabilitate moderatã, cu un timp de recuperarede 10 pânã la 21 zile.Incidenþa entorselor recidivante este mare ºi conduce la oafectare ligamentarã suplimentarã ca ºi la lezareamecanoreceptorilor [2]. Propriocepþia se defineºte caabilitatea de a stabili sensul poziþiei în spaþiu, în special alarticulaþiei. Este asociatã ºi interrelaþioneazã cu receptoriide la nivelul articulaþiei. Dacã mecanoreceptorii suntafectaþi în momentul apariþiei unei entorse de gleznã,propriocepþia va fi afectatã, determinând o reducere aabilitãþii de menþinere a echilibrului corporal. Astfel,propriocepþia nu va mai fi un mecanism eficient deprevenire a leziunilor viitoare. Reeducareamecanoreceptorilor devine un deziderat pentru ca individulsã recâºtige percepþia stabilitãþii ºi a funcþionalitãþii com-plete a membrului inferior [2].În ciuda unei incidenþe crescute, morbiditãþii ºi costurilorpe termen lung, metoda optimã de management a entorselorsubacute de gleznã rãmâne controversatã [3].

ObiectiveEvaluarea impactului adãugãrii a 8 sãptãmâni de stretch-ing ºi exerciþii proprioceptive la programul clasic defizioterapie ºi exerciþii asupra amplitudinii de miºcareactivã (ROM) ºi a abilitãþii funcþionale a membrului infe-rior în entorsa subacutã de gleznã gradul II la adult. Ampornit de la ipoteza cã stretching-ul gastrocnemienilor,muºchiului solear ºi a tesuturilor moi periarticulare alegleznei ºi exerciþiile proprioceptive vor îmbunãtaþirezultatele programului standard de fizioterapie, cel puþinpe termen scurt.

Material ºi metodeCriteriile de includere au fost: pacienþi (vârsta 20-48 ani)cu traumatisme în supinaþie de gradul II ale gleznei,radiografii normale ºi timpul scurs de la momentul afectãriipânã începerea terapiei mai mare de 48 de ore. Pacienþiicu entorse recurente, boli neurologice sau alte leziuni alemembrelor inferioare au fost excluºi.Toþi subiecþii au urmat protocolul standard de terapie(electroterapie antialgicã ºi antiinflamatorie, exerciþii ac-tive ºi pasive de mobilizare articularã). La momentulevaluãrii iniþiale (T0), pacienþii au primit fie terapie custretching (stretching manual ºi în ortostatism pentrugastrocnemieni, stretching manual ºi în ortostatism pentrumuºchiul solear, atunci când extremitatea afectatã a permissprijinul greutãþii corporale), exerciþii proprioceptive(sprijin pe un picior iniþial cu, apoi fãrã sprijin adiþional,apoi progresiv fãrã control vizual, ochii închiºi, ºiantrenamentul gleznei pe discul de echilibru) – grupul detratament, fie doar programul de terapie fizicalã clasicã –grupul martor. Exerciþiile ºi tratamentul fizical au fostprescrise de trei ori/sãptãmânã ºi fiecare manevrã destretching a durat iniþial 15 secunde (4 sãptãmâni), apoi 30secunde (urmãtoarele patru sãptãmâni), cu repetiþie de cinciori. Evaluãrile urmãtoare au fost fãcute dupã 4 (T1) ºi 8

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Scale LEFS) [4]. LEFS was developed for a variety of lowerextremity conditions. It was based on the World HealthOrganization’s model of impairment, disability and handi-cap at the time of its development in 1999. The measure iscomprised of 20 items asking about difficulty performinga variety of everyday activities. Each item is scored by thesubject as 0 (unable to perform) to 4 (no difficulty). LEFSscore vary from 0 (low) to 80 (normal function). The reli-ability has been established in ankle sprains [5].

ResultsRecruitment and follow-up occurred between May 2007and August 2008. 23 participants were recruited and ran-domized in two groups: 12 in the treatment group and 11in the control group. All the studied patients displayeddeficits in dorsiflexion and local pressure pain in the symp-tomatic ankle. There were no clinically relevant differencesbetween the groups at baseline (table 1).

Table 1 - Baseline characteristics and T0 primary out-come measures for the treatment and control groups

For the pain outcome measure (fig.1), it was significantdifference between groups at 8 weeks, which favoured thetreatment group (mean score = 0.8 on a 100-mm pain VAS,95% CI = 0.3 to 1.4) comparing control group (mean score1.5, 95% CI = 1.1 to 2.0), p=0.03.

Figure 1 - Mean pain VAS score of the

studied subjects

22.2

1.5

5.4

0.8

5.6

0 5 10

T0

T1

T2

eva

lua

tio

n

mo

men

t

mean VAS score

Control group

Treatment group

sãptãmâni (T2) de terapie ºi au inclus: evaluare clinicã cuaccent pe durerea localizatã la nivelul gleznei (utilizândscorul durerii pe scala analog vizualã VAS), miºcãrile ac-tive de flexie ºi dorsiflexie plantarã (mãsurate pringoniometrie), limitarea activitãþilor membrului inferior(evaluatã prin Scala Funcþionalitãþii Extremitãþii InferioareLEFS) [4]. LEFS (Lower Extremity Functional Scale) afost dezvoltatã pentru multiple afecþiuni ale membruluiinferior. A avut la bazã modelul Organizaþiei Mondiale aSãnãtãþii de disfuncþie, dizabilitate ºi handicap din 1999.Scala cuprinde 20 de itemi în legãturã cu dificultatea de aexecuta o varietate de activitãþi zilnice. Fiecare item estenotat de pacient de la 0 (nu poate executa) la 4 (fãrãdificultate). Scorul LEFS variazã de la 0 (redus) la 80(funcþie normalã). Validitatea scalei a fost doveditã înentorsele de gleznã [5].RezultateÎnregistrãrile au fost realizate în perioada mai 2007 - au-gust 2008. 23 de pacienþi au fost incluºi în studiu ºi împãrþiþiîn douã loturi: 12 în grupul de tratament ºi 11 în grupulmartor. Tabel 1 - Caracteristicile iniþiale ºi parametriievaluaþi la momentul T0 pentru grupurile de tratament ºimartor

Toþi pacienþii studiaþi au avut un deficit al miºcãrii dedorsiflexie ºi durere localã la presiune la nivelul gleznei.Nu au existat diferenþe clinice iniþiale semnificative întrecele douã loturi de pacienþi (tabel 1).

Pentru parametrul durere (fig.1), a fost semnificativãdiferenþa între cele douã grupuri dupã 8 sãptãmâni, înfavoarea lotului cu terapie mixtã (scor mediu =0.8 pe scalaVAS de 100 mm, CI 95% = 0.3 – 1.4) comparativ cu grupulmartor (scor mediu =1.5, CI 95% = 1.1 – 2.0), p=0.03.

Figura 1 – Scorul mediu VAS al durerii la subiecþii cercetaþi

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Figure 2. Mean LEFS score and 95%

confidence interval CI of the two groups

14.613.4

26.725.3

43.842

7.25.6

1413.9

24.523.2

10.99.5

20.419.6

34.232.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

evaluation

moment

LE

FS

sco

re

T0 T1 T2

- CI 95%

● Treatment group

■ Control group

Activity limitation improved over time for both groups (fig.2) with no statistically significant difference betweengroups (at 8 weeks mean treatment group LEFS score 9.5,95% CI = 5.6 to 13.4, mean control group LEFS score10.9, 95% CI = 7.2 to 14.6, p>0.05)There was a significant difference between the groups indorsiflexion and plantar flexion during the follow-up pe-riod (fig. 3 and 4). At the both follow-up, the control groupshowed a more restricted range of motion in the injuredankle than the treatment group (mean T2 plantar flexion oftreatment group 41.1, 95% CI = 39.5 – 44.6, control group38.6, 95% CI = 35.9 – 41.3, p=0.04). Stretching and prop-rioceptive exercises resulted in greater improvement indorsiflexion range of movement than the application stan-dard physical therapy alone for measurements taken at 4weeks (mean T1 dorsiflexion of treatment group 14.1, 95%CI = 12.1 – 16.2, control group 10.4, 95% CI = 7.6 – 13.2,p = 0.02) and 8 weeks (mean T2 dorsiflexion of treatmentgroup 25.8, 95% CI = 22.9 – 28.7, control group 19.5,95% CI = 17.9 – 21.1, p <0.01).

Figure 3 - Mean plantar flexion value

(degrees) of the studied subjects

9.6

27.1

41.138.6

23.6

9.1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

T0 T1 T2evaluation moment

deg

rees Treatment group

Control group

Figura 2 – Scorul mediu LEFS ºi intervalul deconfidenþã CI95% la cele douã grupuri

Limitarea activitãþii s-a ameliorat în timp la ambele grupuri(fig. 2) fãrã diferenþe semnificative între cele douã loturi(la 8 sãptãmâni grupul de tratament media scorului LEFS9.5, CI 95% = 5.6 – 13.4, grupul martor media scoruluiLEFS 10.9, CI 95% = 7.2 – 14.6, p>0.05).A existat o diferenþã semnificativã între loturi la momenteleevaluãrilor pentru miºcarea de dorsiflexie ºi flexie plantarã(fig. 3 ºi 4). La cele douã evaluãri, grupul martor a avut oamplitudine articularã mai redusã la glezna afectatã faþãde grupul ce a primit terapie mixtã (la T2 flexia plantarã agrupului de tratament media 41.1, CI 95% = 39.5 – 44.6,iar a grupului martor 38.6, CI 95% = 35.9 – 41.3, p=0.04). Stretching-ul ºi exerciþiile proprioceptive au determinato îmbunãtãþire evidentã a amplitudinii dorsiflexiei plantarefaþã de aplicarea doar a unui program standard de terapiela evaluãrile dupã 4 sãptãmâni (la T1 dorsiflexia medie agrupului de tratament 14.1, CI 95% = 12.1 – 16.2, grupulmartor 10.4, CI 95% = 7.6 – 13.2, p = 0.02) ºi 8 sãptãmâni(la T2 dorsiflexia medie a grupului de tratament 25.8, CI95% = 22.9 – 28.7, grupul martor 19.5, CI 95% = 17.9 –21.1, p <0..01).

Figura 3 –Valoarea medie a flexiei plantare (îngrade) la subiecþii cercetaþi

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Figure 4 - Mean plantar dorsiflexion value

(degrees) of the studied subjects

0.8

14.1

25.8

19.5

10.4

0.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

T0 T1 T2evaluation moment

deg

rees Treatment group

Control group

Discussion.In our study, we showed that when subacute grade II anklesprains were treated with stretching and proprioceptionexercises in addition to the conventional physical therapyprotocol, we achieve a better pain-free dorsiflexion andplantar flexion range of movement than when physicaltherapy alone was administered. Although researchers inpilot studies have demonstrated that cryotherapy, passivejoint mobilization, propioceptive exercises can improvepain, ankle range of motion and stability [6,7,8], our studydemonstrated a better effect of stretching combined withproprioception exercises on grade II sprained ankles. Thereasons for the beneficial effects in pain free range of move-ment of stretching are unclear, although several hypoth-eses have been advanced, including physiological modu-lation of pain and mechanical alteration of tissues [9].ConclusionThe combination of stretching and proprioceptive exer-cises with a rehabilitative program has been shown to de-crease pain and increase ankle biomechanical movementparameters. Stretching and proprioceptive exercises areones of the newer beneficent therapies available in reha-bilitation. With every new study it is proved their excel-lent effect, so physical therapists and athletic trainers areable to provide better care to their patients. In the future,it is likely more studies will indicate that stretching andproprioceptive exercise, along with rehabilitation andstrengthening, will help a faster patient return to activitywith a more functionally stable ankle.

