http://www.jstor.orgChristianity and HellenismAuthor(s): E. von DobschtzSource: Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 33, No. 4, (Dec., 1914), pp. 245-265Published by: The Society of Biblical LiteratureStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3259920Accessed: 20/05/2008 01:31Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.JOURNAL OF BIBLICALLITERATUREVolumeXXXilIPartIV1914 Christianity and Hellenism' E.voNDOBSCHUTZ HALLEITwas at the lovely shore of the lake of Galilee, in the midst of purely Jewish surroundings, that Jesus preached his gospel ofthe kingdom ofGodtocome.ThreecenturieslaterChrist- ianity had become the ruling religion in the Graeco-Roman empire; theChristianchurchwasa power bothin politics and incivil- ization.This development is certainly amarvellousone;the beginning wasfarfrom presaging thisend.ItisHellenism which broughtChristianity tothis position. In speaking of HellenismIdo not mean of course the classical Greek culture, adored by so many people as the idealof wisdom andart.SinceAlexander's conquest ofthe East, Hellenism had changed,by admixturewitha greatvariety oforientalele- ments. Christianity in starting itsmissioncould rely onthe preparatory workdone by JewishHellenism.Butit not merely continuedthat work; ithadadifferent goal anddifferent ways. Inordertounderstandthis development, letus begin with someaffinities betweenHellenismandthe Gospel,studying at thesametimethe discrepancies. Itisobvious thatmutualin- fluencewas possibleonly whenthereweresomeaffinities. 1 This paper hasbeen published inGerman in"DasChristentum". Fiinf Vortrige vonC. Cornill, E. v. Dobschiitz, W. Herrmann, W. Staerk, C. Troeltsch. Leipzig,Quelle & Meyer 1908.It reappears here, somewhat altered, intheauthor's ownfreetranslation. 17 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREThereisatfirstathirstforrevelationinHellenism.Itwas nota period of scepticism. Tobe sure,philosophical criticism hadshaken many atraditional belief; the newly arisenoriental cultsmadeitclearthat religion isamatterof personal con- viction, thatit requires faith.Andfaithlookedoutforasolid foundation, it longed forrevelation.Trustinthe efficacy of human intelligence had gone; the greatproblems oftheworld couldbesolved onlyby divine inspiration. Butalas!thetime ofrevelationshad passed: theoraclesweresilentnow.Soone hadto rely onthewordsofthewisemenofoldsuchasthe divine Homer,Pythagoras, the Sibyl, or Hystaspes theMede. Nay, Greek philosophers consulttheJewish lawgiver Moses. Thatwaswhatmadetheorientalcultsso impressive.They claimedtorest upon revelationfromthe very oldest time; people believedinthemwithout hesitation, swallowing even the mostridiculous pseudepigrapha. Therewere plenty ofold revelations; and yet the general feeling was desirous of a prophet who could bring an authentic present revelation. Neo-Pythagore- anismbelievedinsuch prophets, andallsortsofswindlers foundfaithful adherents; which proves how strong thedesire forrevelationwasin the heartsof mankind.NowJesuscomes and bringsrevelation;nay heistherevelationofGod.He doesnottakehis learning from any outward authority, beita bookorateacher.Ofcourseheknows the Scriptures, butit isnotthe Scriptures fromwhich hedraws his inspiration; he hasitin himself; he speaks asonewho has authority; helives thelifeof inspiration. And yet whathe says, what he does, hasallthe advantage of being in harmony with thisoldsacred book, theBibleofhis people, sothatitwas easy tomakeuse oftheOld Testamentinorder to prove thatthisrevelationwas infacttheoldest.Jesus' Gospel thus corresponded tothe demandsofHellenism bygiving arevelationatoncemodern andancient. Itdidthesame byproclaiming the unity ofGodandthe absolutefaithfulnessofhis fatherly careforman.Hellenism triedhardtofind behind polytheism adivine unity, a real force to rely oninallthedistressesoflifeaswellasin death; men were already accustomedto identifying the gods ofGreeceand 246 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND HETjT,FNISM2 of Romewiththeoriental gods: Zeuswas Jupiter and Baaland Ammon Ra; the priests of Babylon andof Egypt had already developed adoctrineabouttheir gods as beingonly various formsofone supreme God; Hellenismwentonandmadethem abstract attributes, as Reason,Wisdom, orturnedtheminto physical forces by meansof allegory. Butthisone supreme divine Being or rather Essenceistheresultof speculation, not a livingGod; itisidentified byphilosophers withthe supreme Causeofall things, itisnotan appropriate object for devotion. Stoicismdoesnotcrossthelimitsofameresurrender tofate. Wherever piety is lively and strong, individual gods claim their rights, ase. g.Asclepios the healingsaviour, orIsiswho gives life, or theGreat Mother, or Mithra the warrior.Eventhe emperorworship isforthis people notamereceremonialof loyalty: itmeans something tothem.Andfrom the very fear of havingneglected oroffendedsome godsthey builtaltarsto unknown gods. The priests themselveswho theoretically iden- tify thevarious godskeep themin practicestrictlyseparate for obviousreasons.Thebeliefinmiracleswas flourishing, butit wasa superstitiousone,magicdominatingeverything.