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Chennai RACE Coaching Institute Pvt Ltd Chennai | Madurai | Trichy | Salem | Coimbatore | Chandigarh | Bangalore|

Erode |Namakkal |Puducherry |Thanjavur

www.raceinstitute.in | www.bankersdaily.in

Head Office - Chennai: #1, South Usman Road, T Nagar. Chennai. Mob: 9043303030 / 7601808080 Madurai |Trichy |Salem |Coimbatore |Chandigarh |Bangalore|Erode |Namakkal |Puducherry |Thanjavur Official Website: www.raceinstitute.in|Official Blog: www.bankersdaily.in

1

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Erode |Namakkal |Puducherry |Thanjavur

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Head Office - Chennai: #1, South Usman Road, T Nagar. Chennai. Mob: 9043303030 / 7601808080 Madurai |Trichy |Salem |Coimbatore |Chandigarh |Bangalore|Erode |Namakkal |Puducherry |Thanjavur Official Website: www.raceinstitute.in|Official Blog: www.bankersdaily.in

2

HISTORY

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500BC

– 1500BC)

The ancient name of Indus valley is

‘Meluha’. John Marshall (in 1931) was the

first scholar to use the term, „Indus

Civilization’. Also called as Bronze Age

Civilization.

HARAPPA – discovered in 1921 by Dayaram

Sahni on the river Ravi

MOHENJODARO – discovered in 1922 by

R.D.Banerjee on the river Indus

Mohenjodara is the largest of all the

Indus cities.

Dholavira is the largest and latest site

present in India (Gujarat).

First man made port in the world is

present in Lothal (near Gulf of Cambay,

Gujarat).

„Mohenjodaro’ is called „The Mount of

Dead’ and „Kalibangan’ means the „Black

bangle’.

Features of Harappan Culture

1) First urbanization in India.

2) Town planning

lines of the grid system

Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan

each had its own citadel built

Underground drainage system

Harappa has six granaries.

Largest building in Mohenjodaro is a

granary (150 feet length and 50 feet

breadth)

Wheat and barley were the main crops

grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton

The chief male deity was Pasupati,

(proto-Siva) surrounded by four animals

(elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each

facing a different direction)

Chief female deity was the Mother

Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti) represented in

terracotta figurines

Wooden coffins were also found at

Harappa

Harappan script was mostly written from

right to left

The boustrophedon method – writing in

the reverse direction in alternative lines -

was also adopted.

Tree worship (Peepal) and Fire worship

(Havan Kund) was also practised

Domestic Animals in Indus Valley

Civilization: Sheep and goats, dogs,

humped cattle buffalo, camels, pig, domestic

fowls, Humped bulls and elephant was

certainly domesticated.

Known and Unknown facts of Indus

People:

1) Indus People used Gold-Silver mixture

called Electrum.

2) They also used Bronze (alloy of copper

and tin) and Copper.

3) Horses were Known to Indus people.

4) Iron was unknown to them.

5) Cotton fabrics are very common.

6) They are very fond of Ornaments, both

men and women wear ornaments.

7) Potter‟s wheel were known to them,their

pottery was red or black in colour.

Archeological Findings:

Harappa Wheat and Barley in wooden

Mortar, Painted pottery, Clay

figures of mother goddess.

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3

Mohenjodaro

Great Granary, The Great

Bath, Piece of woven cotton,

Beared man in Steatite,

Bronze dancing girl

Chanhudaro Bronze toy cart, shell

ornament makers and bead

makers, bullock cart

Lothal Burnt brick, Dockyard, Rice

husk, Fire altars

Kalibangan Ploughed field surface, 7 fire

altars, Mesopotamian

cylindrical seal, Decorated

bricks.

Dholavira A unique water harnessing

system, storm water drainage

system,giant water reservoirs,

Largest Harappan inscription

for civic purposes

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:

1) Invasion 2) Natural disaster

3) Climate change 4) Decline in trade

5) Diseases

BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Buddha (563BC-483BC)

Born in Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in

Nepal.

