christian monasticism - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

7/29/2019 Christian Monasticism - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Icon of Saint Anthony the Great,the founder of Christian

monasticism.

Christian monasticismFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Christian monasticism is a practice which began to develop early inthe history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examplesand ideals, including those in the Old Testament, but not mandated as aninstitution in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules

(e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict, the Rule of SaintAugustine) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respectiveChristian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those livingthe monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns(women). In modern English, they are also known by the gender-neutralterm "monastics." The word monkoriginated from the Greek word

monos, which means alone.[1] Monks did not live in monasteries at first,rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. Asmore peop le took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness,they started to come together and model themselves after the original

monks nearby. Quickly the monks formed communities to further theirability to observe an ascetic life.[2] Monastics generally dwell in amonastery, whether they live there in community (cenobites), or inseclusion (recluses).

Contents

1 Life

2 History

2.1 Biblical precedent

2.2 Early Christianity

2.2.1 Eremitic Monasticism

2.2.2 Cenobitic Monasticism

2.3 Eastern Orthodox Tradition

2.3.1 Historical development

2.4 Western monasticism

2.4.1 Medieval period

3 Contributions

3.1 Education3.2 Medicine

4 Eastern Orthodox Church

4.1 Present

4.2 Types of monks

5 Western orders

5.1 Roman Catholicism

5.2 Anglican communion

6 Protestantism


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6.1 Lutheran Church

6.2 Other denominations

7 Ecumenical expressions

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

11 External links

Life

Monastic life is dist inct from the "religious orders" such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, and the morerecent religious congregations. The latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching,liberating captives, etc., which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of

the most varied character, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state.[3] Both waysof living out the Christ ian life are regulated by the resp ective Church law of those Christian denominations that

recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, the Anglican Church, or the LutheranChurch).

Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christ ians. Christianmonasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main species (a) theeremitical or solitary, (b) the cenobitical or family types. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder ofthe first and St. Pachomius of the second. The monastic life is based on Jesus's exhortation to "be perfect,therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matthew 5:48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection, canbe seen, for example, in thePhilokalia, a book of monastic writings.

Monastic asceticism is a means to removing obstacles to loving God. M onks remember that: "The greatest way

to show love for friends is to die for them" (John 15:13)CEV, for, in their case, life has come to meanrenunciation. Their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelicalcounsels: poverty, chastity and obedience.

Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century new orders of friars were founded to teach

the Christian faith,[4] because monasteries had declined.[4] While friars take vows, they live outside of amonastery.

History

Biblical precedent

Old Testament models of the Christian monastic ideal include groups such as the Nazirites, as well as Moses,Elijah and other prophets of Israel. New Testament figures such as John the Baptist and Jesus Christ similarlywithdrew from the world to develop spiritual discernment. First Century groups such as the Essenes and the

Therapeutae also followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism.[5]

Some of the prophets of Israel lived under extreme conditions, voluntarily separated or forced into seclusionbecause of their message. Other p rophets were members of communities, schools mentioned occasionally in theScriptures but about which there is much speculation and little known. The pre-Abrahamic prophets, Enoch and


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Melchizedek are important to Christian monastic tradition. The Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament

prophet Elijah.[6]

The most frequently cited "role-model" for the life of a hermit separated to the Lord, in whom the Nazarite andthe prophet are believed to be combined in one person, is John the Baptist. John also had disciples who weretaught by him.

In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea, "repent, for the kingdom of

heaven is at hand." ...And John wore a garment of camel's hair, and a leather girdle around his waist; and

his food was locusts and wild honey.[5] (Matthew 3, RSV)

The female role model for monasticism is Mary the mother of Jesus.

But, the consummate prototype of all modern Christian monasticism, communal and solitary, is Jesus:

Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God,

did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant,

being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became

obedient unto death, even death on a cross. (Philippians 2, NIV)

The first Christian communities lived in common, sharing everything, according to Acts of the Apostles.

And all who believed were together and had all things in common; 45 and they sold their possessions and

goods and distributed them to all, as any had need. 46 And day by day, attending the temple together and

breaking bread in their homes, they partook of food with glad and generous hearts, praising God and

having favor with all the people. (Acts 2),

Early Christianity

Main article: Christian monasticism before 451

From the earliest t imes there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesus's40 days in the desert. They have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record.Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2ndcentury. There were also individual ascetics, known as the "devout," who usually lived not in the deserts but onthe edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union withGod.