References1.Fong D.T.P., Hong Y., Chan L.K., Yung P.S.H., ChanK.M., (2007), A systematic review on ankle injury and anklesprain in sports. Sports Med; 37(1):73-94.2. Powers M.E., Buckley B.D., Kaminski T.W., et al.,(2004), Six weeks of strength and proprioception trainingdoes not affect muscle fatigue and static balance in func-tional ankle instability. J Sport Rehabil;13(3):201-227.3. de Bie R.A., de Vet H.C., van den Wildenberg F.A., etal., (1997), The prognosis of ankle sprains. Int J SportsMed; 18:285–9.

Figura 4 – Valoarea medie a dorsiflexiei plantare (îngrade) la subiecþii cercetaþi

DiscuþiiÎn studiul nostru, am arãtat cã atunci când entorsele sub-acute de gleznã de gradul II sunt tratate cu exerciþii destretching ºi propriocepþie adãugate la protocolulfizioterapeutic obiºnuit, se obþine o amplitudine de miºcaresuperioarã, nedureroasã, a dorsiflexiei ºi flexiei plantarefaþã de administrarea doar a terapiei fizicale. Deºicercetãtorii, în studii pilot au demonstrat cã aplicareacrioterapiei, mobilizãrile pasive articulare, exerciþiile depropriocepþie pot reduce durerea, pot îmbunãtãþiiamplitudinea miºcãrii articulare ºi stabilitatea [6,7,8],studiul nostru a demonstrat cã stretching-ul în combinaþiecu exerciþiile de propriocepþie au un efect mai bun în cazulentorselor de grad II ale gleznei. Explicaþiile efectelor ben-efice de reducere a durerii la miºcare determinate de stretch-ing sunt neclare, deºi au fost formulate unele ipotezeprecum modularea fiziologicã a durerii ºi modificareamecanicã a þesuturilor [9].

ConcluziiCombinaþia de exterciþii de stretching ºi proprioceptive cuun program de recuperare a avut ca efect scãderea dureriiºi creºterea parametriilor biomecanici de miºcare ai gleznei.Exerciþiile de stretching ºi de propriocepþie sunt printrecele mai noi terapii benefice disponibile în recuperare. Cufiecare nou studiu se demonstreazã efectul lor excelent,fizio-kinetoterapeuþii ºi antrenorii putând oferi pacienþilorlor o mai bunã îngrijire. Cu siguranþã, în viitor, noi studiivor demonstra cã stretching-ul ºi exerciþiile propriocep-tive, alãturi de recuperare ºi tonifierea muscularã, vor ajutapacientul sã îºi reia activitatea mai rapid cu o gleznã maistabilã ºi funcþionalã.

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4. Binkley J.M., Stratford P.W., Lott S.A., & RiddleD.L., (1999), The Lower Extremity Functional Scale(LEFS): Scale development, measurement properties,and clinical application. Phys. Ther.;79, 371-383.5. Alcock G.K., Stratford P.W., (2002), Validation of thelower extremity functional scale on athletic subjects withankle sprains. Physiother Can;54:233-240.6. Bleakley C.M., McDonough S.M., MacAuley D.C.,Bjordal J., (2006), Cryotherapy for acute ankle sprains: arandomised controlled study of two different icing proto-cols. Br J Sports Med.;40(8):700-5.7. Green T., Refshauge K., Crosbie J., Adams R., (2001),A randomized controlled trial of a passive accessory jointmobilization on acute ankle inversion sprains. PhysTher;81(4):984-94.8. Fu A.S., Hui-Chan C.W, (2005), Ankle joint proprio-ception and postural control in basketball players with bi-lateral ankle sprains. Am J Sports Med;33(8):1174-1182.9. Björklund M., Radovanovic S., Ljubisavljevic M.,Windhorst U., Johansson H., (2004), Muscle stretch-in-duced modulation of noxiously activated dorsal horn neu-rons of feline spinal cord. Neurosci Res;48:175-184.

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INTEGRAREA/INCLUZIUNEA ªCOLARÃ ACOPILULUI CU DEFICIENÞE FIZICE/

LOCOMOTORII

Lect.univ.dr. Dãnescu Elena Universitatea din Piteºti

Rezumat

In acord cu noile mãsuri instituite pe planmondial privind protecþia ºi educaþia persoanelor cudizabilitãþi ºi în conformitate cu prevederile Constituþieiºi ale Legii învãþãmântului, þara noastrã a intrat într-oetapã de transformãri radicale a sistemului de educaþie,în spiritul egalizãrii ºanselor, pentru copiii, tinerii ºi adulþiicu deficienþe sau incapacitãþi. Din perspectiva noilorreglementãri adoptate de statul român, copiii cu cerinþeeducative speciale pot fi integraþi fie în unitãþi distinctede educaþie specialã, fie în grupe ºi clase speciale dinunitãþi preºcolare ºi ºcolare obiºnuite, fie, în mod indi-vidual, în unitãþi din învãþãmântul obiºnuit.

Educaþia inclusivã este o orientare carepresupune o schimbare a modalitãþilor de tratare aproblemelor educaþionale, bazatã pe considerentul cãmodificãrile în metodologie ºi organizare, aduse pentru arãspunde elevilor cu dizabilitãþi, sunt benefice pentru toþicopiii. Într-adevãr, persoanele cu nevoi speciale devinfactorul stimulator care încurajeazã dezvoltarea, pentrucrearea unui mediu de învãþãmânt mai cuprinzãtor.

Key words: integrare, incluziune, deficienþe,protecþie, educaþie.

Introducere Ca fiinþã socialã, omul este dependent de ceilalºioameni. Aceastã dependenþã înseamnã, de fapt, ajutor,posibilitate de a comunica ºi de a coopera. Acest lucru dãnaºtere la sentimentul de apartenenþã ºi solidaritate umanã,precum ºi la sentimentul de securitate al individului.Întîlnim pretutindeni oameni cu deficienþe. Perceperea lorsocialã nu este întotdeauna constantã, ea variazã de lasocietate la societate, furnizând semnificaþii diferite, funcþiede cultura ºi de valorile promovate. Pentru ca integrarea ºcolarã a elevilor cu deficienþefizice sã aibã succes, este esenþialã întelegerea de cãtreeducator a nevoilor speciale ale fiecãrui elev. Nu trebuieignorat faptul cã mulþi elevi pot prezenta o combinaþie dedisfuncþii asociate cu tulburãri comportamentale, deînvãþare ºi/sau psihologice. Elevii cu dizabilitãþi fizice prezintã abilitãþi motricefine ºi grosiere slab dezvoltate, care pot afecta scrisul,activitãþile din cadrul orelor de educaþie fizicã ºi sarcinilepractice. Aceºti copii pot întîmpina dificultãþi de orientare- organizare spaþialã, dificultãþi de vorbire sau percepþie,din cauza faptului cã nu-ºi pot controla muºchii fono-articulatori, au unele probleme de mobilitate fizicã, au stimãde sine scãzutã, eºecuri ºcolare etc.

SCHOOL INTEGRATION/INCLUSION OFCHILDREN WITH PHYSICAL/LOCOMOTORYDISABILITIES

Dãnescu Elena Universitatea din Pitesti

Abstract: In agreement with the new mea-sures introduced worldwide regarding protection and edu-cation of persons with disabilities in accordance with theConstitution and the Law of Education, our country hasentered a phase of radical transformation of the system ofeducation, in the spirit of equalization the opportunitiesfor children , young people and adults with disabilities orincapacities. From the perspective of the new regulationsadopted by the Romanian state, children with special edu-cational requirements can be integrated in separate unitsof special education, or in groups or special classes frompreschool units and ordinary schools, or individually innormal school units. Inclusive education is an orientation that in-volves a change in the ways of treating educational prob-lems, based on the grounds that changes in methodologyand organization, brought to respond to students with dis-abilities, are beneficial for all children. Indeed, peoplewith special needs become the stimulating factor whichencourage development for creating a more comprehen-sive education. Key words: integration, inclusion, disabilities,protection, education

Introduction As a social being, man is dependent on otherpeople. This dependence is, in fact, help, the opportunityto communicate and cooperate. This gives rise to the feel-ing of belonging and human solidarity, and the feeling ofsecurity of the individual. We meet everywhere people withdeficiencies. Their social perception is not always constant,it varies from society to society, providing different mean-ings, depending on the promoted culture and values. Because the integration of school students withphysical disability to be successful, it is essential the edu-cator understands the special needs of each student. Itshouldn’t be ignored the fact that many students maypresent a combination of disfunctions associated with be-havioral problems of learning and / or psychological. Students with physical disabilities present fineand under-developed motric skills, which may affect writ-ing, physical education activities and practical tasks. Thesechildren can face difficulties of orientation and spatial-or-ganization, speaking or perception difficulties, because theycan not control phono-articulated muscles, have somephysical mobility problems, have low self-esteem, schoolfailures, etc.

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Principiul integrãrii Integrarea socialã, la modul general, semnificãfaptul cã relaþiile dintre indivizi sunt bazate pe orecunoaºtere a integritãþii lor, a valorilor ºi drepturilorcomune ce le posedã. Când lipseºte recunoaºtereaacestor valori se instaureazã alienarea ºi segregarea întregrupurile sociale. În învãþãmânt, integrarea se referã la asigurareaserviciilor pentru o educaþie specialã în cadrul ºcoliiobiºnuite ºi are urmãtoarele dimensiuni: -dimensiunea legislativã ºi administrativã, legatãpreponderent de politicile educaþionale; constã în aceeacã ºcolarizarea acestor copii trebuie sã fie o parteintegrantã ºi o responsabilitate a sistemului naþional deînvãþãmânt; -dimensiunea pedagogicã care evidenþieazãnecesitatea aproprierii condiþiilor de predare – învãþarepentru copiii cu dizabilitãþi de cele accesibile celorlalþicopii, din punct de vedere al mediului ºcolar ºi alcurriculumului; -imensiunea socialã care reliefeazã importanþarelaþiilor, a interacþiunii sociale dintre copii, cu efectepozitive pentru toþi copiii.

Niveluri ale integrãrii 1. Integrarea fizicã, permite persoanelor cu deficienþesatisfacerea nevoilor de bazã ale existenþei ºi realizarearitmurilor existenþei. Prin integrarea fizicã, se asigurãorganizarea claselor ºi grupelor în ºcoli obiºnuite, adaptareamobilierului ºcolar, petrecerea timpului liber în condiþiiobiºnuite. 2. Integrarea funcþionalã, se aflã în prelungirea celeifizice. Ea se referã la asigurarea funcþionãrii persoanei înmediul înconjurãtor, prin folosirea tuturor facilitãþilor ºiserviciilor , pe care acesta le oferã. 3. Integrarea socialã, se referã la ansamblul relaþiilorsociale dintre copiii cu deficienþe ºi cei normali, indivizisau grupuri sociale cu care acestea se intersecteazã . Acesterelaþii sunt influienþate de atitudinile de respect ºi stimã,pe care trebuie sã se bazeze ºi de ansamblul manierelor deinteracþiune între normali ºi persoane cu dizabilitãþi. 4. Integrarea personalã este legatã de dezvoltarearelaþiilor de interacþiune cu persoane semnificative, îndiverse perioade ale vieþii. Aici sunt incluse categorii derelaþii diverse, în funcþie de vârsta subiectului. De exemplu,pentru un copil existenþa unor relaþii cât mai apropiate cufamilia, cu profesorii, cu colegii de ºcoalã iar pentru unadult, asigurarea unei existenþe demne, cu relaþii diverseîn cadrul grupurilor sociale din comunitate. 5. Integrarea în societate se referã la asigurarea dedrepturi egale ºi respectarea autodeterminãrii individuluicu dizabilitãþi. Adesea, persoanele cu deficienþe sunt tratatediferit faþã de ceilalþi cetãþeni, integrarea lor nefiindrespectatã. Programele ºi deciziile persoanelor cu deficienþetrebuie sã le aparþinã în totalitate iar posibilitãþile deexprimare la nivel de grup trebuie respectate, la fel cu celeale celorlalte grupuri sociale.