-Now Jesusdoes not proclaim the unity of God-thiswas not necessary fortheJews among whomheworked-butallhis gospelpre- supposes the unity of Godas a matterof fact.The great feature abouthisdoctrineisthathetakesGodasa reality in daily life, andthatheknowsandteachesthatonecantrustonHim inallhumanneeds.Godisnottooexaltedtotakecareof everything, evenofliliesand ravens, farmoreofHishuman children; Heis almighty, but He always works reasonably. He isnota mysterious Godwhosewillis hidden, butHeisknown andHisintentionsare obvious; forHeisthe loving Father. Athird point for comparison: Hellenismisindividualistic and cosmopolitan atthesame time, andsois Jesus, butin quite adifferent sense.Thecivilwarhad sweptaway theold national organizations; amancouldfeelhimselfa citizen of the world; theStoics encouraged this by taking man as an individual being, withouthistorical tradition, loosenedfrom hisnativesoil andleftto rely on himself;bymaking muchoftheunwritten lawandthecommon rights ofmankind they effectedacertain 17* 247 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREleveling ofthenationaland socialdifferences.This cosmopolit- anismhoweverwasrather theoretical;practically itmeantthe retreatfrom politics, thesurrender before thecentralized power of autocracy. In spite ofa sometimes foolish admiration forthe Orientalsas people ofancientcultureand wisdom, thelove for thebarbariansremainedarather platonicone, and in a matter like slavery therewasnotmuch practicalchange. Thenew tendency was strongonly onthe negative side.Theoldtrad- itionswerebroken off, therewasno power forreconstruction. Individualism, without religiousfoundation, turned easily into brutal contempt of human life.Ethical idealism, though remind- ing ussometimesofthe Gospel, hadnot strengthenough to createnew life; as may beseen with Seneca, the tutorof Nero: splendid wordsbutfeebledeeds.Stoicismtriesto rely onthe good willof man, but forgets that moral energy comes to nought whenleftwithout religious stimulus.Hellenismdoesnotover- lookthefactof sin; a strong sentimentof guilt, akeendesire to get ridofitisfoundin large circles.Buttheessenceof sin isnot understood; itisdealtwithasoutward contamination, against which lustrations,sprinkling ofwateror blood, immer- sions,aspersions andsoonaretobeused.Itisnotsomuch moralsinasmortalnatureofwhichonetriesto get rid by all sortsofasceticism.-NowJesusisfreefrom all national preju- dices; hetakesmanasman.Heis delighted tofind faithina pagan aswellasina Jew; he presents theSamaritanheretic asamodeloftrue charity. His gospel isfor mankind; forit is forman.Jesushas respect for man, ashehasdevotionfor God; heknows how much God appreciates each individual soul. Andhebelievesin man; hethinkshim capable ofthe highest actions; if only man's mind isdirectedtowards God, hecando andwilldo everything; ifone'sheartisinthe kingdom of heaven, hewillnotinsist upon his rights, norlookfor revenge; hewillendeavor only to help hisbrethrenandsacrificefor their good evenhisownlife.ItisthenewrelationtoGod given tomankind by Christhimselfwhich changes allvalues. Though heisan optimist, Jesusdoesnot neglect theexistence ofsin:itis forgiveness ofsinwhich he brings toman inorder tocomfort him; andhedoesit onlyby meansofhis words and 248 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND HTELTLENISM ofhisown personality; itis through faiththatone gets for- giveness andtherewithallbliss. Thereis finally afourth parallel: Hellenism longed forim- mortality andlife everlasting, but people felt very uncertain aboutthis.Itwasnotfromtrustin Godor from beliefinthe valueofanindividualsoulthat they triedto gainassurance, butfrom natureinits perpetualchange from dying to reviving. Itwasfrom this change thatthe religiousmysteries ofGreece started:atfirst they wereintendedto strengthen fertility; later they were supposed tosecureindividual immortality bymaking mansharethelifeofthe god. This was what made theoriental cultsso popular;they could easily beturned into mysteries with stillbetter guarantees for eternal life.Isisasked for asceticism, Attisfor sensuality, the Magna Materhadahatefulriteof bloody initiationand Mithra frightfulceremonies; allthisand hardmoral obligations themenwould willingly bearinorder tosecurethese guarantees. NowJesus' gospelproclaimed theeternalvalue of individual lifeintheboldest terms; in opposition tothe Sadducees, who triedto keep totheancientviewsof Israel, he stronglysup- ported the progressive view of the Pharisees, that continuity was tobelookedfornot only forthe people butforthe individual; thattheindividualistosharethefutureblissofthe kingdom. Heissurefrom hisfaithin God that man's lifecannot end with death:GodisnotaGodofthedeadbutofthe living. That istohimamatteroffact.Butitisobvious tohimalsothat life everlasting isa good whichone is bound to work for; moral lifeistheconditionofeternallife. Nay this earthly life may besacrificedinorderto gain life everlasting. Butonecannot get it byany ceremoniesor magicspells. Weseefrom these parallels how much Hellenismwas fitted to receivethe Gospel:people found here living revelationcombined with old scriptures; faith in God, the one omnipotent God of mira- cles; individualism and universalism; ethicalidealismcombined withassuranceoffuture life,guaranteed by theresurrectionof Christ in a far better way than in all the mysteries. On theother hand differences are evident which account for the fact that Hel- lenismin adopting Christianity wasboundto change its aspect. 