Eremitic Monasticism

Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The

word eremitic comes from the Greek word eremos which means desert.[7] This name was given because of St.Anthony of the Desert, or St. Anthony of Egypt, who left civilization behind to live on a solitary Egyptianmountain in the third century. Though he was probably not the first Christian hermit, he is recognized as such

as he was the first known one.[8]

Paul the Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd CenturyAnthony of Egypt (252-356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermitsnearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit-like."


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An early form of "proto-monasticism" appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the"Sons of the covenant" movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monasticlegislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers.

Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchoress. This began because there werewomen who wanted to live the solitary lifestyle but were not able to live alone in the wild. Thus they would goto the Bishop for permission who would then perform the rite of enclosure. After this was completed theanchoress would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could

receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to bepassed in and peop le to come seek advice.[9] The most well known anchoress was Julian of Norwich who was

born in England in 1342.[10]

Cenobitic Monasticism

At Tabenna. in upper Egypt, sometime around 323 AD, Saint Pachomius, chose to mold his disciples into amore organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin,) but worked,ate, and worshipped in shared space. Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries werecreated for men and women.Saint M acarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia

(founded in 328.) The intention was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like SaintAnthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monasticorganization is called cenobitic or "community-based." In Catholic theology, this community -based living isconsidered sup erior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monasterycame to be known by the word for "Father;" - in Syriac, Abba; in English, "Abbot."

The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one countby the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dott ing Egypt, esp ecially theThebaid. Within the span of the next generation this number increased to 7,000. From there monasticism quicklyspread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the RomanEmpire.

There were two types of cenobitic monks: permanent and mendicant. The permanent monks were committed tostay in one community while the mendicants renounced all of their worldly possessions and traveled the world

to preach. Their purpose was to emulate Christ's life as much as possible.[11] They constantly searched forViaImitato Christi, which means a way to imitate Christ. Within the permanent order, there are two main saints: St.Bernard of Clarvaux and St. Benedict. St. Bernard was commissioned by the p ope to lead the Second Crusade.St. Benedict was more focused on schools, and the education of the monks in their respective orders. He wishedto reform the educational tactics throughout the monasteries in order for the monks to be a better person, andmore greatly achieve their quest of living a life like that of Christ . Within the mendicant order there are twocategories of monks: the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscan order was started by St. Francis of

Assisi in the early 13th century. St. Francis saw many problems among the monks that he encountered. Herealized that as the monks became rich from their earnings, they ultimately started to become lazy and prideful.He felt the need to fix these p roblems throughout the monasteries, therefore creating the Franciscan order.They

believed in living in total poverty and would not accept any money which meant they survived by begging.[12]

The main focus of the Franciscan order was love and mercy. The Dominican order was founded by St. Dominicde Guzman in the 13th century. He established a systematic and organized method of teaching the monks sothey would be prepared to travel and preach to the people. St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was more concernedwith the laws of monasticism. He thought that the most important thing was to make sure that the monasticrules of poverty, chastity, and obedience were being followed throughout all the monasteries. He also put anemphasis on both charity and meekness by devoting his own t ime to serving others and encouraging the monks


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Analavos worn by Eastern

Orthodox Schema-Monks.

in his order to do the same.[13] The Dominican friars were ultimately the men who were responsible for the

Spanish Inquisition, a period of torture and religious persecution.[14]

Scholars such as Lester K. Little att ribute the rise of monast icism at this time to the immense changes in thechurch brought about by Constantine's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation ofChristianity into the main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response a newform of dedication was developed. The long-term "martyrdom" of the ascetic replaced the violent physical

martyrdom of the persecutions.

Eastern Orthodox Tradition

See also: Monk#Eastern Christianity

Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West,[15] sothere are no formal Monast ic Rules (Regulae); rather, each monk and nun isencouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. Thereis also no division between the "active" and "contemplative" life. Orthodoxmonastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects.

There exist in the East three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, andthe skete. The skete is a very small community, often of two or three(Matthew 18:20 (http ://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%20Matthew&verse=18:20&src=!) ), under the direction of an Elder. They pray privatelyfor most of the week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days forcommunal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobiticmonasticism.

Historical development

Even before Saint Anthony the Great (the "father of monasticism") wentout into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to asceticdiscipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with theteachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in the East from thehermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings(apophthegmata) and acts (praxeis) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded andcirculated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well.