Father: Suddhodana (the Saka ruler).

Mother: Mahamaya (Kosala dynasty)

died after 7 days of his birth.

Brought up by stepmother Prajapati

Gautami, who named Buddha as Gautama

Yoshodhara is his wife and Rahula, his

son

Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Haryanka

dynasty were his contemporaries

Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarath.

His first sermon named as Dharma Chakra

Parivartan

Buddha got enlightenment (Nirvana) at

the age of 35, in Gaya under Peepal tree

Died in Kushinagar, UP

All the buddhist literatures are written in

‘Pali’ language

Important disciples of Buddha were

Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa

and Upali

Teachings of Buddha follows Eight fold

path

Buddha had two kinds of disciples –

monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers

(upasikas).

3 pitakas of Buddhism:

Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discipline in the

Buddhist monasteries

Sutta Pitaka: Largest, contains collection of

Buddha's sermons.

Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explanation of the

philosophical principles of the Buddhism

Sects of Buddhism:

1) Hinayana- They believe Idol worship

2) Mahayana- They had no belief in the idol

worship.

a) Madhyamika

b) Yogachara (School teachings started by

„Maitreyana‟)

Important Symbols:

Birth Lotus and Bull

Great Renunciation Horse

Nirvana Bodhi tree

First Sermon Dharmachakra

Parinirvana/Death Stupa

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4

Buddhist Councils:

6 buddhist councils had been held so far. The

important among them were:

Council Yr Place Presided by

1st 483BC Rajgaha

(Rajgir)

Mahakashyapa

(In reign of Ajat

Satru)

2nd 383BC Vaishali Sabakami

(Kalasoka)

3rd 250BC Pataliputra Moggaliputta

Tissa (reign:

Ashoka)

4th 100AD Kashmir Vasumitra (Reign:

kanishka)

JAINISM:

Jainism founded by Rishabha, the first

Tirthankara (Emblem: Bull)

There were 24 Tirthankaras

The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath

(Emblem: Snake) was the son of King

Ashvasena of Banaras.

Books of Jainism were written in Prakrit

language

VARDHMAN MAHAVIRA: (540BC-468BC)

Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankar

Born in Kundagram (Muzaffarpur, Bihar)

Name: Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya, Nirgrantha

Father: Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika clan).

Mother: Trishla (sister of Lichchavi Prince

Chetak of Vaishali).

Married to Yashoda; daughter -

Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali

became his first disciple.

He attained the highest spiritual knowledge

called Kevala Gnana

Emblem: Lion.

Died in Pavapuri (near modern Rajgir)

Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread

his teachings

Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of

Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south

India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas,

the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas

patronized Jainism

Two groups in Jainism:

1) Shvetambaras (who put on white dress)

led by Sthulabhagu.

2) Digambaras (who always keep them

naked) led by Bhadrabhagu.

Jainism Councils:

COUNCIL PLACE PRESIDED BY

1st Pataliputra sthulabadhra

2nd Vallabhi Devardhi

Final compilation of Jain literature called

Twelve Angas was completed in the 2nd

council.

Four Fold Virtue:

The Four fold virtue was given by 23rd

Tirthankar Parshwanath, they are

1) Satya (Truth) 2) Ahimsa 3)

Aparigraha (non-possession) 4) Asteya

(do not steal)

Mahavira added one more virtue to these

four. It is (5) Brahmacharya (celibacy).

Three Jewels of Jainism:

1) Right knowledge 2) Right faith

3) Right conduct

GEOGRAPHY

India is an ancient country named

Bharatvarsh.

India lies wholly in the Northern

Hemisphere. The Indian mainland extends

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5

between 8°4'N to 37°6' N latitudes and from

68°7' E to 97°25' E longitudes.

The northern most point of the Indian

mainland is Jammu and Kashmir and the

southernmost point of the country as a

whole is Indira Point (6°30'N latitude) in

Andaman and Nicobar . The westernmost -

Gujarat and the eastern most -

ArunachalPradesh.