The principle of integration Social integration, generally speaking, means thatthe relations between individuals are based on a recogni-tion of their integrity, values and common rights they pos-ses. When we miss the recognition of these values it ap-pears segregation and alienation between social groups. In education, integration refers to providing servicesfor a special education within the regular school and it hasthe following dimensions: - legislative and administrative dimension relatedmainly to education policies, consists in the fact that edu-cation of these children must be an integral part and a re-sponsibility of the national system of education;

- pedagogical dimension that shows the need of clos-ing the teaching-learning conditions - for children withlearning disabilities than those available to other chil-dren in terms of school environment and school cur-riculum;- social dimension which underlines the importanceof relations, of the social interaction between children,with positive effects for all children.Levels of integration1. Physical integration, allows people with defi-

ciencies to satisfy the basic needs of existenceand achievement of existence rhythms. By physi-cal integration, it ensures organizing the classesand groups in regular schools, adapting schoolfurniture, professionalizing in various fields,spending leisure time in normal conditions.

2. Functional integration, is the extension of thephysical one. It refers to the functionality of theperson in the environment, by using all facilitiesand services it offers.

3. Social integration, refers to all social relationsbetween children with deficiencies and normalindividuals or groups with whom they cross.These relationships are influenced by the atti-tudes of respect and esteem, which should bebased on and all manners of interaction betweennormal people and people with disabilities.

4. Personal integration is linked to the develop-ment of interaction with significant people indifferent periods of life. This includes varioustypes of relationships, depending on the age ofthe subject. For example, for a child the exist-ence of closer relationships with family, teach-ers, school mates and for an adult assuring a dig-nity existence with diverse relations in the so-cial groups from community.

5. Integration into society refers to provide equalrights and respect of self-determination of indi-vidual with disabilities. Often, people with dis-abilities are treated differently by other citizensand their integration is not respected. Programsand decisions of the persons with disabilitiesmust be theirs totally and their possibilities ofexpressing at group level must be respected thesame with those of the other social groups.

6. Organizational integration refers to the orga-nizational forms and organizational66

6. Integrarea organizatoricã se referã la formeleºi structurile organizatorice care sprijinã integrarea. Însituaþiile în care specializarea serviciilor solicitate nu poatefi asiguratã în interiorul serviciilor normale sau când nuexistã serviciile necesare în cadrul celor generale, seviciilespeciale trebuie dezvoltate ºi modelate dupã caracteristicileserviciilor generale ºi aliniate, pe cât posibil, la standardeleserviciilor acestora. Obiectivul final al oricãrei activitãþi de integrareîl reprezintã, de fapt, o incluziune totalã a persoanei cudeficienþe. Pentru atingerea acestui obiectiv, este necesarãînlãturarea respingerii sociale, pe care persoanele cudeficienþe o întâmpinã din partea societãþii. Reacþia de respingere se produce la niveluri diferite,necesitând modalitãþi de rezolvare specifice, dupã cumreiese din tabelul de mai jos:

Integrarea/ incluziune Aplicarea, în ultimele douã decenii, în þãriledezvoltate a principiului integrãrii a determinat apariþia, laînceputul anilor ’90, a unui principiu mai cuprinzãtor, carelãrgeºte sfera de cuprindere a celui anterior, ºi anume,principiul incluziunii. El se bazeazã pe extinderea aplicãriidrepturilor omului, în vedrea asigurãrii egalitãþii ºanselor,printr-o discriminare „pozitivã” a persoanelor cu deficienþe. Termenii de integrare ºi incluziune suntadesea confundaþi. De aceea, se impune o diferenþiere aacestora. - integrarea vizeazã procesul de asimilare a elevuluiîn cadrul învãþãmântului normal, proces prin care elevulse adapteazã ºcolii în timp ce aceasta rãmâne în cea maimare parte neschimbatã; - incluziune accentueazã ideea cã ºcolile ºi sistemuleducaþional în general trebuie sã se schimbe ºi sã seadapteze nevoilor elevului.

Termenul alternativ de incluziune a fost introduspentru a descrie mai bine calitatea învãþãmântului oferitelevilor în cadrul unui mediu integrat. Pentru ca aceºti copiisã fie incluºi complet este necesar ca ei sã ia parte în modactiv ºi total la viaþa ºcolarã, sã fie consideraþi membrivaloroºi ai comunitãþii ºcolare ºi totodatã membri cudrepturi depline.

structures that support integration. In situationsin which requested specialized services can not beensured within the normal service or when there is nonecessary services within the general, the special ser-vices must be developed and modeled after the gen-eral services and aligned as far as possible to the stan-dards of these services.

The ultimate objective of any integration activityis, in fact, a total inclusion of a person with disability. Toachieve this objective, it is necessary to remove social re-jection, that people with disabilities face in society. The reaction of rejection occurs at different levels,requiring specific ways to solve them, as shown in the tablebelow:

Integration/inclusion Applying the principle of integration in the last twodecades in developed countries has resulted in the emer-gence, in early’90, a more comprehensive principle, whichwidens the previous one, namely, the principle of inclu-sion. It is based on extending the application of humanrights to ensure equality of opportunities, by a “positive”discrimination of persons with disabilities.

Terms of integration and inclusion are often confused.Therefore, it is necessary to differentiate them.

8 integration regards the process of assimila-tion of the student in the normal process of teachingby which the student is adapting the school while itremains mostly unchanged; 8 inclusion emphasizes the idea that schoolsand the educational system in general must changeand adapt to the needs of the student.

The alternative term of inclusion was introducedto better describe the quality of education offered to stu-dents in an integrated environment.

Because these children to be completely includedit is necessary for them to take part actively and totally toschool life, to be considered valuable members of theschool community and also members with full rights.

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Integrarea înseamnã a face ceva pentru populaþiamarginalizatã, individ sau grup, în funcþie de standardeleºi condiþiile grupului social dominant, în timp ceincluziunea reflectã valorificarea diversitãþii ºirecunoaºterea necesitãþii de a gãsi soluþii la nevoilediferitelor tipuri de elevi. Astãzi se pledeazã în favoarea unei largi conceptualizãria învãþãmântului incluziv, accentuîndu-se faptul cã: - învãþãmântul incluziv trebuie sã se adreseze tuturorelevilor; - învãþãmântul incluziv necesitã mobilizarea pentrueliminarea barierelor din calea învãþãrii ºi are în vedere participarea oricãrui elev sautânãr, nu doar a acelora despre care se spune cã au nevoiede un sistem de învãþãmânt special; Integrarea pune accent pe:- cerinþele “elevilor cu nevoi speciale”;

- schimbarea, remedierea elevului vizat;

- profesioniºti, expertizã specializatã ºi sprijin formal. Incluziunea pune accent pe: - schimbãrile din ºcoalã; -beneficiile aduse elevilor prin faptul cã îi include pe toþi;

- sprijinul informal ºi expertiza ºcolilor de masã; -un bunact al predãrii pentru toþi elevii; O ºcoala incluzivã de succes promoveaza urmatoareleprincipii:

• O viziune a egalitãþii ºi incluziunii pub-lic afirmatã;

• Sisteme de cooperare; • Roluri ºi responsabilitãþi flexibile; • Parteneriat cu pãrinþii, care se implicã

în activitãþile de planificare ºi implementare a strategiilorunei ºcoli inclusive. Concluzii: - transpunerea în practicã a integrãrii/incluziuniipersoanelor cu deficienþe fizice necesitã desfãºurarea unuisistem de acþiuni închegat, din domenii diverse: psihologie,pedagogie, sociologie, asistenþã socialã, organizatoric, ju-ridic ºi politic. - acþiunile respective trebuie desfãºurate, începândde la nivelul individual, pânã la cel social, urmãrindu-se,în final, schimbarea societãþii pe ansamblu ºi transformareaei într-o societate capabilã sã asigure integrarea persoanelorcu cerinþe speciale în interiorul ei.Bibliografie:Albu, A., Albu, C.(2000) – Asistenþa psihopedagogicã ºimedicalã a copilului deficient fizic, Ed. Polirom, IaºiGherguþ, A.(2006) - Psihopedagogia persoanelor cucerinþe speciale. Strategii diferenþiate ºi incluzive îneducaþie, Editura Polirom, Iaºi.Ungureanu, D.(2000)- Educaþia integratã ºi ºcoalainclusivã, Editura de Vest, Timiºoara.Vrãºmaº ,E.(2004)- Introducere în educaþia cerinþelorspeciale, Editura Credits, Bucureºti.Vrãºmaº, T.(2001)- Invãþãmãntul integrat ºi/sau incluziv,Editura Aramis, Bucureºti.Vrãºmaº, T.(2004)- ªcoala ºi educþia pentru toþi, EdituraMiniped, Bucureºti.

Integration means to do something for the excludedpopulation, individual or group, according to the standardsand the conditions of the dominant social group, while in-clusion reflects revaluation of diversity and recognition ofthe necessity to find solutions to the needs of different typesof students. Today is advocating in favor of a broaderconceptualization of inclusive education emphasizing thefact that:

8 inclusive education must address all students;

8 inclusive education requires mobilization foreliminating barriers to learning and take into consid-eration the participation of any student or young per-son, not just those about whom we say that they needa system of special education;

Integration emphasizes: b the needs “of students with special needs”;

b change, recover of the target student;

b professionals, specialized expertise and for-mal support.

Inclusion emphasizes: bchanges in school;

b the benefits brought to students by the fact thatit includes all; b informal support and normal schools expertise;

ba good act of teaching for all students.

A successful inclusive school promotes the following prin-ciples: • A vision of equality and inclusion pub-licly stated;

• Cooperation systems; • Flexible roles and responsibilities; • Partnership with parents, who imply in

planning and implementing activities of the strategies ofan inclusive school.

Conclusions: 8reflecting into practice the integration /

inclusion of persons with physical disabilities requires the development of a system of ac-tions from various fields: psychology, pedagogy, sociol-ogy, social, organizational, legal and political.

8the respective actions should be carried outstarting from the individual to the social, aiming to, finally,changing the whole society and its transformation into asociety able to ensure the integration of persons with spe-cial needs inside it.

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THE PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZING INFREESTYLE CHILDREN SWIMMERS

Bãdescu VictorUniversity of Piteºti, FEFS

AbstractThe ability to combine and couple the movements

makes possible the coordination of different motor struc-tures. It confers the global movement fluency, removingthe possible interferences, which can arise between thepartial actions the complex activity is made up of2,3,7,9.The rhythmicity is a fundamental physiological phenom-enon, expression of some specific characteristics of thenerve cell. Due to it, even the arrhythmic movements canbecome rhythmic actions. Based on this characteristic agradual concentration of the stimulus in the active musclesis produced, which ensures the saving of effort.7,9

The purpose of researchThe purpose of research lies with the improve-

ment of the optimization method of the propellant move-ments in the crawl swimming procedure, by introducingsome training means which lead to the synergic action ofthese with a view to increasing swimming efficiency.

Organization and development of researchThe subjects of the research are 10 and 11 year

old swimmers, enrolled at the Piteºti Municipality SportsClub. The experiment was developed between January 7th

2008 and May 25th 2008 and it was carried out over a pe-riod of 20 weeks. The experimental training program forthe optimization of the propellant movements in the crawlswimming procedure by improving the ability of combin-ing and coupling of the movements and the ability to regu-larize the movements, involved the following analyticalexercises for:

1. The crawl arm movement;2. Exercises for the coordination of crawl arm

movement with the movement of legs and withbreathing. All the exercises related to the armmovement were achieved with the help of thefloat. The exercises for the coordination of thearms and legs movement coordination wereachieved at a ratio of 6 leg kicks at an arm cycle.