Among these earliest recorded accounts was theParadise, by Palladius of Galatia, Bishop of Helenopolis (alsoknown as theLausiac History, after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of

Alexandria (whoseLife of Saint Anthony the Greatset the pattern for monastic hagiography), Saint Jerome, andother anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of greatimportance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius, the father ofcenobiticism, and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism.

Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great, a man from a professionalfamily who was educated in Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens. Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits inPalestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under theguidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil's ascetical writings set forth standards for well-disciplined communitylife and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility.


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Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monast ic life (theLesser Asketikon the Greater Asketikon theMorals,etc.) which, while not "Rules" in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of theimportance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidanceand evendisciplineof a st rong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had lessinfluence in the Latin West.

Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai.Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c.600), a work of such importance that

many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza duringGreat Lent.

At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors,

including the twenty "sovereign monasteries" on the Holy Mountain,[16] an actual "monastic republic" whereinthe entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu, the Philokalia was compiled.

As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm.Saint Gregory Palamas, bishop of Thessalonica, an experienced Athonite monk, defended Orthodox spiritualityagainst the attacks of Barlaam of Calabria, and left numerous important works on the spiritual life.

Western monasticism

The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours, who after servingin the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan, then moved on toPoitiers where he gathered a community around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372,where he established a monastery at Marmoutiers on the opposite bank of the Loire River, a few miles upstreamfrom the city. His monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community.

Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo-Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded theMonastery of Lrins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a

community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually-p roven monks could live in isolation. Lrinsbecame, in time, a center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would passthrough Lrins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles.

John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monasticpractice there. In Egypt he had been att racted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highestform of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 heestablished two monasteries near Marseilles, one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian's Institutes,which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences, a collection of sp iritual reflections.

Medieval period

The first non-Roman area to adopt monasticism was Ireland, which developed a unique form closely linked totraditional clan relations, a system that later spread to other parts of Europe, especially France. The earliestMonastic settlements in Ireland emerged at the end of the fifth century. The first identifiable founder of amonastery (if she was a real historical figure) was Saint Brigit, a saint who ranked with Saint Patrick as a majorfigure of the Irish church. The monastery at Kildare was a double monastery, with both men and women ruledby the Abbess, a pattern found in other monastic foundations.

Commonly Irish monasteries were established by grants of land to an abbot or abbess who came from a local


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Saint Benedict by

noble family. The monastery became the sp iritual focus of the t ribe or kin group. Successive abbots andabbesses were members of the founders family, a policy which kept the monastic lands under the jurisdiction ofthe family (and corresponded to Irish legal tradition, which only allowed the transfer of land within a family).

Ireland was a rural society of chieftains living in the countryside. There was no social place for urban leaders,such as bishops. In Irish monasteries the abbot (or abbess) was supreme, but in conformance to Christiantradition, bishops still had important sacramental roles to play (in the early Church the bishops were the oneswho baptized new converts to bring them into the Church). In Ireland, the bishop frequently was subordinate to

(or co-equal with) the abbot and sometimes resided in the monastery under the jurisdiction of the abbot.

Irish monasticism maintained the model of a monastic community while, like John Cassian, marking thecontemplative life of the hermit as the highest form of monasticism. Saints ' lives frequently tell of monks (andabbots) departing some distance from the monastery to live in isolation from the community. Irish monasticrules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes.Yet Irish monks did not fear pagan learning. Irish monks needed to learn a foreign language, Latin, which was thelanguage of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular, with an enthusiasm that theircontemporaries on the continent lacked. By the end of the seventh century, Irish monastic schools wereattracting students from England and from Europe.

Irish monasticism spread widely, first to Scotland and Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy. Columba andhis followers established monasteries at Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at Iona, an islandnorth-west of Scotland, and at Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at therequest of King Oswald of Northumbria.

Columbanus, an abbot from a Leinster noble family, traveled to Gaul in the late 6th century with twelvecompanions. Columbanus and his followers spread the Irish model of monastic institutions to the continent. Awhole series of new monastic foundations under Irish influence sprang up, starting with Columbanus'sfoundations of Fontaines and Luxeuil, sponsored by the Frankish King Childebert II. After Childebert's deathColumbanus traveled east to Metz, where Theudebert II allowed him to establish a new monastery among thesemi-pagan Alemanni in what is now Switzerland. One of Columbanus's followers founded the monastery of St.Gall on the shores of Lake Constance, while Columbanus continued onward across the Alps to the kingdom ofthe Lombards in Italy. There King Agilulf and his wife Theodolinda granted Columbanus land in the mountainsbetween Genoa and Milan, where he established the monastery of Bobbio.