The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of

India is of about 29 degrees.

1 degree of latitude is equal to 111 km

Physical Divisions of the Indian

Subcontinent

A chain of high mountains radiate out

from the Pamir Knot which lies just in the

north of India.

In these mountains the Hindukush, the

Sulaiman and the Kirthar in the east and the

Himalayas in the west separate the Indian

subcontinent from rest of Asia.

Indian subcontinent can be divided into

following physical divisions:

The Great Mountain wall of the North:

They are divided into three groups. They are

(i) The Himalayas

(ii) The Trans-Himalayas

(iii) Purvanchal or the hills of the North-East

The Himalayas, the highest mountain

wall of the world, is situated on the northern

boundary of India like an arc.

From west to east the Himalayas are

2500 km long. The average breadth of the

Himalayas is between 250 km to 400 km.

Two of the highest peaks of Himalayas,

Mt. Everest (in Nepal) and Kanchenjunga

(Sikkim)

Mount Everest, the highest peak in the

world, lies in these mountains in Nepal.

Division of the Himalayas

The Himalayas consist of three parallel

mountain ranges:

(i) The Greater Himalayas

(ii) The Lesser Himalayas and

(iii) The Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas (or Himadri)

This is the loftiest of the three ranges of

Himalayas.

The extent of this range is between the

Nanga Parbat peak (8126 m.) in the west

and Namcha Barva peak (7756 m.) in the

east.

Mount Everest lies in this range.

Waterfalls perennial throughout the year.

These snow-covered mountains give

birth to many glaciers (Gangotri and

Yamunotri)

The Ganga originates from this

Himalayas

The Lesser Himalayas (or the Himachal

Himalayas):

South of the Greater Himalayas, the

range also lies parallel to it from west to

east.

Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir and

Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh are the

local names of this range

This ranges 60 to 80 km wide and its

average height ranges between 3500 to

4500 metres.

The famous valley of Kullu and Kangra

are also a part of Himachal ranges.

Tourist centres like Shimla, Mussorie

and Nainital are situated in this range

The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks):

This is the southernmost and the third

parallel range of the Himalayas with an

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6

average height of 900 to 1200 meters.

Between Himachal and Siwalik, a

longitudinal valley named 'duns' present. Eg:

Dehradun

Its breadth is only 10 to 15 km. Shivalik

range is broader in the west.

The Trans-Himalayas:

The range extending to the north of the

Himadri and running parallel to it is called

the Zaskar range. North of Zaskar range is

the Ladakh range

The river Indus flows towards northwest

between Zaskar and Ladakh range.

K2 (8611m) is the highest peak of the

Karakoram Mountains.

K2 is the second highest peak of the

world, next only to Mt. Everest.

Purvachal:

Patkoi Bum, Naga, Manipur, Mizo

(Lushai) and Tripur are the major hilly

ranges of this region

Meghalaya Plateau is also part of these

hills (Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia)

The Great Nothern Plains:

The Northern plains are divided into

three sub-divisions. These are the Punjab

and Haryana plains, The Ganga plains and

the Brahamaputra valley.

Plains contains alluvial soil

The relatively higher part of the plain is

called bangar

The comparatively lower area is called

the khadar .Khadar area is know as bet in

Punjab.

The Ganga plains form the largest

lowland drained by thy Ganga and its

tributaries.

The Yamuna is the most important

tributary of the Ganga.

The Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and

the Tista are other tributaries of the Ganga.

The Sone and the Damodar are

tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal

and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna

from the peninsular plateau.

The Ganga plain has an extremely gentle

slope. Parts of the plain are subject to floods

in the rainy season. In the lower course, the

Ganga divides itself into tributaries to form a

large delta along with the Brahmaputra.

The Punjab and Haryana plains represent

a part of the Indus basin.

A low watershed separates these plains

from the Ganga plains.

The Great Pensinsular Plateau:

Anamudi or Anaimudi (2695 m) is the

highest peak of the peninsula.