Within the weekly schedule the following exer-cises have been included1,2,4,6,8,10,11,12:

- Daily, for the warming-up (1000 m), analyticalexercises for technique and awareness of move-ments.

- Three times a week (1000 – 1500 m), exercisesof movement regulation (exercises of accelera-tion, deceleration, alternative acceleration anddeceleration, alternation of tempo);

- Twice a week (400 – 600 m), speed exercises.Also, it must be specified that the largest part ofthe swimming volume of this training process wasachieved by using the left arm (all the subjectsare right-handed), which, following the tests,proved to have a reduced efficiency.

OPTIMIZAREA PERFORMANÞELORCOPIILOR ÎNOTÃTORI ÎN PROCEDEUL CRAUL

Victor Bãdescu Universitatea din Piteºti

IntorducereCapacitatea de combinare ºi cuplare a miºcãrilor

face posibilã coordonarea diverselor structuri motrice. Eaconferã miºcãrii globale cursivitate, înlãturând eventualeleinterferenþe, ce pot apãrea între acþiunile parþiale din careeste constituitã activitatea complexã.2,3,7,9 Ritmicitateaeste un fenomen fiziologic fundamental, expresie a unorproprietãþi specifice celulei nervoase. Datoritã ei, chiarmiºcãrile aritmice se pot transforma în acþiuni ritmice. Pebaza acestei proprietãþi se produce o concentrare treptatãa excitaþiei în muºchii activi, lucru ce asigurã economia înefort.7,9

Scopul cercetãriiScopul cecetãrii îl reprezintã perfecþionarea

metodicii de optimizare a miºcãrilor propulsive înprocedeul de înot craul, prin introducerea unor mijloacede pregãtire care sã conducã la acþiunea sinergicã a acestoraîn vederea creºterii eficienþei înotului.

Organizarea ºi desfãºurarea cercetãriiSubiecþii cercetãrii sunt înotãtori de 10 ºi 11 ani,

legitimaþi la „Clubul Sportiv Municipal Piteºti”.

Experimentul s-a desfãºurat în perioada 7 ianuarie2008 – 25 mai 2008, având o duratã de 20 de sãptãmâni.

Programul experimental de antrenament pentruoptimizarea miºcãrilor propulsive în procedeul de înot craulprin îmbunãtãþirea capacitatãþii de combinare ºi cuplare amiºcãrilor ºi a capacitãþii de ritmicizare a miºcãrilor acuprins urmãtoarele exerciþii analitice pentru:

1. miºcarea de braþe craul;2. exerciþii pentru coordonarea miºcãrii de braþe

craul cu miºcarea picioarelor ºi cu respiraþia.Toate exerciþiile adresate miºcãrii de braþe sau

realizat cu ajutorul flotorului. Exerciþiile pentrucoordonarea acþiunilor braþelor ºi picioarelor sau realizatla un raport de 6 bãtãi de picioare la un ciclu de braþe.

În cadrul programului sãptãmãnal au fost incluseurmãtoarele module de exerciþii1,2,4,6,8,10,11,12:

- Zilnic, în cadrul încãlzirii (1000 m), exerciþiianalitice pentru tehnicã ºi conºtientizareamiºcãrilor.

- De 3 ori pe sãptãmânã (1000 – 1500 m), exerciþiide ritmicizare a miºcãrilor (exerciþii de accelerare,de decelerare, de accelerare ºi decelerarealternativã, de alternare a tempourilor);

- De 2 ori pe sãptãmânã (400 – 600 m), exerciþii devitezã.De asemenea trebuie precizat cã cea mai mare

parte din volumul de înot al acestor antrenamente a fostefectuatã utilizând braþul stãng (toþi subiecþii sunt dreptaci),braþ care s-a dovedit în urma testelor efectuate cã are oeficienþã mai scãzutã.

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The tests were done in three phases:- Test 1 – 7 - 8 January 2008- Test 2 – 14 - 15 March 2008- Test 3 – 24 - 25 May 2008All the swimming tests applied were done start-

ing in the water by pushing into the wall. The followingtests have been applied:

1. Crawl swimming on 50 m;2. Leg swimming - crawl, with float, on 50 m;3. Arm swimming – crawl, with float, on 50 m;4. Swimming on 50 m with the left arm, with float;5. Swimming on 50 m with the right arm, with float.

ResultsThe analysis of the statistical significance of the

difference between the averages of the results indicatesthe fact that these are not significant for the 50 m crawllegs competition event within the test T

12 and for the 50 m

crawl arms competition event within the test T23.

All the other results are significant for a thresh-old which is over 99 percent, so it is significant for thePhysical Education and Sports field.

Chart no. 1 – The results of the “t” testThe coefficients of correlation existent between

different rows of values have also been calculated, for aseries of events, in order to appreciate the way in whichthe final results from the 50 m crawl event have been in-fluenced by the ability of coupling, combining and regula-tion of the specific movements of this procedure.

Chart no. 2 – The results of the Spearman correlationThe analysis of the correlation coefficients indi-

cates that the existent relations between the action of thelegs and the action of the arms and, also the swimmingprocedure are almost the same following the training pro-cess. The force of the relations between these componentsis weak, being lower than 0,5. It was noticed that the rela-tion between the action of the arms and the swimming pro-cedure has maintained its strength, the values varyingaround 0,9.

It was noticed that the relation between the actionof the left arm and the right arm has had an upward evolu-tion, reaching a value of 0,985.

Testãrile s-au efectuat în trei etape:- Testarea 1 – 7 - 8 ianuarie 2008- Testarea 2 – 14 - 15 martie 2008- Testarea 3 – 24 - 25 mai 2008Toate testele de înot care au fost efectuate s-au

relizat cu plecare din apã prin împingere de la perete. Aufost efectuate urmãtoarele teste:

1. înot craul pe 50 m;2. înot cu picioarele - craul, cu pluta, pe 50 m;3. înot cu braþele – craul, cu flotor, pe 50 m;4. înotul pe 50 m cu braþul stâng, cu flotor;5. înotul pe 50 m cu braþul drept, cu flotor.

RezultateAnaliza semnificaþiei statistice a diferenþei dintre

mediile rezultatelor indicã faptul cã acestea nu suntsemnificative pentru proba de 50 m picioare craul în cazultestãrii T

12 ºi pentru proba de 50 m braþe craul din cadrul

testãrii T23.

Toate celelalte rezultate sunt semnificative pentruun prag care este situat peste nivelul de 99%, decisemnificativ pentru domeniul educaþiei fizice ºi sportului.

Tab. 1 – Rezultatele testului StudentDe asemenea au fost calculaþi, pentru o serie de probe,coeficienþii de corelaþie existenþi între diferite ºiruridevalori, pentru a putea aprecia modul în care rezultatele fi-nale din proba de 50 m craul au fost influenþate decapacitatea de cuplare, combinare ºi ritmicizare a miºcãrilorspecifice acestui procedeu.

Tab. 2 – Rezultatele corelaþiei SpearmanAnaliza coeficienþilor de coreleþie ne indicã cã relaþiileexistente între acþiunea picioarelor ºi acþiunea braþelor ºi,de asemenea, cu procedeul de înot sunt aproapeneschimbate în urma procesului de pregãtire. Tãrialegãturilor dintre aceste componente este slabã, fiindsituate sub valoarea de 0,5.

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Conclusions1. The upward evolution of the correlation coeffi-

cient between the actions of the arms in the crawlswimming (0,901 - 0,954 - 0,985) indicated theefficiency of the training program oriented mostlytowards the training of the arm less efficient.

2. We believe that the training of the ability to com-bine and couple the movements makes possiblethe coordination of different motor structures andthus, the increase of performance is obtained alsoin the absence of the effort ability increase by in-creasing the efficiency of the motor actions.

3. We believe that the study of the psychomotorcomponents which define swimming will lead tothe efficiency of the swimming technique andimplicitly to the increase of performance underthe conditions of saving time and energy.

4. We believe that it is necessary that the implemen-tation of the present training ideas at the level ofchild swimmers be achieved with care taking intoconsideration the biological risks of some inad-equate demands.

5. Taking into consideration the insufficiency of thescientific and methodical literature concerning thetraining of children, we believe that it is neces-sary that the scientific research get involved inthis aspect too, being acknowledged the fact thatof the multitude of valuable children and juniorsvery few reach the senior level, maybe on accountof the above-mentioned reasons.Bibliography

1. BÃDESCU V. (2006), Monitorizareaantrenamentului înotãtorilor prin repere biologicesemnificative, Ed. Universitaria, Craiova.

2. BOMPA T.O. (2002), Teoria ºi metodologiaantrenamentului – periodizarea, Editura EXPONTO CNFPA, Bucureºti.

3. CIRLÃ L. (1999), Înotul ºi aptitudinilepsihomotrice, Ed. Printech, Bucureºti.

4. Colibaba Evuleþ D., Bota I. (1998), Jocuri sport-ive – Teorie ºi metodicã, Editura ALDIN,Bucureºti.

5. EPURAN M., HOLDEVICI I. (2001), -Psihologia sportului de performanþã, EdituraFEST, Bucureºti

6. HAHN E. (1996), Antrenamentul sportiv la copii,SCJ., nr. 140-105 (3-4), traducere C.C.P.S.

7. MAGLISCHO E.W (2003), Swimming fastest,Ed. Human Kinetics.

8. MARINESCU GH. (1998), Copiii ºi performanþaîn înot, ANEFS, Bucureºti.

9. MARINESCU GH. (2000), Nataþie, tempo ºiritm., Ed. Dareco, Bucureºti.

10. OLBRECHT I. (2000), The Science of winning,Luton, England.

11. PLATONOV V.N. (1995), Principiile pregãtiriipe termen lung, Teoria antrenamentului, CCPS,Bcureºti, 1995.

12. * * * (2002), Cartea Federaþiei Române de Nataþieºi Pentatlon Modern, MTS, Bucureºti.

Se observã cã relaþia dintre acþiunea braþelor ºi procedeulde înot ºi-a menþinut tãria, valorile variind în jurul valoriide 0,9.

Se observã cã relaþia dintre acþiunea braþului stãngºi cel drept a cunoscut evoluþie ascendentã, ajungãnd la ovaloare de 0,985.

Concluzii1. Evoluþia ascendentã a coeficientului de corelaþie

dintre acþiunile braþelor în procedeul craul (0,901- 0,954 - 0,985) indicã eficienþa programului depregãtire orientat preponderent spre antrenareabraþului mai puþin eficient.

2. Credem cã antrenarea capacitatãþii de combinareºi cuplare a miºcãrilor face posibilã coordonareadiverselor structuri motrice ºi astfel se obþinecreºterea performanþei ºi în lipsa creºteriicapacitãþii de effort prin creºterea eficienþeiacþiunulor motrice.

3. Credem cã studierea componentelor psihomotricede definesc înotul sportiv va conduce laeficientizarea tehnici înotului ºi implicit lacreºterea performanþelor în condiþiile economieide timp ºi energie

4. Credem cã este necesar ca implementareaconcepþiilor actuale de pregãtire ºi la nivelulcopiilor înotãtori trebuie realizatã cu prudenþãþinând cont de riscurile biologice ale unorsolicitãri necorespunzãtoare.

5. Þinând cont de insuficienþa literaturii ºtiinþifico– metodice privind antrenamentul copiilor,credem cã este necesar ca cercetarea ºtiinþificã sãse implice ºi în aceastã direcþie, ºtiut fiind faptulcã din multitudinea de copii ºi juniori valoroºifoarte puþini confirmã la nivelul seniorilor, poateºi din motivele prezentate anterior.