Little is known about the origins of the first important monastic rule (Regula) inWestern Europe, the anonymous Rule of the Master (Regula magistri), which waswritten somewhere south of Rome around 500. The rule adds legalistic elementsnot found in earlier rules, defining the activities of the monastery, its officers, andtheir resp onsibilities in great detail.

Benedict of Nursia is the most influential of Western monks. He was educated inRome but soon sought the life of a hermit in a cave at Subiaco, outside the city.He then attracted followers with whom he founded the monastery of M onteCassino around 520, between Rome and Naples. He established the Rule that ledto him being credited with the title of father of western monasticism. By the ninthcentury, largely under the inspiration of the Emperor Charlemagne, Benedict'sRule became the basic guide for Western monasticism.

Medieval monastic life consisted of prayer, reading, and manual labor. [17] Prayerwas a monks first priority. Ap art from prayer, monks performed a variety oftasks, such as preparing medicine, lettering, reading, and others. Also, these


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Herman Nieg,

Heiligenkreuz Abbey,

Austria

monks would work in the gardens and on the land. They might also spend time inthe Cloister, a covered colonnade around a courtyard, where they would pray orread. Some monasteries held a scriptorium where monks would write or copybooks. When the monks wrote, they used very neat handwriting and would drawillustrations in the books. As a part of their unique writing style, they decorated

the first letter of each paragraph.

The efficiency of Benedict's cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made them very

productive. The monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge.Vikings started attackingIrish monasteries famous for learning in 793. One monk wrote about how he did not mind the bad weather oneevening because it kept the Vikings from coming: Bitter is the wind tonight, it tosses the oceans white hair, I

need not fearas on a night of calm seathe fierce raiders from Lochlann. [18]

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the growing pressure of monarchies and the nation states undermined thewealth and power of the orders. Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the Protestantreformation many monasteries in Northern Europe were shut down and their assets seized.

Contributions

In t raditional Catholic societies, monastic communities often took charge of social services such as education andhealthcare. The legacy of monasteries outside remains an important current in modern society. M ax Webercompared the closeted and Puritan societies of the English Dissenters, who sparked much of the industrialrevolution, to monastic orders. M any Utopian thinkers (starting with Thomas M ore) felt inspired by thecommon life of monks to apply it to the whole society (an example is the phalanstre). Modern universitieshave also attempted to emulate Christian monasticism. Even in the Americas, universities are built in the gothicstyle of twelfth century monasteries. Communal meals, dormitory residences, elaborate rituals and dress allborrow heavily from the monastic tradition. Today monasticism remains an important part of the Catholic,Eastern Orthodox and Anglican faith.

Education

In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their scriptoria. A prospectivemonk first learned grammar, logic, and oratory. Later, he would take up mathematics, ast ronomy, and music. Thestudents would use a stylus on wax. Later, when their handwriting improved, they would be given ink andparchment. Originally the monasteries only taught future monks, but later some monasteries decided to teachothers as well. Eventually, many of those schools became universities. Even though the church supported these

universities, they were no longer a part of the monasteries. [19] The dialectical dispute between Peter Abelard andWilliam of Champeaux in the early 12th century over the methods of philosophic ontology led to a schismbetween the Catholic Orthodox of the School of Notre Dame in Paris and the student body, leading to the

establishment of Free Schools and the concept of an autonomous University, soon copied elsewhere in Europe.

Medicine

Monastic pharmacies stored and studied medicaments. Some of the works that the monks copied were bymedical writers, and reading and copying these works helped create a store of medical knowledge. Monasterieshad infirmaries to treat the monks, travelers, the poor, old, weak and sick. In 2005, archeologists uncoveredwaste at Soutra Aisle which helped scientists figure out how people in the Middle Ages treated certain diseases,such as scurvy; because of the vitamin C in watercress, patients would eat it to stop their teeth from falling out.


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The Hospital at Soutra Aisle.

The same archeological group discovered hemlock, a known pain killer,

in the drains of the hospital.[20]

Monasteries also aided in the development of agricultural techniques.The requirement of wine for the Mass led to the development of wineculture, as shown in the discovery of the mthode champenoise by DomPerignon. Several liquors likeBndictine and the Trappist beers werealso developed in monasteries. Even today many monasteries andconvents are locally renowned for their cooking specialties.