The Deccan plateau includes the area to

the south of the Vindhyas.

The western edge of the plateau rises

steeply from the Arabian Sea to form the

Western Ghats , which is continuous (which

includes the Shahydri).

The Decccan plateau slopes gently

towards the east. The surface of the plateau

is dissected into a rolling upland by a

number of rivers.

The elevation ranges from 300 to 900

metres.

The eastern edge of the plateau is known

as the Eastern Ghats, which is

discontinuous.

The Eastern Ghats joins the Sahyadris at

the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu

The north-western region of the Deccan

plateau is covered by nearly horizontal

sheets of lava.

This region is called 'Deccan trap region'.

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7

The Deccan plateau is drained by many long

east flowing rivers.

These rivers originate in the Western

Ghats, flow towards the east and enter the

Bay of Bengal.

The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna

and the Cauvery are the major rivers that

have built deltas along the coast.

The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are

west flowing.

Both the rivers enter the Arabian Sea

along the Gujarat coast.

These rivers do not have deltas.

Major Plateaus: Marwar Upland, Central

Highland, Bundelkhand, Malwa Plateau,

Baghelhand, Chhotanagpur Plateau

(Hazaribagh Plateau, Ranchi Plateau and Raj

Mahal Hills), Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan

Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka

Plateau, Telengana Plateau, Chhatisgarh

Plain.

The Coastal Plains

Narrow strips of flat land on eastern and

western coasts are known as the East

Coastal Plain and the West Coastal Plain

respectively.

The West Coastal Plain

This plain which lies between the Arabian

Sea and the Western Ghats spreads from

Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the

south.

It is broader in the north and narrower in

the south. This uneven plain has been

dissected by many fast flowing rivers.

Its northern part from Gujarat to Goa is

called Konkan, while southern part from Goa

to Mangalore is called the Karnataka coast.

The coast from Mangalore upto Kanyakumari

is called the Malabar coast. Several lagoons

(salt water lakes separated from the main

sea by sand bars and spits) are found on the

coastal plain.

Important ports developed on its coast

from north to south are: Kandla, Mumbai,

New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao,

Mangalore and Cochin.

The East Coastal Plain:

This broader coastal plain spreads along

the Bay of Bengal from Odisha in the north

to Kanyakumari in the south.

Delta formation occurs more compare to

west coastal plain

Its northern part is known as Northern

Circar plains and the southern part is called

Coromandal Coast. Rivers like Mahanadi,

Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery form deltas

on this plain.

This coast is famous for rice cultivation.

A large number of lagoons are also found

here.

Chilka and Pulicat lakes are fine

examples of lagoons on our east coast.

The Great Indian Desert:

It lies to the west of the Aravali range.

It extends over major part of Rajasthan

and Sindhi in Pakistan.

This desert does not get much rain as

the Aravali range run parallel to the south-

western monsoon winds.

It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay

of Bengal current.

Lake Sambhar is found here.

The Island Groups

Lakshadweep is a group of 36 coral

islands in the Arabian Sea. Kavaratti is the

capital city of this island group. The largest

island among these is the Minicoy

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8

It is located 300 km to the west of the

coast of Kerala.

Andaman and Nicobar island are a group

of about 324 islands.

Most of these islands are uninhabited.

Andaman and Nicobar islands are

separated by the Ten Degree Channel

because 10°N latitude passes through this

place.

Barren Island in the Andaman‟s is India‟s

only active volcano.

POLITY

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Regulating Act, 1773: Provision of

Supreme Court at Fort William, Calcutta

Pitts’s India Act, 1784:

It created a new body called Board of Control

to manage the political affairs while Court of

Directors were allowed to manage the

commercial affairs.

Charter Act, 1793: Salaries of the

members of the board to be drawn from the

Indian exchequer

Charter Act, 1813

East India Company monopoly over trade

was abolished in India but its monopoly over

trade with China and for Trade in tea

retained.

Company to spend one lakh rupees every

year on the education of Indians.