249 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREThereisstillanothermoment:the gospel is purely religious; Jesuscaresfor nothing elsebutman's relationto God, andso dohisfirst disciples and apostles. There isacertainonesided- nessinthis exclusivelyreligiousaspect; allother factsof human life-culture,aesthetics, philosophy-do notentertheir minds. Hellenismontheotherhand represents a comprehensive civili- zationnot lackingreligion but with many other featuresbesides. Hellenismis proud ofits learning and wisdom; Jesusthanks his fatherfor hiding his mysteries from the wiseand understanding. Hellenismis glorious initsarteveninthe period of decline; Jesus looking atthebeautiesofHerod's temple seesstone by stonefalldown.TheRoman lawyersdevelop theLawinthe mostbrilliant way; Jesus expects his disciples not to insist upon their rights. Itisnot thatheishostileto civilization; heisin- differenttoitas long asitdoesnottouchthe things ofGod. Withthe kingdom ofGod everything comesto man, withoutit nothing has any value.Hellenismhastofaceamultitudeof problems and tasks,among whichthe religiousquestion isof only inferior importance. Thisisthesituation: Hellenism,anticipating the Gospel in the religiousfield, isinterestedatthesametimein many a question which has no meaning for the Gospel. One can imagine the changes which the Gospel hadto undergo on entering this worldofHellenisticcivilization. The process ofHellenizationhasthree steps. Inthe first periodChristianity is imposing itself upon Hellenismwithall its vigor; inthe second, Hellenismtriestoabsorbthenew religion; inthe third, Christianity,organized as a church, comes backto itself, establishesa religiouscompromise betweenthe Gospel and Hellenism, andenters thecircle of Hellenisticcivili- zation.Each period covers, roughlyspeaking, abouta century. I.Itwas Jewsfrom the Hellenistic diaspora who first preached the Gospelamong theGreeks.The very factthatthe Gospel hadtobetranslatedfrom the Aramaic into Greek, was of great importance; withthenewwordsnewnotionscame in.Tobe surethe Seventy andtheHellenisticJewshad prepared the way; neverthelessitwasa greatstep forthe Gospel. Sonof 250 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND RTTETIELNISM Godwith theJewsmeanttheChosenoneof God, the Messiah; theGreekswereremindedoftheir mythological sonsof gods. Likewisetruthwasunderstood by theJewsinamoralsense: justice andtruth gotogether; truthis something to be done; to theGreekitwas intellectual, itmeant knowledge. Wedo not know enough of thesefirst Hellenisticmissionaries of Christianity to say much more.Thefirstclear figure isthe giganticpersonality ofSaint Paul.Hewasnota Hellenist, but a Pharisee, atrained rabbi, and yet healso preached in Greek. Itisunderdiscussion just nowhow farPalestinian Judaism, hisnative soil, hadbeeninfluenced by Hellenistic culture, how farhehimselfunderwent Greekinfluencebeforehisconversion to Christianity. Idonotthink thatinfluencewas great. While preaching totheGreekshetriedtobecomeaGreektothe Greeks just ashewasaJewtotheJews.Butweseehim abhorthe spirit ofHellenistic demonism; itisthereforeim- probable thathe consciouslyadopted Greek religious ritesor institutions.Iwouldnot deny that subconsciously hewasin- fluenced by theHellenistic spirit:notions, suchas kingdom of Godand Messiah, sofamiliartotheJewish Christians, heuses relativelyseldom; theGreekswhom hewas addressing didnot understand them; thereforehe prefers to speak about the Lord JesusandtheChurch.Paulmakesitclearthat Christianity wasnotamereJewish movement, butanewworld religion. Hebreakswith Judaismin principle and externally. Heuses sometimes expressions whichremindusofGreek philosophy and Hellenistic mysticism, butthisdoesnot mean that he really becamea Greek; he always reliesontheOldTestamentand its Jewish interpretation. Hishearers however were Greeksand they oftenmisunderstoodhis teaching, asisseeninhisletters. The very next generation of Christianity wasled by men whose conceptions were entirely different from Paul'sbecause they wereGreeksorHellenisticJews. Theyspeak of Jesusas the Saviour, aword which puts himon thesamelevelwith the healinggods ormakeshim appear asthe expectedbringer of thenew goldenage;manypeople atthis period endeavored to look upon Augustus as this Saviour.Now Jesuswas announced as the Saviour, in particular by Luke, the evangelist of Hellenism; 251 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUREJesus'relationtohisown people andtothe parties in it, his debateswith the Phariseesand thescribes become unimportant; the problem ofthe law, so important once in Paul's time, is not understood; rational and mystic elementsenter Christianity from Hellenism.Theso-calledFirst Epistle ofClementbasesthe Christianbeliefinresurrection upon the story ofthebird Phoenix.Theletterof Barnabas allegorizes theOld Testament laws exactly inthesame way asthe Pythagoreans andPhilo. Hebrews rely onthePlatonicideathatthisvisibleworld is butamean reproduction oftheinvisibleone.The prologue to thefourth Gospel startsfromthe philosophical notionofthe Logos inordertomake Jesusunderstoodastheone great and finalrevelationofGod. Baptism and holy communion become entangled with mystery-elements:baptism iscalledabathof regenerationexactly asinthe mysteries theinitiatedclaimsto be renatuzs inaeternun (born anewfor ever); the baptismal fontissaidtobesanctified by Jesus' baptism. Thebreadand winearecalleda medicineof immortality by Ignatius. The most importantsign oftheneweraistobefoundinthedecrease ofthe eschatological strain.Luke turns eschatology into history bysuggesting thatthe judgementpassedupon Jerusalemisin factarealizationofthe parousia. Thefourth Gospelspirit- ualizesthe eschatology: Christistovisithisfaithfulones spiritually, nottocome outwardly; asforthe judgement, the crisishasbeen passedalready; beliefand unbelief-thatis man's own decision-constitutethe judgement. Theend of the world is supposed to be far distant in Matthewas wellas in Second Peter. Iwouldnotbe misunderstood; primitiveeschatology isnot entirely abandoned.Side by sidewiththefourth Gospel there istheBookofRevelation bearing thesamenameofJohnand originating inthesamecircle.Herethe coming ofJesusis passionatelyimplored; thebloodofthe martyrs demandsre- venge, thisworldistobe destroyed andanewworldisto come.Jewishand