The consequence of this centralisation of knowledge was that theyinitially controlled both p ublic administration and education, where thetrivium led through the quadrivium to theology. Christ ian monks cultivated the arts as a way of praising God.Gregorian chant and miniatures are examples of the p ractical app lication of quadrivium subjects.

The status of monks as apart from secular life (at least theoretically) also served a social function. DethronedVisigothic kings were tonsured and sent to a monastery so that they could not claim the crown back.Monasteries became a place for second sons to live in celibacy so that the family inheritance went to the firstson; in exchange the families donated to the monasteries. Few cities lacked both a St Giles house for lepersoutside the walls and a Magdalene house for prostitutes and other women of notoriety within the walls, andsome orders were favored by monarchs and rich families to keep and educate their maiden daughters beforearranged marriage.

The monasteries also p rovided refuge to those like Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who retired to Yuste in hislate years, and his son Philip II of Spain, who was functionally as close to a monastic as his regal responsibilitiespermitted.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Present

Christian monasticism was and continued to be a lay conditionmonks depended on a local parish church forthe sacraments. However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples,that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot or other membersordained. A p riest-monk is sometimes called a hieromonk. In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy, when abishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates, being goodsources of men who were spiritually mature and generally possessing the other qualities desired in a bishop.Eventually, among the Orthodox Churches it became established by canon law that all bishops must be monks.

Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, Rebublic of M acedonia, Russia,Romania, Serbia, the Holy Land, and elsewhere in the Orthodox world, the Autonomous M onastic State ofMount Athos remaining the spiritual center of monasticism for Eastern Orthodox. Since the fall of the IronCurtain, a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred, and many previously empty or destroyed monasticcommunities have been reopened.

Monasticism continues to be very influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Sacred Canons,all Bishops must be monks (not merely celibate), and feast days to Glorified monastic saints are an importantpart of the liturgical tradition of the church. Fast ing, Hesychasm, and the pursuit of the spiritual life are stronglyencouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity.


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St. Anthony of Kiev wearing the

Great Schema.

Types of monks

Main article: Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism

There are also three levels of monks: The Rassaphore, the Stavrophore, and the Schema-Monk (orSchema-Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days ofmonasticism, there was only one levelthe Great Schemaand even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against

the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored thedevelopment of three distinct levels.

When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest andask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days the Hegumen may at hisdiscretion clothe the candidate as a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he (or she)would simply be given thePodraznik, belt andskoufos.

After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassaphoremonk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek:Rason). A monk (or nun) may remain in this gradeall the rest of his life, if he so chooses. But the Rite of Tonsure for the Rassaphore refers to the grade as that of

the "Beginner," so it is intended that the monk will advance on to the next level. The Rassaphore is also given aklobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassaphores will be given a prayer ropeat their tonsure.

The next rank, Stavrophore, is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The name Stavrophoremeans "cross-bearer," because when Tonsured into this grade the monastic is given a cross to wear at all times.This cross is called a Paramanda wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with theInstruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" (Galatians 6:17(http://bibref.hebtools.com/?book=%20Galatians&verse=6:17&src=!) ). The Paramand is so called because it isworn under the Mantle (Greek:Mandyas; Slavonic:Mantya), which is a long cape, which completely covers themonk from neck to foot. Among the Russians, Stavrophores are also informally referred to as "mantle monks."

At his Tonsure, a Stavrophore is given a wooden hand cross and a lit candle, as well as a p rayer rope.

The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek:Megaloschemos; Slavonic: Schimnik). Attaining the level ofSchemamonkis much more common among the Greeks than it is among theRussians, for whom it is normally reserved to hermits, or to veryadvanced monastics. The Schema monkorSchema nun wears the samehabit as the Rassaphore, but to it is added theAnalavos (Slavonic:Analav) a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders andcoming down to the knees (or lower) in front and in back. This garmentis roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic

orders, but it is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments ofthe Passion (see illustration, above). The Klobuk worn by a Schemamonk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. theKlobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in whichcase it is referred to as a koukoulion. The skufia worn by a Schemamonk is also more intricately embroidered.

The religious habit worn by Orthodox monastics is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nunswear an additional veil, called an apostolnik.