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EVALUAREA UNITÃÞII DE ÎNVÃÞARE ÎNLECÞIA DE EDUCAÞIE FIZICÃ

Cojanu Florin – UniversitateaPiteºti

INTRODUCERE: Unitatea de învãþarereprezintã o categorie de conþinut preluatã din programaºcolarã de la nivelul clasei respective, unitarã tematic, caredeserveºte unul sau mai multe obiective de referinþã, carese deruleazã pe parcursul a mai multor lecþii ºi presupuneevaluare.

La elaborarea unitãþii de învãþare se precizeazã:- denumirea unitãþii de învãþare;- obiectivul de referinþã din programa claseirespective cãruia i se subordoneazãcategoria respectivã de conþinut (deprinderimotrice, calitãþi motrice etc.);- precizarea clasei pentru care se elaboreazãºi a numãrului de lecþii prevãzut pentrurealizarea acesteia.

SCOPUL LUCRÃRII: Evaluarea realizãriiconþinutului unitãþii de învãþare în educaþia fizicã la ciclulprimar.

DEMERSUL EXPERIMENTAL:În perioada 1 Octombrie 2007-21 Decembrie 2008

am aplicat conþinuturile unitãþilor de învãþare prezentateîn tabelele nr. 1 ºi nr. 2 în cadrul a 3 ºcoli (ªcoala nr. 3Câmpulung, ªcoala nr. 11 Piteºti, ªcoala Þiþeºti).

La finalul perioadei s-a realizat o analizã a ponderiirealizãrii obiectivelor propuse pentru fiecare unitate deînvãþare dupã raportul (nr. total copii/nr. copii care aurealizat obiectivul).

Apoi pentru fiecare unitate de învãþare undeobiectivul nu s-a realizat în proporþie de cel puþin 50%, s-a intervenit cu noi propuneri privind conþinutul unitãþii deînvãþare.

Tabelul nr. 1 – Succesiunea unitãþilor de învãþarela clasa I

EVALUATION UNIT OF LEARNING IN PHYSI-CAL EDUCATION LESSON

Cojanu Florin - University of Pitesti

INTRODUCTION: Unit learning represents a categoryof content taken from the school curriculum from gradelevel, thematic unit, which serves one or more objectivereference, which runs throughout May and involves manylessons evaluation. In preparing the establishment of learn-ing are as follows:

- Learning the name of unity;- The objective of reference of such classschedule which is subject to class con-tent (driver skills, quality drivers, etc.).- Specifying the class to which devel-ops and the number of lessons set out toachieve it.

PURPOSE OF PAPER: Evaluation of achieving unity oflearning content in physical education at primary.

EXPERIMENTAL ACTIVITY:Between 1 October 2007-21 December 2008 I

applied learning content units listed in the tables no. 1 andno. 2 within 3 schools (No school. Campulung 3, NoSchool. Pitesti 11, Titesti School). At the end of the periodwas done an analysis of the ratio of achieving the objec-tives proposed for each unit after learning the report (Nototal copies / No. Children who have achieved the objec-tive). Then for each unit of learning where the objectivewas not achieved in the proportion of at least 50%, to in-tervene with new proposals on the establishment of learn-ing.

Table. 1 - Sequence of units of learning from classone

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Propuneri asupra conþinutului – clasa I:În cazul primei unitãþi de învãþare, Elemente de

organizare ºi orientare spaþio-temporalã, în cazul O.1,conþinutul propus poate fi completat cu jocuri care sãdezvolte întoarcerile ºi schimbãrile direcþiei de deplasaredin mers/alergare ºi de pe loc. În cazul celei de-a treiaunitãþi de învãþare, Minibaschet ºi dezvoltareacomunicãrii, în cazul O.5 conþinutul propus poate ficompletat cu exerciþii ce vizeazã prinderea ºi pasareamingii.În cazul unitãþii de învãþare, Deprinderea târãre,împingere, tracþiune ºi dezvoltarea teambuilding-ului,în cazul O.10 conþinutul propus poate fi completat cu jocurice includ deplasarea unor obiecte pe perechi sau echipe ºicontribuie în principal la educarea spiritului de echipã.

În cazul ultimei unitãþi de învãþare propuse,Însuºirea deprinderii de aruncare-prindere ºi calculmatematic, în cazul O.15 trebuie schimbat timpul derealizare a activitãþii ºi gradul de dificultate al operaþiilormatematice propuse, adicã sã fie incluse doar operaþii decalcul mintal în concentrul 0-100 fãrã trecere peste ordinulzecilor sau al unitãþilor.

Proposals on the content - Class I:When the first units of learning, elements of or-

ganization and guidance space-time, if O.1, proposed con-tent can be filled with games to develop returns and changesdirection of travel on the go / running and on the spot.When the third unit of learning, communication and de-velopment Mini basketball, where O.5 proposed contentcan be filled with exercises aimed at catching and pass theballs.

If the unit of learning, Learning haul, push, trac-tion and development teambuilding discovery, if the pro-posed O.10 can be filled with games, including the move-ment of objects in pairs or teams and contributes mainly toeducate the team spirit.

In the case of the last units of learning proposedLearning skill of pass-catch and mathematical calculation,if O.15 be changed during the execution of work and thedegree of difficulty of mathematical operations proposed,namely to include only operations in mental calculation 0-100 without crossing over in the tens or units.

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Tabel nr. 2 - Succesiunea unitãþilor de învãþarela clasa a II-a

Propuneri asupra conþinutului – clasa a II-a:În cazul celei de-a patra unitãþi de învãþare,

Minibaschet ºi dezvoltarea comunicãrii, în cazul O.6conþinutul propus poate fi completat cu exerciþii ce vizeazãprinderea ºi pasarea mingii de pe loc ºi din deplasare ºijocuri dinamice care includ în conþinut elemente deapreciere a obiectelor aflate pe loc sau în miºcare. Totodatã,poate fi inclus tot aici, conþinut cu specific de comunicarenonverbalã. (semne când poate primi pasa sau când poatepasa, în ce parte va recepþiona mingea, etc.).

Proposals on the content - Class II:In the case of the fourth unit of learning, commu-

nication and development Mini basketball, where O.6 pro-posed content can be filled with exercises aimed at catch-ing and pass balls and place of travel and games that in-clude dynamic content elements in assessing objects placedon the spot or in motion. Otherwise, everything can be in-cluded here, with the specific content of communicationnon verbal. (signs they may receive care or they may pass,the party will receive the ball, etc.)..

Also in this unit of learning, where O.8 result isvery weak and in addition propose activities for contentdevelopers more oral expression and verbal activities thatmake them a child.

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Tot în aceastã unitate de învãþare, în cazul O.8rezultatul este foarte slab ºi propunem în completare pentruconþinut activitãþi ce dezvoltã mai mult exprimarea oralãºi verbalizarea activitãþilor pe care le face copilul.

În cazul unitãþii de învãþare cu numãrul cinci,Învãþarea procedeelor jocului de oinã ºi tradiþiilor, încazul O.9 propunem în completare pentru conþinutulexperimentat, activitãþi ce dezvoltã mai mult preciziaaruncãrii diverselor obiecte la þinte de mãrimi ºi dimensiunidiferite.

În cazul unitãþii de învãþare cu numãrul ºase,Dezvoltarea fizicã armonioasã cu ajutorul muzicii,pentru O.11 putem completa conþinutul aplicat cuactivitãþi ce includ miºcãri ale pãrþilor corpului realizatepe ritmul muzicii

CONCLUZII ªI SUGESTIIDin punctul de vedere al unei comparaþii cu

proiectarea conþinuturilor realizate în practica actualã,modelele propuse de noi prezintã:

1. O flexibilitate mai mare la nivelul structuriiconþinuturilor, care pot fi mai uºor aplicabileîntr-un mod diferenþiat, putând gãsi pentruacelaºi joc sarcini diferite în funcþie deposibilitãþile motrice ºi psihice (Exemplu: Jocdinamic „Raþele ºi vânãtorii” Raþele putea fiatinse pe ambele picioare, în timp ce rãþuºtele-mai puþin dezvoltate motric, doar pe picioruldrept);

2. Oferã un grad mai ridicat de feed-back care sãpoatã genera o intervenþie eficientã asupraetapelor ºi operaþiunilor procesului deproiectare didacticã;

3. Mesajul transmis copiilor nu se limiteazã doarla formarea unor deprinderi ºi priceperimotrice, reuºind sã stimuleze învãþarea ºi aunor conþinuturi specifice altor discipline carefac parte din planul-cadru de învãþãmânt;

4. Fiecare conþinut propus porneºte de la un

obiectiv bine precizat (comportamentmãsurabil ºi observabil), atât la nivelul unitãþiide învãþare, cât ºi al proiectelor operaþionale;

When learning with the establishment numberfive, learning processes game oina and traditions, if O.9propose in addition to the content of experienced, activi-ties that develop more precision of throwing various ob-jects at targets of various sizes and dimensions.

When learning with the establishment number six,harmonious development with the natural music, O.11 fullcontent can apply activities which include parties of thebody movements made on the music.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

From the standpoint of a comparison with thedesign content in current practice, the models proposed inNovember show:

1. A greater flexibility to structure the content,which can be more easily applicable in a differentiated way,

may find the same game for different tasks de-pending on the scope driver and mental (Example: dynamicgame “Ducks and hunting” ducks could be reached on bothfeet, while little ducks-less developed motric only on theright foot);

2. It provides a higher degree of feedback whichcan generate an effective intervention on the stages andprocess design operations didactic;

3. The message sent children are not limited tothe formation of habits and skills driver, managing to stimu-late learning and the specific content of other disciplineswhich are part of a framework plan for education;

4. Each proposed content based on a well-statedobjective (see measurable and behavior), both at the unitlevel of learning and of operational projects;

REFERENCES:1. COLIBABA, E. D., (2007), Praxiologie and Design,Edit. Universitaria Craiova,2. COLIBABA, E. D. (1996) Teaching design and imple-mentation of its scientific work in sports performance insports science magazine, no. 23. COMÃNESCU, I. Lectures for Teaching school, Edit.Impremeria West of Oradea4. CRISTEA, S. (2000), Dictionary of pedagogy, EditPoint, Bucharest5. CUCOª, C (2002), Pedagogy, Edition II, edit. Polirom,Iasi6. DRAGOMIR P., E. SCARLAT (2004) - Physical Edu-cation School, Publishing and Pedagogic Departments,Bucharest,

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7. IONESCU, M. (1982), Lesson between the project andachievement, Edit. Dacia, Cluj-Napoca8. JINGA, I. (1994), Effective training, Edit. Editis,Bucharest9. NICULESCU M. (2006), Departments - course, Edit.Univ. Pitesti10. RADU, I. T; EZECHIL, L. (2006), Didactic-trainingtheory, Edit. Paralela 45, Pitesti11. RAÞÃ G. (2004) - Didactic physical education school,Edit. Alma Mater, Bacau12. VLASCEANU, L. (1983) Educational Design, In I.Cerghit, op. quoted, p. 249, Bucharest

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FIRST CAUSES, PROPHYLAXIS AND RECOV-ERY IN TRAUMATIC

INCIDENCE IN SPRINT RUNNERS,

Mihailescu Liliana University of Pitesti, Phd.

Key words: track and field, prevention, reha-bilitation, recovery

IntroductionThe most frequent medical problems that occur

in track and field are the muscular, tendon one and thejoint stress which are materialized most of the time inartrosess. Because the effort specificity: anaerobic(alactacid and lactacid), at the sprint runners level, the moststressed system is the neuromuscular one. Knowing theseaspects is a condition to maintain the integrity of the mus-cular system that has to be the base of the sprint trainingmethodology elaboration.