Hellenisticelementsareoften struggling one withanother.The Jewish conception ofa dramatic catastrophe bringing aboutthe change inthe world, issometimesbalanced by aHellenisticonewhich isinterestedinthefateoftheindi- vidual,picturing the penalties ofthe impious as well as the bliss 252 VONDOBSCiU'TZ:CHRISTIANITYANDHETT,FTNISM ofthe pious incolorstakenfrom Orphicimagination. The beautiful garden withfine fruit-trees, anddelicious odour, as describedinthesocalledRevelationofPeteris represented alsointhedecorationsofthe catacombs; the burial-place is turnedintoablissful paradise. Christianity, sofar recruiting mostly among the lower classes, begins toenter highercircles; membersofthe nobility,nay of the imperialfamily,begin to join theChristian congregations; naturally the leadershippasses from thetradesmanandcrafts- man tothese people of higher cultureandrank.Itis notable, however, thatatfirst thesemenstandrather aside, behindthe regular officialsofthe congregations. II.Wenowcometothesecond period. Itisthetimeof Christian philosophers, theso-called apologists. Menofthe type of Justin Martyr had gone through various schools, search- ing fortruthuntil they founditin Christianity.Christianity appealed to them as the true philosophy; they recommended their faithtotheheathenas practical wisdom. They didnotrealize that Christianity by this very fact became changed; in fighting for monotheism they usedastheir weapon a radical criticism of the myths, started by Greek philosophers; in establishing the unique position of JesusChrist they madehim fit into the cosmological speculations of eclectic philosophical systems or they looked upon himasthemodelofa great teacherofwisdom. Athanagoras' discussionoftheresurrectionis much morelikea philosophical treatmentthanan expression ofChristian belief. Towinsuchmenmeanta triumph for Christianity; butit wasno gain tobe represented in such a way; essential religious featureswerelost. Christianity didnotunderstand Paul; it rejected the primitive Jewish Congregations as heretical. Having beenlooked upon informertimes by Romanofficialsasa Jewish sect, ithadbecomenow entirely distinct: something Greekinsteadof something Jewish. Atthesametimeothercircleswerereached by Christianity, people whowerenotsomuchinterestedin philosophy and moralsasinthemeansof getting salvation; suffering under the pressure of fatalism,according to the teaching of the astrological 253 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREpseudo-religion; oppressed by the experience ofsin, of being unabletoriseand get ridofthelimitationsofhuman nature, they were thirsting fordeliverance. Theyimagined theworld filledwithnumbersofdivine beings,groupedaccording to oriental mythology in pairs, in heptads, octadsor decads, and ranging fromthemost high inaccessibleGodtothelowest spirits;they conceivedthecreationofthismaterialworld and manin particular ascaused by a prehistoric sinof one of these divine spirits or angels; manwasa spark of light from the higherworld,capturedby thismaterialworldand tending to bereleasedfromits prison. When hearing ofJesusasthe Saviour, these people didnotthinkofthedeliveranceof God's chosen people from foreigntyranny, norofthedeliveranceof manfromsinand Satan;theythought ofdeliverancefrom the chainsofnatureandmatter.Jesusmustfitintotheir specu- lations:hemustbeoneofthe highestspirits, comedown for the verypurpose of delivering the sparks of light fromtheir imprisonment in matter, and bringing thembacktotheworld of light. Wedonot go into thedetailsof thesefanciful systems, whichin spite ofalltheirvarietiescomealltothesame result. Nordoweinsisthereon the transformation of the mythological figures into philosophicalnotions, a process whichcausedthese people tobehonoredwiththetitleof speculativephilosophers. Ourmain point is:Gnosisisnota product of Christianity, it wasearlierthan Christianity. Heretooitwasa triumph for Christianity thatitmadethese people believeinChrist and give himan importantposition intheir thoughts. Butitwasareal danger for Christianity atthesametime.Christ becameone amongmany otherdivine spirits; hislifeonearthwas dropped outof sightbyallegoricalinterpretation; his humanity faded away undertheinfluenceof docetism; hehadno body, orhis body wasanimmaterial one, without weight, withno shadow, no footsteps. He appeared,according to every one's power of conception, asa child, a youth ora grown man;being aGod hewas incapable of dying: it was all a mere appearance. While crucified beforethe eyes ofthe stupid mass, he manifested him- selftohischosen disciple inacaveontheMountand revealed the mysteries ofthecross of light. Such treatmentof the gospel 254 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYANDF)ETTI,ENISM history is possibleonly whenthe Gospel iscutofffromthe OldTestament.TheGnosticseitherdidnot recognize theOld Testamentat all, or they submittedittoa thorough allegorical transformation according tothemethod developedby Stoicism for explaining Homer.The danger isincreased by themoral consequences of this system: sinisbutman's nature; therefore itis necessary to get rid of this nature.This can bedone either by anascetic training which wasasalientothetrue Gospel as itwas congenial tothe general tendenciesof that period--orby undisguisedsensuality,cynicism inaChristian masque, ablas- phemy and sacrilege resented by allsoberChristians. Christianity met this Gnosticism rather early. Already St. Paul inhisletterto theColossianscombats the ideaof putting Christ among other spirits and of worshipping by self-humiliation.The first Epistle ofSt.Johnand Ignatius warn thecommunitiesof AsiaMinor against docetists.TheBookof