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Orthodox monks farming potatoes in

Russia, ca. 1910

The central and unifying feature of Orthodox monasticism is Hesy chasm, the practice of silence, and theconcentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer. All ascetic practices and monastic humility is guided towards preparingthe heart fortheorea or the "divine vision" that comes from the union of the soul with God. It should be noted,however, that such union is not accomplished by any human activity. All an ascetic can do is prepare theground; it is for God to cause the seed to grow and bear fruit.

Western orders

Many distinct monastic orders developed within RomanCatholicism and Anglicanism. Monastic communities in the West,broadly speaking, are organized into orders and congregationsguided by a particular religious rule, such as the Rule of StAugustine or especially Rule of St Benedict. Eastern Orthodoxydoes not have a system of orders, per se.

Roman Catholicism

Main article: Roman Catholic religious order

On 7 February 1862 Pius IX issued the papal constitution entitledd Universalis Ecclesiae, dealing with the conditions for admission to religious orders of men in which solemn

vows are prescribed.

Augustinians, founded in 1256, which evolved from the canons who would normally work with the

Bishop: they lived with him as monks under St. Augustine's rule

Benedictines, founded in 529 by Benedict at Monte Cassino, stresses manual labor in a self-subsistent

monastery. They are less of a unified order than most other orders.

Bridgettines, founded c.1350

Camaldolese, founded c.1000Canons Regular, a community of mainly priests living according to the Rule of St. Augustine St.

Augustine

Carmelites, founded between 1206 and 1214, a Contemplative order

Carthusians

Celestines

Cistercians, also referred to as the Order of St. Bernard, founded in 1098 by Robert of Molesme

Cluniacs, a movement with a height c.950-c.1130

Conventuals

Discalced CarmelitesDominicans, founded in 1215

Hieronymites, founded in Spain in 1364, an eremitic community formally known as the Order of Saint

Jerome

Jesuits, dedicated to teaching and spreading Catholic theology and philosophy, known formally as the

Society of Jesus.

Olivetans

Paulines, Founded in Hungary in 1225 by Blessed Eusebius.

Premonstratensians, also known as Norbertines.


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Servites

Trapp ists, began c. 1664

Vallombrosans

Visitation Sisters

Anglican communion

Main article: Anglican religious order

Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end with Dissolution of the Monasteries during the reign of KingHenry VIII. The property and lands of the monasteries were confiscated and either retained by the king or givento loyal protestant nobility. Monks and nuns were forced to either flee for the continent or to abandon theirvocations. For around 300 years, there were no monastic communities within any of the Anglican churches.

Shortly after the Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring catholic faith and practice to the Church ofEngland (see Anglo-Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglicanpriest John Henry Newman established a community of men at Litt lemore near Oxford in the 1840s. From thenforward, there have been many communities of monks, friars, sisters, and nuns established within the Anglican

Communion. In 1848, M other Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became thefirst woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. In October 1850 thefirst building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymerein Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, printing press and soup kitchen. From the1840s and throughout the following one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated inthe UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India and the Pacific.

Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monasticlife among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life," a combination of a life of contemplativeprayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of Roman Catholicism. Like RomanCatholic religious, Anglican religious also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religiouscommunities live together under a common rule, reciting the Divine Office and celebrating the Eucharist daily.

In the early 20th century when the Anglo-Catholic Movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion hadhundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. However, since the 1960s there has been asharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in theUnited Kingdom and the United States. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to asingle convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century,novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have alreadybecome extinct. There are however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in religious communitiesaround the world. While vocations remain few in some areas, Anglican religious communities are experiencing

exponential growth in Africa, Asia, and Oceania..

Protestantism

Monasticism in the Protestant tradition proceeds from John Wycliffe who organized the Lollard Preacher Order(the "Poor Priests") to promote his reformation views.

Lutheran Church

During the Reformation the teachings of Martin Luther led to the end of the monasteries, but a few Protestants


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followed monastic lives. Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheranmonasteries. Since the 19th century there have been a renewal in the monast ic life among Protestants. There aremany present-day Lutherans who practice the monastic teaching of the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1947 M other Basilea Schlink and Mother M artyria founded the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, inDarmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots.

In 1948 Bavarian Lutheran pastor Walter Hmmer and his wife Hanna founded the Communitt

Christusbruderschaft Selbitz.