The sequence of the strategies that represents thebase of the muscular contraction, according to the myo-fibrils glide theory (Hukley, 1996; Muray and Weber, 1974;Fox, 1998, cited by Kiss I., 1999), refers to 5 stages:

1. the steady state, the bond complex, ATP is de-activated, the actin and miosin are uncoupled, the calciumis retained in the sarcoplasmatic reticulum;

2. the excitation – contraction coupling wherethe calcium (Ca2+) is delivered from the reticulum, the Ca2+

bonds with troponina C and actives the actin, the bondingcomplex ATP is active and results the acto-miosinic com-plex. The actin - miosin interaction is realized between thepolipeptidic subunits of the miosin (called transversebridges) and some polipeptidic subunits of the actin, ac-tive points;

3. the contraction state - the ATP is dissolvedunder the ATP-aza action into ADP, phosphate and energywhich allows the rotation of the miosinic bridge, the actinfilaments are sliding through the miosinic ones’ and themuscle is shortening, generating the tension development.The shortening can be maximum 60% from the initial lengthfrom the steady state.

4. the reactivity – in this case is realized by thecoming of an ATP molecule, the acto-miosin is spited; ifthe Ca2+ ions are always presented, then the process is re-peated starting from the phase II;

5. the loosening / the nervous influx stops, theCa2+ ions are send in the reticulum and the muscle is rested.

The research premises• The accidents are part of an active life, but the

risks can be mineralized. We can definitely say that, at somemoment, any runner can be hurt (Glover B, Stpherd J.,2002). The most vulnerable parts of the body are the tis-sues (the muscles, tendons and ligaments) and bones.(Sbenghe T,. 1987; Cordun M., 1999; Dragan I., 2002,Mihailescu L., 2005).

• The accidents are split in two types: acute andoverstress.

CAUZE PRINCIPALE, PROFILAXIE ªIRECUPERARE ÎN TRAUMATISMELE

ALERGÃTORILOR DE SPRINTLiliana Mihãilescu

Prof.univ.dr. Universitaea din Piteºti

Cuvinte cheie:atletism, prevenþie, refacere,

recuperare

IntroducereÎn atletism, predominã afecþiunile musculare,

tendinoase ºi uzurile articulare transformate de cele maimulte ori în artroze. La alergãtorii de sprint cel mai solicitateste sistemul neuromuscular, datoritã specificitãþii efortului:anaerob de tip alactacid ºi lactacid. Cunoaºterea lor înelaboraea metodologiei de antrenament pentru sprinterieste o condiþie de menþinere a integritãþii sistemuluimuscular

Secvenþa evenimentelor care stau la baza contracþieimusculare,conform teoriei glisãrii miofibrilelor (Hukley,1966 ; Muray ºi Weber, 1974 ; Fox, 1998, citaþi de Kiss I.,1999), presupune 5 etape:

1) starea de repaus, complexul punte de legãturã,ATP este dezactivat, actina ºi miozina sunt decuplate,calciul se aflã stocat în reticulul sarcoplasmatic;

2) cuplajul excitaþie-contracþie în care are locinfluxului nervos,calciul (Ca2+) este eliberat din reticul, Ca2+

se leagã de troponina C ºi activeazã actina, complexul puntede legãturã ATP este activ ºi se formeazã complexul acto-miozinic. Interacþiunea actinã-miozinã se petrece întresubunitãþile polipeptidice ale miozinei (numite punþitransversale) ºi anumite subunitãþi polipeptidice ale actinei,puncte active;

3) starea de contracþie: ATP-ul se descompunesub acþiunea ATP-azei în ADP, fosfat ºi energie care permiterotaþia punþii miozinice, filamentele de actinã alunecãprintre cele de miozinã ºi muºchiul se scurteazã,având locdezvoltarea tensiunii. Scurtarea poate fi de maxim 60%din lungimea iniþialã de repaus.

4) reactivarea are loc sosirea unei molecule deATP, se disociazã acto-miozina; dacã ionii Ca2+ suntprezenþi permanent, atunci procesul se repetã pornind dela faza aIIa;

5) relaxarea – influxul nervos înceteazã, ionii deCa2+ sunt pompaþi în reticul, iar muºchiul se relaxeazã.

Premisele cercetãrii§ Accidentarea este parte a unei vieþi active, dar

riscurile pot fi minimalizate.Putemspune cu siguranþã cã, la un moment dat, orice alergãtor vaavea de-a face cu o accidentare (Glover B.,Stepherd J.,2002). Cele mai vulnerabile pãrþi ale corpului sunt þesuturile(muºchii, tendoanele, ligamentele) ºi oasele (SbengheT.,1987;Cordun M.; 1999; Drãgan I., 2002; Mihãilescu L.,2005)

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• The acute accidents occur suddenly, when astress is directed without knowing against a tissue unpre-pared that can’t handle it. The overstress accidents arecaused by a very higher stress during a period of time,against a tissue. These accidents occur slowly and usuallythey let you know (Dragan I. 2002; Mihailescu L., 2006,pg. 221 – 226).

The purpose of the researchThe paper emphasizes the incidence of the acci-

dents from the National and Olympic Team in the Olym-pic Year and is approaching the strategy of the profilaxyand recovery of the accidents from this athlete’s category.

Content, methodologyI. The incidence of the sportive trauma in the

National Team runnersThe study has been realized based on the medical

datasheet from the National Institute of Sportive Medi-cine on 28 athletes. Based on these datasheets we deter-mined their traumatisms in 2008. Mostly, the traumatismshad been localized at the spine level (especially in the lum-bar zone) and lower limbs (muscles and tendons).

II. Prophylaxis and recovery treatment insprint runners’ trauma

Athlete’s protection means are based on rules andprinciples to prevent trauma. By trauma we mean the or-ganism hurt, produced by the abrupt and spontaneous ac-tion exerted by the extern conditions altered in physicaleducation, trainings and competitions over it. The athletes’protection action during trainings and competition can beapproached differently:

§ Accidentãrile se încadreazã în douã tipuri: acuteºi suprasolicitãri. Accidentãrile

acute apar brusc, atunci când un stres este aplicat peneaºteptate asupra unui þesut nepregãtit sã facã faþã. Celede tipul suprasolicitãrilor sunt cauzate de stresul prea mareîn decursul unei perioade de timpul, asupra unui þesut.Aceste accidentãri apar lent ºi, de obicei , dau semnale deavertizare ( Drãgan I. 2002; Mihãilescu L., 2006, pg. 221-226)

Scopul lucrãriiLucrarea urmãreºte sã punã în evidenþã incidenþa

traumatismelor la alergãtorii loturilor naþionale ºi a lotuluiolimpic în anul J.O ºi abordeazã strategia profilaxiei ºirecuperãrii accidentãrilor la aceastã categorie de atleþi.

Conþinut, metodologie· Incidenþa traumatismelor sportive la atergãtorii

de sprint

Studiul incidenþei a fost efectuat asupra fiºelormedicale ale atleþilor, fiºe realizate la Institutului Naþionalde Medicinã Sportivã, pe un numãr de 28 de atleþii, pebaza cãrora s-au determinat traumatisme acestora în anul2008. Traumatismele specifice au fost localizate la nivelulcoloanei vertebrale (în special în zona lombarã) ºimembrelor inferioare(muºchi ºi tendoane), conformtabelului.

· Profilaxie ºi tratament/recuperare în

traumatismele alergãtorilor sprint

Mijloacele de protecþie ale sportivului au la bazãreguli ºi principii de prevenire a traumatismelor, prin trau-matism înþelegând lezarea organismului, provocatã deacþiunea bruscã ºi spontanã pe care o exercitã asupra luicondiþiile externe modificate în educaþie fizicã,antrenamente ºi concursuri.Acþiunea de protecþie a sportivilor în antrenamente ºicompetiþii poate fi abordatã din douã perspective :

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a) the conception protection, that aims to solveevery disagreement in sport – effort - environment system.It is achieved by: a good organization, structure and un-folding of the training lessons, by an adequate methodic tothe instructive – educative process and respecting the com-petition rules. In time, in superior evolutions, we can ac-tion in the reverse way, making these disturbing factors,and the training process being adapted the hard conditions,so that the athlete shouldn’t be surprised by some abnor-mal situations during the competitions;

b) the correction protection, that offers solu-tions to eliminate and combat the appearance of the mal-adjustment and overworking phenomena and measures toavoid accidents. The analyze physiological problems ofthe effort capacity, rhythm, volume, intensity (their ergo-nomic analyze), duration, training type, time and recoverymeans dynamic, their influence over the organism, and ifwe refer to the good function of the human body under theinfluence of the disturbing factors, we will come to theconclusion that they trouble the established dynamic ste-reotypes and, finally, even the mechanism of the sensitive-motive coordination. During the training and especially atthe beginning, the disturbing factors must be eliminated(the excessive heat or cold, humidity, noise, dust, insuffi-cient lighting or over lighting, altitude, meantime zone dis-parity, inappropriate sportive equipment and materials);these factors can produce some inadaptability situations.

By prophylaxis we mean the medical and sani-tary measures imposed to prevent the diseases’ appearanceand spreading. The prophylaxis consists of the applicationof the necessary procedures to hinder the appearance of adisease or at, least, to imitate the lesions that it can pro-duce. Avoiding sufferance we save time and means, main-tain a constant and high level of health, a good psychicstate, a good training state, we obtain high sportive perfor-mance and progress.

The medical recovery represents an ensembleof methods and means use to correct the physical deficien-cies and treatment and recovery of some consequences afterillness of the motive apparatus and of the central nervoussystem (Dragan, I., 1994, p. 283).Medicine uses physical factors in the treatment of someacute and chronic affection and in recovery: kineto-therapy,electro-therapy, thermo-therapy, cryo-therapy, laser-therapy, magnetic-therapy, maso-therapy. The general re-covery methods in these affections are: drugs treatment,hydro-thermo-therapy treatment, electro-therapy treatmentand kinetics treatment. The treatment is applied accordingto the healing period and it will aim the limitation of wast-ing time and the maintaining of the general physical con-dition. Before starting the recovery kinetics exercises, themobility will be done (the muscular balance).We recom-mend the treatment in three phases according to the do-main research conclusions where the kineto - therapeuticprogram is done in stages, systematized, and made of mi-cro-cycles of readaption which will allow a detailed ob-servation of the sessions and the results. The sessionsnumber will be established by the doctor and kinetotherapistin collaboration with the training, according to the gravityand importance of the lesion and the physical and psychicresources of the athlete.

a) protecþia de concepþie, prin care se urmãreºterezolvarea oricãror nepotriviri în sistemul sport-efort-mediuambiant. Se realizeazã prin:asigurarea unei bune organizãri,alcãtuiri ºi desfãºurãri a lecþiilor de antrenament, a uneimetodici adecvate procesului instructiv-educativ ºirespectarea regulamentului de concurs. Cu timpul însã, înevoluþiile superioare, se poate acþiona aproape invers,creând aceºti factori perturbatori, procesul de antrenamentfiind orientat cãtre o adaptare la condiþiile vitrege, în aºafel încat sportivul sã nu fie surprins de unele stãri anormaledin concursuri.

b) protecþia de corecþie, care oferã soluþii pentrueliminarea ºi combaterea apariþiei fenomenelor deinadaptare, surmenaj ºi mãsuri de evitarea accidentelor.Problemele fiziologice de analizã a dinamicii capacitãþiide efort, ritm, volum, intensitate (analiza ergonomicã aacestora), duratã, tip de antrenament, timp ºi mijloace derefacere, influenþa lor asupra organismului ºi, dacã ne maireferim ºi la siguranþa funcþionalã a organismului umansub influenþa factorilor stresanþi, vom realiza cã aceºtiatulburã stereotipurile dinamice fixate ºi în final chiarmecanismul coordonãrii senzitivo-motrice. Pe parcursulinstruirii, dar mai cu seamã la începutul ei, trebuie sã seelimine factorii perturbatori (cãldura sau frigul excesive,umezeala, zgomotul, praful, iluminatul insuficient sau preaputernic, sã se þinã seama de altitudine ºi decalajul de fusorar, echipament sportiv ºi materiale necorespunzãtoare)care pot duce la apariþia unor stãri de inadaptibilitate.