Revelationand the Epistle ofSt.Jude fightagainstgnostic libertinism.Butitis only about 130 A. D. that gnostic communities come in sight, and leadingpersonalities suchas Basilides,Valentinus, etc.are recognised. Theseschoolsare organized afterthemodelof Greek philosophical schools.Wehearof attempts at realizing the Platonic Utopia of communism. Marcion,too, was a gnostic school-leader, in spite ofthefactthathehimself pretended to beachurch reformer:he rejected theOld Testament, denied the reality of Christ's body anddemanded ascetic training. His theology shows clearly howdifficult itwasforaformer pagan tounderstandPaul's conceptions. ThecontrastofLawand Grace, to Paula part of God's plan tosave mankind, represent- ing twosuccessive ways of salvation, becomeswithMarciona metaphysical contrast of two incompatible principles; he does not careforthe development ofrevelationinthe history ofIsrael. Whilethe tendency ofthe Apologists resultsina weakening of Christianity bytransforming itinto philosophy,religion into morality, Gnosticism implies the much greaterdanger of elimin- ating its very essence. Christianity couldbearthe former; the lattercausedaviolentreaction.Gnosticismhasthemeritof having forced upon the leading menthe necessity of making up theirmindsastothefoundationsof Christianity. 255 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREAthirdattackofHellenism uponChristianity istobe foundin Montanism; itwasanenthusiasticmovementstarted in Phrygia and spreadingquickly alloverthechurch asfaras GaulandAfrica.Itisusualtolook upon thismovementasa revivalof primitiveChristianity in opposition to worldliness; in fact Eschatology isoneofthemost prominent featuresin Mon- tanism:itresultedinastrict rigorism opposed toall compro- mise, aferventdesirefor martyrdom. Thisishowevernot genuineChristianity, notan offspring of Jesus' Gospel; itis the entranceinto Christianity oftheenthusiastic Phrygian religion, itself scarcely Hellenized. Maybe,thistooistobecountedas a triumph of Christianity; buthere again a greatdanger was implied inthe way inwhichChristian hope wasturnedinto exaltation, Christian lifewas shaken at its basis, and Christianity was brought intocontrastwithcivilization.Itischaracteristic thatthenotionoftheParacletehereisusedtoinvalidatethe historicalrevelationofGodinJesusChrist. Itwasin opposition tothisriotousattackof Phrygian Hel- lenism, thattheChristiancommunities began toconsolidate around their bishops. The Gospel did not contain an ecclesiastical constitution.St. Paul, fondoforderas he was, laid more stress on voluntary servicesthanon rights.Only towardstheendof the first century a fixed organization develops among the Christian communities,growing moreandmorefixed during thesecond century. This development ofaconstitution may beviewedas a process withinthe ecclesia, theforms being fluidatthebe- ginning and becoming moreandmore rigid astimewent on; butitisremarkablethattheresult equals inanastonishing measureforms already found before Christianity:ecclesia, epis- copos, diaconosremindusof the organization of theGreek city. Itisalsoremarkablethatthis development wasaccelerated by thecontrasttoGnosticismandMontanism:thechurch wanted astrict organization andtheformofaschool surely influenced the development ofthemonarchical episcopate. III.This brings us to the third period. The religious situation isa compromise: thechurchsecureshistorical continuityby building up thetwofoldcanonoftheOldandtheNewTesta- 256 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND FHET.TFiNISM ment.Thusthe originalinterpretation ofthe Gospel seems guaranteed; ontheotherhandthechurch buildsitsdoctrine upon aHellenistic thought: thelost immortality hastobe restored by aunionbetweenthedivinenatureandthehuman natureinJesusChrist.Whosoever by faithand by meansof thesacramentsbecomesunitedwithChristsharestheimmor- tality ofhisdivinenature:"Thouartbecome God, thouart deified, rebornimmortal".Thatisthe way in which a Christian preacher about200A. D.addresseshis congregation. Itis Hippolytus, the strongantagonist of Gnosticism; butitsounds like Gnosticism; itisnot Gospel, butGreek religion. And yet, itis Christian; the physical idea turning into a moral one by the introductionof notions likeloveof God, forgiveness of sin, doing thewillof God, etc.Christian conceptions of this time are never confinedtooneconsistent scheme; thatisfortunateindeed. ItisduetoHellenisticinfluencethat Christianitydevelops something likea theology. Whatis usually called Paulinetheo- logy isnota system inthelatersenseoftheword.Itisa numberofinconsistentdeductions and conclusions.Paulknows thatthedeathofChristisforour benefit; andin expanding thisideahe gives different arguments every time, without caring fortheir harmony. TheGreek mind is otherwise; itfeelsbound tothinkwith consistency, to developeverything from thesame principle andtocombineallindividuallinesof thought: itis only on thebasisof Hellenized Christianity that theology arises. Itseemed necessary tocombine thebeliefinGodwith the philosophical notionsofthe supreme cause, torelateit with the notionsof being and becoming,spirit and matter, immanence and transcendency; itwasamatteroftacttosteer betweenthe rocksofPantheismand Atheismor Deism; allthisisabsent from Jesus' gospel-andyet heknew so much more about God. Faithin God, surrenderto God, hadbecomea knowledge of God, a Gnosis, often nothing elsethan an assent toecclesiastical traditions. Itwas further necessary to have a good Christology.Bishops andteacherswere expected to guide the congregations and protect them againstheresybyteaching the right formula.It istothecreditoftheso-calleddoctrineofthetwonatures 