In other Lutheran traditions "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's

House[21] in Oxford, Michigan, in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing themonastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community hasalways remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 y ears of its existence over25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to manyyears, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006,there are 2 permanent p rofessed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and

their brothers in Sweden (stanbck monastery)[22] and in Germany the (Priory of St. Wigbert).[23] In

Germany, Communitt Casteller Ring[24]

is a Lutheran Benedictine community for women. In 2011, anAugustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine (Societas Sacerdotalis Sancti Augustini) wasestablished by the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church. It follows the Rule of St. Augustine, its headquarters is at

Christ Lutheran Church ALCC. Kent Island, Maryland, and Fr. Jens Bargmann, Ph.D., is the Grand Prior. [25]

In Lutheran Sweden, religious life for women had been established already in 1954, when Sister M arianneNordstrm made her profession through contacts with The Order of the Holy Paraclete and Mother M argaretCope (18861961) at St Hildas Priory, Whitby, Yorkshire.

Other denominations

Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of R. A. Torrey, founded JesusAbbey as a missionary community in Korea. It has some links with the Episcopal Church and holds anEvangelical doctrine.

The Community of the Sisterhood Emmanuel was founded in 1973 in Makak - in the Centre Province byMother Marie, one of the first female Pastors of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. In 1975 she moved thecommunity to the present site- at Agyati in Bafut. It has 10 finally consecrated Sisters, four in simple vows anda handful of others in formation. The Sisters are trained in strong collaboration with the sister Institutes of theCatholic Church. They say that one of their charisms is ecumenism. The Sisterhood Emmanuel is the onlyPresbyterian Monastery in Cameroon.

In 1999 an independent Protestant order was founded named The Knights of Prayer Monastic Order. Thecommunity maintains several monks in its Portland, Oregon, cloister and has an international network ofassociated lay people. It is not affiliated with any particular congregation.

In February 2001, the United Methodist Church organized the Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery. It is aMethodist-Benedictine residential double monastery in Collegeville, Minnesota.

Ecumenical expressions


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Christian monasticism is experiencing renewal in the form of several new foundations with an 'inter-Christian'vision for their respective communities.

In 1944 Roger Schtz , a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church, founded a small religious brotherhood in Francewhich became known as the Taiz Community. Although he was partly inspired by the hope of revivingmonasticism in the Protestant tradition, the brotherhood was interdenominational, accepting Roman Catholicbrothers, and is thus an ecumenical rather than a specifically Protestant community.

The Order of Ecumenical Franciscans is a religious order of men and women devoted to following the examplesof Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Clare of Assisi in their life and understanding of the Christian gospel: sharinga love for creation and those who have been marginalized. It includes members of many different denominations,including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and a range of Protestant t raditions. The Order understands its charism toinclude not only ecumenical efforts and the traditional emphases of the Franciscans in general, but also to help todevelop relationships between the various Franciscan orders.

Additional expressions of ecumenical monasticism can be seen in the Bose Monastic Community andcommunities of the New Monasticism movement arising from Protestant Evangelicalism.

See alsoAsceticism

Carmelite Rule of St. Albert

Consensoria Monachorum

Coptic monasticism

Christian meditation

Desert Fathers

Essenes

Hermit

Into Great Silence The award winning documentary of life within the Carthusian monsastery of 'LaGrande Chartreuse' by Philip Groning.

Monasticism

Mount Athos

Lay brothers

New M onasticism

Order (religious)

Order of Watchers: A French Protestant fraternity of Hermits.

Pachomiusearly example of monastic organizer

PoustiniaRule of St Benedict

The "Discipline"

The Order Of Imitation of Christ

Vocational discernment in the Catholic Church

Notes

^ Corbishley, Mike. Cultural Atlas for Young People The Middle Ages Revised Edition. New York: Facts OnFile, Inc., 2004, page 38.

1.


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^ Rowling, Marjorie. Everyday Life in Medieval Times. London: Jarrold and Sons Lt d, 1968, page 125.2.^ Newadvent.org (ht tp ://www.newadvent .org/cathen/10459a.htm)3.

^ ab Macdonald, Fiona. How would you survive in the Middle Ages?. New York: FRANKLIN WATTS, 1995,page 37.

4.

^ Eusebius of Caesarea, in hisEcclesiastical History, describes Philo's Therapeutae as the first Christian monks,identifying their renunciation of property, chastity, fasting, solitary lives with the cenobitic ideal of theChristian monks. Professor Constantine Scouteris, Source (http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/patrology/scouteris_theraputae.htm)

5.

^ The Carmelites (ht tp://ocarm.org/en/content/ocarm/elijah-mary)6.^ "Idiorrythmic Monasticism" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281997/idiorrhythmic-monasticism) .Encyclopaedia Britannica . Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281997/idiorrhythmic-monasticism. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

7.