Prin profilaxie se înþelege ansamblul mãsurilormedico-sanitare impuse pentru prevenirea apariþiei ºi arãspândirii bolilor. Profilaxia constã în aplicareaprocedeelor necesare împiedicãrii apariþiei unei boli saucel puþin a limitãrii leziunilor pe care aceasta le produce.Evitând suferinþele, economisim timp ºi mijloace,întreþinem un nivel constant ºi ridicat de sãnãtate, o bunãdispoziþie psihicã, o bunã stare de antrenament, obþinemprogrese ºi performanþe sportive înalte.

Recuperarea medicalã reprezintã un ansamblude metode ºi mijloace folosite pentru corectareadeficienþelor fizice, tratarea ºi recuperarea unor secheledupã îmbolnãviri ale aparatului locomotor ºi ale sistemuluinervos central. (Ioan Dragan, 1994, pag.283 )

Medicina utilizeazã factori fizici în tratamentulunor afecþiuni acute ºi cronice ºi în recuperare:kinetoterapia, electroterapia, termoterapia, crioterapia,laserterapia, magnetoterapia, masoterapia. Metodelegenerale de recuperare în cadrul acestor afecþiunisunt :tratamentul medicamentos, tratamentul prin hidro –termoterapie, tratamente prin electroterapie ºi tratamentulkinetic. Tratamentul este aplicat în funcþie de perioada decicatrizare ºi va urmãri limitarea pierderii timpului lasportivi ºi întreþinerea condiþiei fizice generale. Înainte dea începe manevrele kinetice de recuperare, se va faceexamenul mobilitãþii (bilanþul articular ºi muscular).

Recomandãm tratamentul pe trei faze, conformconcluziilor cercetãrilor în domeniu, în care programulkinetoterapeutic este etapizat, sistematizat, compus dinmicrocicluri de readaptare, ceea ce va permite o observareamãnunþitã atât a ºedinþelor cât ºi a rezultatelor. Numãrulºedinþelor va trebui fixat de medic, kinetoterapeut încolaborare cu antrenorul, 79

The first phase: rest is recommended and the duration isestablished according to the localization. Full rest can beimposed in serious situations, when walking in daily lifecan produce pain and according to it we have to think toincrease or not the physical activity. The pain is dimin-ished by physiotherapy techniques in all forms and the useof ice. At the beginning we can use antalgic and non ste-roid anti-inflammatories. This phase of forced rest doesn’thinder the muscle training, doing stretching, simple physi-cal exercises without resistance. The second phase: isthe one where walking becomes painless, after few days (3– 5). The physical exercises are more complex, the workunder resistance begins, but not very challenging.

The third phase: consist of the introduction ofmovements and activities that produced the fracture. It isimportant to make an alternation between the training daysand the rest days to create a normal rhythm. It is importantto eliminate the favorable factors: precarious footwear,static and dynamic problems of the foot and inappropriatetraining field, etc. The exercises must be well measured inorder not to influence the recovery process of the bone,and the reappearance of the pain will delay the recoveryprocess. Every micro-cycle will contain mobilizations ac-cording to stage, stretching and fortifying exercises thatallow the total recovery of the certain zone. In order todiversify, the physical exercises will be done in the gym,outdoors, individually or in group.

ConclusionsThe incidents of different trauma, muscular, ar-

ticular, ligament, tendon, bony is over 42,8% to sprint run-ners from National Track and Field Team, according thetheir medical cards at the N.I.S.M. Bucharest, 2008.

Prescribing some trauma prophylaxis actions andprocedures for sprint runners and their popularization canreduce the incidence of accidents by an education for pre-vention at the sportive clubs level and the Romanian Trackand Field Federation. The case studies can offer practicalsolutions to elaborate some prophylaxis and treatment (re-covery) kinetic programs for this category of athletes.

Bibliography1. Cordun M., 1999, - „Kinetologie Medicalã”,

Edit. AXA, Bucureºti.2. Drãgan I., 1994, 2002, – “Medicina

Sportivã”, Edit. Medicalã, Bucureºti.3. Kiss I., 1999,- „Fiziokinetoterapia ºi

Recuperarea Medicalã”, Edit. Medicalã, Bucureºti.4. Marcu, V., 1997, – „Bazele teoretice ºi

practice ale exerciþiilor fizice în kinetoterapie”, Edit.Universitãþii din Oradea.

5. Mihãilescu, L.,2005, - “Performanþa sportivãºi traumatismele specifice la alergãtorii de garduri”,Conferinþa CSSR, INCS, “Performanþa sportivã de varfînte ipoteze ºi confimãri”, pg. 221- 226.

6. Mihãilescu L.,Mihãilescu N.,2007, –“Atletism în sistemul educaþional”, Edit Universitatea dinPiteºti.

7. Sbenghe T., 1987, - „Kinetologie profilacticã,terapeuticã ºi de recuperare”, Edit. Medicalã Bucureºti.

8. Sbenghe T., 1999,- „Bazele teoretice ºipractice ale Kinetoterapiei”, Edit. Medicalã, Bucueºti.

9. Sbenghe T., 2005, – „Kinesiologie ªtiinþaMiºcãrii”, Edit. Medicalã, Bucureºti.

10.Glover B.,Stepherd J., 2002,– “Manualul

în funcþie de gravitatea ºi importanþa leziunii ºide resursele fizice ºi psihice ale sportivului

Faza I :se recomandã repausul ºi durata este fixatãîn funcþie de localizare. Repausul complet poate fi impusîn situaþii mai grave, atunci când mersul simplu în viaþacotidianã poate antrena durerea ºi în funcþie de ea trebuiesã ne ghidãm în ceea ce priveºte creºterea sau nu a activitãþiifizice. Durerea este diminuatã tehnici de fizioterapie în toateformele, posturãri ºi utilizarea gheþii. La început se potaplica antiimflamatoare nesteroide ºi antalgice. Aceastãfazã de repaus forþat nu împiedecã deloc antrenareamusculaturii realizandu-se întinderi, exerciþii simple, fãrãrezistenþã.

Faza a II-a, este cea în care mersul devinenedureros, dupã câteva zile (3-5).Exerciþiile sunt maicomplexe, se începe lucrul sub rezistenþã, dar nu foartesolicitant.

Faza a III-a, constã în introducerea miºcãrilor,activitãþilor care stau la baza fracturii. Este important derealizat o alternanþã între zilele de antrenament ºi cele derepaus pentru a se crea un ritm normal. Este important deeliminat factorii favorizanþi: încãlþãminte precarã, problemestatice sau dinamice ale piciorului, teren inadaptat deantrenament etc. Exerciþiile trebuie bine dozate pentru anu altera procesul de refacere a osului, iar reapariþia dureriiva întârzia procesul de recuperare. Fiecare microciclu vacuprinde mobilizãri în funcþie de etapã, întinderi, tonifieri,care permit refacerea totalã a zonei respective. Pentrudiversificare, exerciþiile vor fi efectuate în salã, în aer liber,individual sau în grup.

ConcluziiIncidenþa traumatismelor de diferite tipuri,

musculare, articulare, ligamentare, tendinoase, osoase, estede peste 42,8% la alergãtorii de sprint din loturile naþionalede atletism, conform fiºelor medicale ale acestora la INMSBucureºti, în anul 2008.

Instituirea unor acþiuni ºi proceduri de profilaxiea traumatismelor pentru alergatorii de sprint ºipopularizarea lor la nivelul cluburilor sportive ºi a F.R.A.poate reduce incidenta accidentarilor printr-o educaþiepentru prevenþie. Studiile de caz pot oferii soluþii practicepentru elaborarea unor programe kinetice de profilaxie ºitratament (recuperare) pentru aceastã categorie de atleþi.

80

PSYCHOMOTRICITY OF 3 – 6/7 YEARS OLDCHILDREN WITH MOTOR DISABILITIES

Univ. Assist. drd. AURORA UNGUREANU The Fac-ulty of Physical Education and Sports – CraiovaUniv. Prof. Dr. MUGUREL NICULESCU The Facultyof Physical Education and Sports – Piteºti

Key words : motor disabilities, psychomotricity, 3 – 6years old children.

FIELD OF REFERENCEPsychomotricity has as a main objective the child’s

ability to make, correctly and as elegant as possible, thegestures that the reality he/ she lives in imposes on him/her. The term of „deficiency” signifies the absence, loss oralteration of a structure or a function (anatomical, physi-ological or psychological). The deficiency can be the re-sult of a disease, an accident, etc. But it can also can be theresult of some negative conditions in the growing environ-ment of the child with a high lack of affection. The phisical

deficiency is named as total or partial lack of a limb of thechild or as deformity of a limb, of the body or of the entiremechanism of the body.

The motor disabilities (phisical deficiency) are patho-logical modifications of the somatic parts of the body andthey appear on the outside as well as in the physical func-tions of the entire body, of some parts or segments of it.The phisical deficiencies are characterized by pathologi-cal modifications that are produced first of all in the shapeof the body and can be observed in the slow growth or onthe contrary by an excessive, a disharmonious ordisproportioned growth, by deviations, deformities or othermorphological defects.

THE RESEARCH PROGRESSIn the centres of recovery for children with disabilities,

in Dolj county, there is no position of teacher of adaptedphysical education, in order to complete the efforts of thekinetotherapists and make the children’s recovery be pleas-ant (this situation has been scientifically motivated in aSWOT analysis in the centres in Dolj county, made by theauthor of this work).

That is why, the goal of the present study is meant forthe motor evaluation of children with motor disabilities,at the age of 3 - 6/7 years old, in order to be able to beginan adapted physical activity and according to their dis-abilities and the results of the initial test and checking tests,the elaboration and application of some programmes ofadapted physical exercises.

Objectives of the research1. Chosing the group of children to make the test

experiment on their motric evaluation.2. Elaborating the adapted checking tests.3. Planning the specific adapted

(selected)programmes, for the entire period of thetest experiment.

4. The actual application of the programmes, theevaluation of the results (researches of specificsituations) and the formulation of the partial re-sults.

PSIHOMOTRICITATEA COPIILOR CUDIZABILITÃÞI MOTORII ÎN VÂRSTÃ DE 3-6/7

ANI

Asist. univ. drd. AURORA UNGUREANUFacultatea de Educaþie fizicã ºi Sport – CraiovaProf. univ. dr. MUGUREL NICULESCU Facultatea deEducaþie fizicã ºi Sport – Piteºti

CUVINTE CHEIE: dizabilitãþi motorii,psihomotricitate, copiii în vârstã de 3-6 ani.

DOMENIUL DE REFERINÞÃPsihomotricitatea are ca obiectiv major deprinderea

copilului sã execute corect, ºi pe cât este posibil, elegantgesturile impuse de realitatea în care trãieºte.1

Termenul de “deficienþã” semnificã absenþa, pierdereasau alterarea unei structuri ori a unei funcþii (anatomice,fiziologice sau psihologice). Deficienþa poate fi rezultatulunei maladii, a unui accident, etc. dar ºi a unor condiþiinegative din mediul de dezvoltare a unui copil, cu deosebirecarenþe afective.