257 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREthat the historical Jesuswas protected against docetic dissipation, thatthe unity oftheeternal Logos withthehumanTeacherof wisdom found strongexpression, andthatit wascombined with thenotionofsalvation.Butthechurch hadto paydearly for this;simple faithwasturnedinto sophisticatedspeculations. Itisan interestingpoint inthe history of dogma to investigate howformulasofPlatoandAristotlearemadeto express the belief regarding Jesus.Christian theology in these early days is helplesslybalancing betweenthenotion of a highly inspired man andanincarnate deity; forthe greatmystery thatGodwasin Christcannotbe expressedappropriately in physical terms. Greek theology foundit very hardtoconceiveofa history of revelationand salvation.Greek philosophy got itsorientation in nature;everything seemedtobeon thesame level, there was no perspective. SotheOldTestamenthadtobe brought not only into harmony withtheNewTestamentbutalmostinto identity. Thenotionof preexistenceadapted toJesusas well astothechurch helped to bring thisabout.ItwasJesuswho spoke intheOld Testament, anditwasJesuswhowas spoken of intheOldTestament.Thedoctrineofthe holyTrinity was tobefoundinthefirst chapter ofGenesis.Therewasnode- velopment whatever.And yet thechurchinsisted upon the historicalcharacterofthelifeandwork ofJesus. In constructing thedoctrine of thechurch and its sacraments, two points weretobecombined.Thechurch represented the communion of saints, ofthe elect; andon theother hand it had becomeaninstitutionfor securingsalvation,Corpus mixttiuof saintsandsinners.Likewisethesacramentswere supposed to workina physical(not to saymagical)way; and yet, onthe other hand, theirethicalcharacterwasretained. Thesame theory of compromise holdstrue regarding the determinationofChristian morals.From Hellenismtheascetic tendency entered Christianity andtriedtoestablish itselfas the rule.The morality ofthe Gospel,however, didnotallow this; asceticbehaviorwasnotfixedasa generalobligation,only as a higher idealof morality. TheasceticismofGnosticismmadeit undesirabletofollow quite thesame path; sothechurch establishedthetwomoralstandards. 258 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND HELLTENISM TheHellenisticinfluence isseennot only in dogma and theology; it is still more evidentin devotion. The service, which in primitive Christianity lays allstress upon the word, God speaking toman in the sermons of apostles and prophets, and man speaking toGodin prayer, tends more and more to be- come liketheold pagan rite, asacred ceremony aiming to produce an effect upon God.The congregation, instead of being a gathering of inspired people who all contributetocommon edification, is now dividedinto clergy and laity. The clergy them- selvesaredivided into several classes, and the laity become a mere object ofthe priestly function, content tobe attentive spectators of a sacred performance. We cannot discusshere the question how farthis development was influenced by the Old Testament notions of priests and sacrifice; it is a matter of fact that Hellenistic tendencies were working in the same direction. The mysteries aimed at somethingsecret, only to be approached by a priest in saintly awe.The Christian congregations from the third century down shared this tendency, it influencedtheir liturgical language, and caused the so-called disciplina arcani. The religion of faith, of happy assurance of salvation and joyfulexpectation, wasin danger of becoming a religion of fear, of frightful horror, of something inexplicable, ofasal- vation tobeattained by severe self-denial.This development of Christianity into the Greek spirit was held in check however by the Gospel and its assuranceof a given salvation. It remains Christianity, even when it becomes Hellenistic. While making compromises in the field of religious thought and feeling,Christianity came muchnearerto Hellenismin taking over theentire Hellenisticcivilization.Thismost important change became possible for Christianityby renouncing its former enthusiastic eschatology. The beginnings we have noted already intheJohannine circle.Gnosticism transmuted eschatology entirely into Hellenistic transcendence. It began at the same time to appreciate the benefitsof civilization,education, the fine arts, refined standardsof life.The Gnostics in spite of all their ascetic behavior, are often accused of being too worldlyby their opponents, the Catholics, whostilltake worldliness as being apostasy from Christianity. But before long they wereHellenized 259 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREtoo.The great teachersof Alexandria, headed byClement, maderoomforanew conception:they discoveredthatJesus hadnotmeanttobeunderstoodinanascetic way. Butitwas notso much the spirit of Jesus, as the spirit of Hellenism, which causedthemto appreciate civilization. Clementinhis Paedagoguegives a minute description ofthe Christian life.The Gospel had only given principles; St. Paul had leftittotheinfluenceofthe HolySpirit toform theChristian life,supporting, however unconsciously, Jewishcustomsinhis congregations. NowwehaveaChristian billof fare, Christian rulesfor dressing, aChristian'sbehavioratadinner party. Wearetoldhow todiscriminate between smiling and laughing, betweenharmlessfunandbad jokes. Clement'sruleaimsto tellwhateverisfitfora Christian; butinfactitisthe way in whichGreek philosophers rulefashionand behavior, whichis applied hereto Christianity. Christianity began with an attempt at displacing law by morals, love beingsupposed torenouncethe legalpursuit ofits rights. St.Paul encouraged arbitrationbetweenbrethren.Butsoon