^ Butler, Edward Cuthbert. "St. Anthony" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm) . The CatholicEncyclopaedia Vol. 1. Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm. Retrieved 9October 2012.

8.

^ "Anchoress" (http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/anchoress.htm) . The Middle Ages Website. http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/anchoress.htm. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

9.

^ Gardner, Edmund. "Juliana of Norwich" (ht tp://www.newadvent .org/cathen/08557a.htm) . The CatholicEncyclopaedia Vol. 8. Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08557a.htm. Retrieved 9October 2012.

10.

^ "Mendicant Orders in the Medieval World" (htt p://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mend/hd_mend.htm) .Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mend/hd_mend.htm. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

11.

^ "Franciscan" (ht tp://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/franciscan) . Teachers. Scholastic.http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/franciscan. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

12.

^ "Dominican Order" (ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order) . Wikipedia. htt p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order. Retrieved October 2012.

13.

^ "Spanish Inquisition" (ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition) . Wikipedia. ht tp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition. Retrieved October 2012.

14.

^ One may hear Orthodox monks referred to as "Basilian Monks," but this is really an inappropriateapplication of western categories to Orthodoxy.

15.

^ Both Mount Sinai and Mount Athos are referred to as "the Holy Mountain" in Orthodox literature,16.^ Middle-ages.org.uk (http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/medieval-monastery.htm)17.^ Rowling, Marjorie. Everyday Life in Medieval Times. London: Jarrold and Sons Lt d, 1968, page 11418.^ Historymedrend.about.com (http://historymedren.about.com/cs/monasticism/a/keepers_2.htm)19.^ "The medical world of medieval monks" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3745498.stm) .BBC News. 6August 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3745498.stm. Retrieved 30 April 2010.

20.

^ Saint Augustine's House (ht tp://www.staugustineshouse.org)21.^ stanbck monastery (ht tp://www.svenskakyrkan.se/klostren/OSTANENG.htm)22.^ Priorat St. Wigberti: Unser Kloster (http://www.wigberti.de)23.^

Communitt Casteller Ring (ht tp://www.schwanberg.de/index.php/communitaet-casteller-ring-ev.ht ml)24. ^ Priestly Society of St. Augustine (http://www.sssa-us.org/Home_Page.html)25.

References

Ritari, K. (2009). Saints and Sinners in Early Christian Ireland: Moral Theology in the Lives of Saints

Brigit and Columba. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. ISBN 978-2-503-53315-5.

Lawrence, C. H. (2001).Medieval Monasticism (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education.

ISBN 0-582-40427-4.


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Chitty, D. J. (1966). The Desert a City. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Meyer, R. T. (1950). St. Athanasius: The Life of Anthony. ACW 10. Westminster, Md.: Newman Press.

"Idiorrythmic Monasticism" (ht tp ://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/top ic/281997/idiorrhythmic-

monasticism) .Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc.. http://www.britannica.com

/EBchecked/topic/281997/idiorrhythmic-monasticism. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

Butler, Edward Cuthbert. "St. Anthony" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm) . The Catholic

Encyclopedia Vol. 1. Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm.

Retrieved 9 October 2012."Anchoress" (http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/anchoress.htm) . The Middle Ages Website.

http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/anchoress.htm. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

Gardner, Edmund. "Juliana of Norwich" (http ://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08557a.htm) . The Catholic

Encyclopedia Vol. 8. Robert Appleton Company, 1910. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08557a.htm.

Retrieved 9 October 2012.

"Mendicant Orders in the M edieval World" (ht tp ://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mend/hd_mend.htm) .

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The M etropolitan M useum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org

/toah/hd/mend/hd_mend.htm. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

"Franciscan" (http://www.scholast ic.com/teachers/article/franciscan) . Teachers. Scholastic.http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/franciscan. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

"Dominican Order" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Order) . Wikipedia. ht tp ://en.wikipedia.org

/wiki/Dominican_Order. Retrieved October 2012.

External links

"Catholic Hermitage" (http://doc0mr.tripod.com/id23.html) Christian Perspective on Monasticism

Eastern Christian Monasticism (http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/monasticism.aspx)

orthodoxinfo.com

Anglican religious orders and communities (http://www.orders.anglican.org) Anglican information onmonasticism

Photographs of Christian Monasteries (http://www.hayquesufrir.com/oseira_monastery.php)

"Monasticism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

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