Deficienþa fizicã este denumitã ca lipsa totalã sauparþialã a unui membru al corpului sau ca deformarea unuimembru, a organismului sau a întregului mecanism alcorpului. Dizabilitãþile motorii (deficienþã fizicã) suntmodificãri patologice ale pãrþii somatice a organismului ºiapar în forma exterioarã cât ºi în funcþiile fizice ale corpuluiîntreg sau ale unor regiuni sau segmente ale sale.Deficienþele fizice se caracterizeazã prin modificãri denaturã patologicã ce se produc în primul rând în forma ºistructura corpului ºi se manifestã printr-o încetinire acreºterii sau printr-o creºtere excesivã, printr-o dezvoltarenearmonioasã sau disproporþionatã, prin deviaþii,deformaþii sau alte defecte morfologice.2

DESFÃªURAREA CERCETÃRIIÎn centrele de recuperare a copiilor cu dizabilitãþi, din

judeþul Dolj, nu existã prevãzutã în proiecte, poziþia deprofesor de educaþie fizicã adaptatã, pentru a completaeforturile kinetoterapeuþilor, ºi a face plãcutã recuperareacopiilor (constatare argumentatã ºtiinþific printr-o analizãSWOT în centrele din judeþul Dolj, realizatã de autoare).

Tocmai de aceea, scopul studiului prezent, vizeazãevaluarea motricã a copiilor cu dizabilitãþi motorii, în vârstãde 3-6/7 ani în vederea începerii desfãºurãrii unei activitãþiifizice adaptate cu aceºtia, iar în funcþie de dizabilitãþi ºi pebaza rezultatelor obþinute la testarea iniþialã a probelor decontrol, elaborarea ºi aplicarea unor programe de exerciþiifizice adaptate.Obiectivele cercetãrii

1. Stabilirea grupei de copii pentru realizareaexperimentului pilot privind evaluarea motricã aacestora.

2. Elaborarea probelor de control adaptate.3. Planificarea programelor specifice adaptate

(selecþionate), pe întreaga perioadã aexperimentului pilot.

4. Aplicarea propriu zisã a programelor, evaluarearezultatelor (studii de caz) ºi formulareaconcluziilor parþiale. 81

The hypothesis that was about to be checked was if, afterthe application of the elaborated adapted physical exer-cises, they will prove their efficiency and the children willmake progress from one test to another.

MaterialThe research was applied at the „Centre of Early Inteventionfor Children with Disabilities”, in Craiova, as part of apartnership with World Vision International, F.E.F.S. –kinetherapy department, I.S.J. Dolj and others. Our researchis on children of 3 – 6 years old, with low and mediummotor disabilities. The environment where the centre un-folds activity is at the Faculty of Physical Education andSports in Craiova, taking advantages of all its specialequipment as well as the volunteer students at thekinetotherapy and physical education department.

The center has a well-known position as a leader, thereis a qualified staff who are motivated about the accom-plishment of the centre’s objectives and the possibilitiesof professional improvement are permanently assured inclose connection with their activity requests.

It cooperates with „Special Olympics Romania” –Young Sportsmen, and it is open to establishing and pro-moting strategical alliances with similar centres, non-gov-ernmental organizations, business companies and evencommon people.

At the beginning of this project, in this centre, thestatus of a techer of adapted phisical education did noteven exist and it started by offering recovery and integrat-ing attendance for children with disabilities and the jobwas not considered to be necessary. Later, activities ofocupational therapy were introduces as supplimentary work(dancing, activities of manual and sportive abilities).

Initially the sportive activity was run by thekinetotherapists in the above mentioned centre and theyimmediately realized how useful would be the colaborationwith a teacher of physical aducation and sports.

This moment coincided with our try to establish a con-nection with the centre in order to obtain their accept tovoluntarily work with 3-6/7 years old children in their centrewho were having low and medium motor disabilities.

The period the research took place was between 4thMarch 2008 – 27th June 2008 and it included activitiesindoors as well as outdoors.

At first the children refused to work with me as a leaderof the activity being permanently helped by the volunteers.After a while, they started to colaborate, sometimes verywell, thanks to the attractive means used and to the lan-guage adapted to their age. That time volunteers only helpedat the activities that really needed it because of thechildren’s inability to do them by themselves or becauseof their disabilities.

The methods used were those of teaching a physcal edu-cation lesson with all its stages included, and the meansused were classical with contests after each skill had beenwell learnt. For this reason there have been elaboratedprogrammes of adapted physical exercises specialized forthe motor disabilities of each child individually.

Ipoteza ce urma a fi verificatã a fost, dacã în urmaaplicãrii programelor de exerciþii fizice adaptate elaborate,acestea îºi vor dovedit eficienþa iar copiii vor realizatprogres de la o testare la alta.

MaterialCercetarea s-a desfãºurat la centrul de “INTERVENÞIE

TIMPURIE PENTRU COPILUL CU DISABILITÃÞI”,din Craiova, ce se deruleazã în parteneriat cu World Vi-sion Internaþional, F.E.F.S. - secþia kinetoterapie, I.S.J. Doljºi alþii.. Cercetarea noastrã îi vizeazã pe copiii de 3-6 ani,cu dizabilitãþi motorii mici ºi medii. Spaþiul centrului seaflã în incinta Facultãþii de Educaþie Fizicã ºi Sport dinCraiova, beneficiind de toate dotãrile acesteia de care aravea nevoie ºi de voluntari din rândurile studenþilor de lasecþia de kinetoterapie ºi educaþie fizicã.

Centrul are o poziþie recunoscutã de lider, existã per-sonal calificat care este motivat în legãturã directã curealizarea obiectivelor centrului ºi permanent suntorganizate ºi asigurate posibilitãþile de perfecþionareprofesionalã în corelaþie cu cerinþele activitãþii. Acestacolaboreazã cu „Special Olympics Romania” – SportiviTineri, este deschis în vederea încheierii sau promovãriiunor alianþe strategice cu centrele similare, organizaþiileneguvernamentale, societãþile comerciale ºi chiarpersoanele fizice.

La începerea proiectului, în acest centru, poziþia pentruprofesor de educaþie fizicã adaptatã nu a fost propusã,centrul începând prin a oferi servicii de recuperare,integrare, pentru copiii cu dizabilitãþi ºi nu s-a crezutnecesarã o astfel de poziþie. Ulterior au fost introdusesuplimentar ºi activitãþi de terapie ocupaþionalã (dans,activitãþi de abilitãþi manuale ºi sportive).

Iniþial activitatea sportivã a început condusã fiind decãtre kinetoterapeuþii din centrul amintit, dar aceºtia aurealizat imediat cã le-ar fi de un mare folos colaborarea cuun cadru didactic de educaþie fizicã ºi sport. Momentulacesta a coincis cu încercarea noastrã de a intra în legãturãcu centrul, pentru obþinerea acordului de a lucra voluntarcu aceºti copiii de 3-6/7 ani, cu dizabilitãþi motorii mici ºimedii, ce se aflã în centrul lor. Perioada în care s-adesfãºurat cercetarea a fost 4 martie 2008 – 27 iunie 2008,perioadã ce a cuprins desfãºurarea activitãþii atât în inte-rior cât ºi în aer liber. Iniþial copiii au refuzat colaborareacu mine, ca ºi conducãtor al activitãþii, fiind ajutaþi înpermanenþã de cãtre voluntari. Ulterior, aceºtia au începutsã colaboreze, ºi chiar foarte bine, datoritã atractivitãþiimijloacelor folosite ºi a limbajului adecvat vârstei, iarvoluntarii au acordat ajutorul doar la execuþiile carenecesitau neapãrat acest lucru, fiind datorate incapacitãþiide a le executa singuri, datoritã dizabilitãþilor.

Metodele folosite au fost cele de predare a unei lecþii deeducaþie fizicã, respectând toate verigile ei, în caremijloacele folosite au fost cele clasice dar s-au utilizat înspecial întrecerile dupã ce fiecare deprindere se consolida.În acest sens s-au elaborat programe de exerciþii fiziceadaptate dizabilitãþilor motorii ale fiecãrui copil în parte.

Adaptarea a constat ºi în mãrirea duratei lecþiei (40minute), fiind mai mare decât este prevãzutã pentruactivitãþile cu preºcolarii (15-20 minute), deoarece în cazulcopiilor cu dizabilitãþi este nevoie de acordarea ajutoruluiîn permanenþã. 82

The adaptation consisted in making the lesson take moretime (40 minutes), longer than it normally is for preschoolchildren activities (15 – 20 minutes), as for children withdisabilities there is always need of help.

For physical activities, adaptation was made by elimi-nating the ones that were unadvisable for the disabilitiesthat each and every child had and by measuring effort(force, volume, breaks).

The checking tests were the following: the „Flamingo”equilibrium test adapted for 30”; the throwing of a bowlslaunching kind; the throwing of a fixed target flinging kind;dynamic equilibrium; commutation (2.5m x 4); closing andopening the plug/cork of a plastic recipient – in limittedtime.

Results – the subjects made progress in all tests (aºacum reiese din graficul urmãtor), even if it was not verysignificant, but that was due to the children’s disabilities(the interpretation was made as case studies).

CONCLUSIONSAs the chosen subjects were suffering for low or me-

dium motor disabilities, they could mainly accomplish theadapted checking tests, specially elaborated, making thebeginning of adapted physical activity with a specialllytrained teacher possible. During the research the childrenwith disabilities were able to do the adapted exercises them-selves (even if for some of them they were helped by vol-unteers, they managed to do the majority by themselves.)

The prgrammes of adapted physical education elaboratedfor this research were efficient, the subjects made progressin all tests even if in some cases and in certain checkingtests, it was not very significant.

REFERENCES1. ALBU C-TIN., ALBU A., VLAD T. B., IACOB

I., (2006) – Psychomotor ability, European Insti-tute, Iasi, page 73.

2. IONESCU A., MOÞET D., (1964), Correctingphysical deficiences in schoolchildren, Didacticand ºi Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest,page 5.

3. HORGHIDAN, V.,(2000), PsychomotricityProblems, Globus, Bucharest.

4. PIAGET J., INHELDER B., (2005) – Child psy-chology, CARTIER polivalent, Chiºinãu

În cazul activitãþilor fizice, adaptarea s-a fãcut prineliminarea acelora contraindicate tipurilor de dizabilitãþide care suferea fiecare copil în parte ºi prin dozareaefortului (intensitate, volum, pauze).

Probele de control au fost urmãtoarele: Testul deechilibru „Flamingo” adaptat la 30”; Aruncare tip lansarela popice; Aruncare tip azvârlire la þintã fixã; Echilibruldinamic; Naveta (2,5m x 4); Desfacerea ºi închiderea unuidop al unui recipient de plastic – contracronometru.

Rezultate - subiecþii au înregistrat progres, la toateprobele (aºa cum reiese din graficul urmãtor), chiar dacãacesta nu a fost semnificativ, lucru datorat în primul rânddizabilitãþilor copiilor (interpretarea fãcându-se ca studiide caz).

CONCLUZIIDeoarece subiecþi aleºi au fost cei care suferã de

dizabilitãþi motorii mici ºi medii, aceºtia au putut efectuaîn primul rând probele de control adaptate special elabo-rate, fãcând posibilã începerea activitãþii fizice adaptatecu un cadru didactic de specialitate, iar pe parcursulstudiului au putut executa ºi exerciþiile adaptate (chiar dacãla unele dintre ele au fost ajutaþi de voluntari, pe majoritatea,treptat le-au executat singuri).

Programele de exerciþii fizice adaptate elaborate pentruacest studiu ºi-au gãsit eficienþa, subiecþii înregistândprogres, la toate probele, chiar dacã în unele cazuri ºi laanumite probe de control, acesta nu a fost semnificativ.

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citius altius fortius - efsupit.roefsupit.ro/images/stories/imgs/buletin/2008/nr 4 2008.pdf ·...

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