thisturnedintoclericalcourts competing withthe regular law courts.Ofcoursetheir competence wasnot acknowledged till thefourth centuryby theChristian empire.Theydeveloped a canonical (i. e. ecclesiastical)law, parallel totheRoman law, thedecretalesoftheRoman bishop corresponding tothedecre- t _mzpraetoris, andthe canonzes ofthe synods tothesenatus consultumoftheRoman legislature. Boththeeasternandthe westernChurch acknowledge the affinity betweenthesetwosets of law, the Byzantinecombining theminthe Nomocanon, the Romanchurch keeping them separate but parallel as Corpus jiris canoniciet Corpus iuriscivilis. The field in which one expects to find thorough-going improve- mentsmade byChristianity isthesocial life, Christianity appearing atfirstasa largeorganization of charity, asakind ofassurance company forall oppressed andoutlawed people. Butherealso Christianity tookoverthe given conditionsof Hellenisticcivilisation.Christianhouseholdsaswellas pagan includeslaves.The legalpropriety of slavery isnot disputed, andtherulesforthe personal treatmentoftheslavesarein 260 VONDOBSCHUTZ:CHRISTIANITYANDHIETJTENISM many instancessoconformed totherules givenby Stoic philo- sophers thatsomescholarsinourtimehavemaintainedthat Christianityreallychangednothing.Theyought rather to say: Christianity accelerateda process initiated byStoicism, in par- ticular by Stoic lawyers. Stillbetter may we say:Christianity by itsmoral strength made it possible forHellenismtoattain thedemandsofStoic philosophy. The person oftheslavewas protected;religious and moral freedom was given tohim.Never- thelessheremained a slave, andit was looked upon as perfectly appropriate foraChristian to go to themarketand buy orsell aslaveaswellas any other property. Christian lifeincludededucation.ClementofAlexandriais fondof quoting from Greek poets and philosophers.Origen his pupil teaches philosophyquite asmuchasChristiandoctrines. Hecomes (as vonWilamowitz-Moellendorff putsit)among the Greek philosophers asanesteemed colleague. Tohiscontem- porary Hippolytus the congregation dedicatesa memorial statue representing him sitting onhischair likeaGreek philosopher. Atthesame period Julius Africanus, a Christian, is tutorofthe princes atthe royal courtofEdessa.He publishes achronicle oftheworldandhandbookson military tacticsaswellason agriculture.Methodius, bishop of Olympus, a strongopponent of Origen's spiritualizing theology, nevertheless publishes abook called Symposion afterthemodelofPlato'sfamous work; with Methodiusitishowevera symposion often virginspraising chastity. Art begins toenterChristian life, true Hellenisticart.Where informertimes many scholars spoke ofan original Christian art, wenowseethatinfactthe beginnings ofChristianartdo not representanything buta particular branchoftheclassical art. Technique aswellasmotives belong to Hellenism.Christ appears as Orpheus, orasa shepherd ina pastoral scene. Jonah's whale, Noah's ark, Lazarus'tombaretakenfromcom- mon motivesofancientart.Christhasinhishandthe magic rodofa thaumaturge. ItisHellenismwhichdecoratesthe wallsof thecatacombsaswellasthefurnitureofthehouse- Christian Hellenism, ofcourse.ClementofAlexandria pre- scribeswhat symbols a Christian maysafely choose for his seal. 18 261 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATUREArtisnot merely decoration.TheGreek populace wasso accustomedto worshipimages thattotheChristian the images ofsaints were liableto become objects of adoration.Thatis the reason why many Christian leadersinthe first centuries deprec- iatedart.Wemusthowevernotovervaluetheir testimony; we learnthatsomeChristianschoolshad portraits ofChristand worshipped them in the Greek manner as early as the second cen- tury. The apocryphal actsofJohntellthe story ofacertain Lycomedes whohada portrait ofthe Apostlepainted andwor- shipped it,puttingflowers, lights and offerings beforeit.This sounds quitelikely. Itisthe beginning ofa Christian hero-wor- ship-a cultof saints.This isanother instanceofHellenization. Inthis wayChristianityconquers allthebranchesofcon- temporaneous civilization.It goesslowly, but irresistibly; it doesnotcreate somethingquitenew; butitshows energy striv- ingupwards. The programme is expressed as early as150 A. D. by Melitoof Sardis, whodeclaresthatthe contemporaneous rise of empire and church shows their harmony tobe intended by God.Howdifferentfrom primitive Christian eschatology with itsbeliefintheimmediateendoftheworld!About200A.D. theletterto Diognetus still separatesChristianity fromcivili- zation.Christians share the traditional fashion in dress, foodand behavior; butintheirnative countrythey arelike strangers. Soontheidea appears of a Christian civilization superseding the pagan. Wehaveit pictured ona grand scalein Augustine's DeCivitateDei. Itisacommonviewthat Christianity wasstartedonthis developmentonlyby theestablishmentofthechurch through Constantine.This view,however, is wrong. Ofcourse during persecutionsby the government thecontrastis strongly felt. Itisnotsafe fora Christian tobean official, ortoserve in the army, orto take part in theartistic and scientific lifeof the time -sosaid Tertullian, the rigorist. Inthe days of Diocletian many aChristianofficerfeltthathis military position was incompat- iblewithhisChristianfaith.Butintheintermediate periods of peace betweenthe persecutions,especiallyduring the forty years falling between Valerianand Diocletian (261--300), Chris- tianitybegan tomakeitselfcomfortableinthisworld.Itisa 262 VONDOBSCHUTZ:CHRISTIANITYANDFTHETiTNISM mistake to think that for three centuries Christianity had an under- ground existence.NotinConstantine'stimealonedid churches springup fromthecatacombs.Diocletianbeforehimhad many churches ready tobe destroyed. Constantinemadehis peace withthechurchbecauseofitsenormous influence, even afterthe clergy hadbeendecimated by the persecution. To be sure, from the time of Constantine the process of Hellen- izationwentonona largerscale, andmore quickly.Through the wide-open doorsofthechurch people ofallclassesfloated in; andwith themcameallthoseelementsofGreekcivilization which hadbeen keptaway hitherto.Nowtheso-called religion ofthesecondorder (i. e. superstition)gainsinfluence, and the resistanceofthe clergyagainst this popular sub-currentde- creases rapidly. The more paganism abroad vanishes andceases tobea danger, themoreitisallowedtoenterfromwithin dressedinChristian garb. A goodexample isfurnished by Augustine'smother, who brought her offerings of cakeandwine tothetombs of martyrs exactly in the same way asheathensdid tothetombsoftheirheroes.Incubation (i. e.the practice of sleeping in temples inorder to get information bydreams) was transferredfromthe temples of healinggods tothechurches offamoussaints. Turning itsattentiontothis religious under- current, modern researchhasdiscoveredan astonishing number ofChristian charms, amuletsandsoon.It may bethatthis beganrelativelyearly andwasnotlimitedtoGnosticcircles. Stillitis truethat the under-current didnot appear onthesur- facebeforethe fourthandfifth century. Andthe Hellenization doesnotcome only from thelowerclasses.Theleadersthem- selvesareattracted.Thefirst greatSynod ofNicearesembles the parliament of the state:thedocket is like thatof theSenate. Eusebius, theChristian bishop, celebratesConstantineina panegyric which follows exactly therulesofGreekrhetoric.It comesnearto apotheosis, and neglectsshamefully thedemands ofChristian sincerity.Bishopsbegin tobeashamedofthe boorish rusticity ofthe language ofthe Gospels. Otherstrans- latethePsalterintoGreekverse. Only monasticismreacts against this Hellenizingtendency and keeps to vulgarity asre- presenting a higher standardof sanctity. 18* 263 JOURNALOFBIBLICALLITERATURETheseare theoutlinesofa greatdevelopment. One question remains:what judgement areweto pass upon it?There can be no denying underthe compulsion ofa sermper idem theory that therewas change; itis equallywrong to say thatitwasbuta development ofinherent features, presentimplicitly fromthe beginning. Factsaretoo strong. Itisevidentthatexternal influencescontributedto the change. Theoutcomeoftheseed depends onthesoilithas beenlaidin.The question is:What didthis development meanto Christianity? Twoviews oppose oneanother.Theonelooks upon this development as a desirable progress. Itwas necessary; for Chri- stianity could reach its fullestsuccess only bybecoming a specu- lative system of religion anda developed civilization.Theother complains thatthe change altered wofully theessenceofChri- stianity. Itceasedtobe purereligion whenit gave itselfto theGreek spirit andGreekculture.Thefirst view, started by Hegel, was supportedby Baurandhisschool.Thesecondis theviewof Ritschl, brilliantly maintained by Harnack.Nohis- torianwill deny thattherewasa necessity; andinsofarthe development was right. In historyeverything works according toimmanent principles. The Gospel couldnotbecomea power intheHellenisticworldwithout being intouchwiththereli- giousspirit andthecultureof Hellenism.The payment for this was compromise andthe making ofconcessionswhichinfact spoiled the purity ofthe Gospel. Itwouldhavebeenfatalin- deedif the Gospel hadbeendone away with entirely. This was the danger ofGnosticism.But Christianity overcameit.The Gospel remainedasafactorinthe mixture, andafterallthe most important one.Itworkedlikea leaven, which leavened theHellenistic civilization, andmadethemixtureso complete thatitneedsthe sharpenedeye of scholarly researchtodis- criminatethedifferentelementsinit. Itisa different question whether this mixture is the onlypos- sible one, andthereforenormalandfundamentalforalltime. Hellenisticculturehas vanished,notwithstanding thiscombi- nationwith Christianity. Otherformsofcivilizationhavecome in. Christianity stilllasts.Itisdueto Christianity thatsome elementsofHellenisticculturestillsurvive. They areoften 264 VON DOBSCHUTZ: CHRISTIANITYAND HRTI.TiENISM takenas integralparts oftheChristian system. This,however, is wrong, and we must draw the logical conclusions.Aswe have givenup slavery and other elementsofthis HellenisticChristian civilization, so may we safelygiveup-not to say wemust give up-the PlatonicandAristotelianandStoicformsof thought. OurcivilizationisTeutonic-Christian.Itisbasedonthenew conceptions ofour great Reformers. The Gospel,making its transition from Judaismto Hellenism, divesteditselfof many apparently integralelements, and assum- edotherswhichdidnot belong toit originally. Itis pos- sibleto repeat this process without damaging the Gospel. For Jesus-andJesusalone in the history of religions-represented religion inits purity. Hewasofcourseachildofhisnation andof histime.Neverthelesswefeelsurethatall attempts at representing him intheoriental costume of his period are unjust tohim.His preaching istransferable intoall human languages; forhe speaks asmantoman.Nowitis a sad fact that we men cannottolerate religion inits purity.Being onthis earth, cor- poreal, boundto space and time, manneedsforms-formsof cultandofculture.Itisinevitablethatthe Gospel should becomeconnectedwiththeseforms.Itdoesnotmean loss; it means gain.Only thedistinctivecharacterofthe Gospel must be keptunaltered, andthefull energy ofits life-givingpower mustbemaintained.The Gospel issure to work, and the more sothelessitismixedwithalienelements. 265