Charter Act, 1833: It made the Governor

General of Bengal as the Governor General

of India.

Government of India Act, 1858

Changed the designation of Governor

General of India to that of viceroy of India

Dual government introduced by Pitt‟s Act

was abolished

A new office of Secretary of state for India

was created

Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto

Reforms)

Allowed Indians with the Executive Council of

the Viceroy and governors. Satyendra Prasad

Sinha became the first Indian to join the

Viceroy‟s Executive Council

Muslims were given separate representation

and hence Lord Minto came to be known as

the Father of Communal Electorate.

Government of India Act, 1919

(Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)

For the first time Indian Central Legislature

was made bicameral (Two Houses) ; direct

elections in the country were introduced;

introduced dyarchy

Establishment of the Public Service

Commission, which was established in 1926.

Government of India Act, 1935

Abolished the Council of India, established

by the Government of India Act, 1858.

The Act provided for a Federal Court and a

Federal Bank.

Abolished dyarchy

Indian Independence Act, 1947

This act called for the two dominions,

namely India and Pakistan.

It asked power to be transferred to the

Indians on August 15, 1947

MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION

The idea of constituent assembly for making

the Constitution was first mooted by M.N.

Roy in 1934. Indian National Congress

officially demanded the formation of

Constituent Assembly in 1935.

The Constitution of India was framed by a

Constituent assembly which was set up

under the Cabinet mission plan (1946)

(Lord Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps,

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9

A V Alexander)

First meeting of Constituent Assembly was

held on Dec 9, 1946.

Objective Resolution was presented by

Jawaharlal Nehru on Dec 13, 1946. Objective

Resolution forms the basis of Preamble

Dr. Sachidanand Sinha elected as the

temporary President of the assembly.

Rajendra Prasad was elected as the

President of the assembly.

H.C.Mukherjee was the vice president of

constituent Assembly.

The Constituent Assembly took almost 2

years, 11 months, & 18 days to complete the

Constitution The total membership of the

assembly thus was to be 389.

Adopted on 26th November, 1949, but

came into effect from 26th January 1950

Committees in Making of the

Constitution

Committees Leaders

Steering Committee ,

Rules of Procedure

Rajendra Prasad

Union committee,

State Committee,

Union Powers

Jawaharlal Nehru

Drafting Committee B R Ambedkar

Provincial committee

and House committee

Sardar Vallabhai

patel

Sources from where our constitution

borrowed

Government of India Act 1935

Office of Governor, Judiciary Public Service

Commission, Emergency Provisions

British Constitution

Parliamentary form of government, single

citizenship, Rule of law, Procedure

established by Law

United States

Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Electoral

College, Independence of the judiciary and

separation of powers, judicial review,

President as supreme commander of armed

forces

Irish constitution

Directive principles of state policy

Australian Constitution

Freedom of trade and commerce; Concurrent

List

French Constitution

Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity

Canadian Constitution

A federal system with a strong central

government

Distribution of powers between the central

government and state governments

USSR

Fundamental duties

Other Constitutions

Emergency Provision Under article 356

Weimar Constitution – Germany ;

Amendment of Constitution - South Africa ;

Due Procedure of Law - Japan

PHYSICS

Scalar Quantities

Physical quantities which have magnitude

only and no direction are called scalar

quantities. e.g., Mass, speed, volume, work,

time, power, energy, etc.

Vector Quantities

Physical quantities which have both

magnitude and direction and also obey

triangle law are called vector quantities. e.g.,

Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,

momentum, torque etc.

Projectile Motion

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For maximum range = 45°. Therefore, a

long jumper takes jump at an angle of 45°.

For maximum height 𝜃 = 90°.

The horizontal range is the same

whether the body is projected at 𝜃 or

90 − 𝜃 .

When a body is dropped freely from the

top of the tower and another body is

projected horizontally from the same point,

both will reach the ground at the same time.

When two balls of different masses are

projected horizontally they will reach ground

at the same time.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law

“Every body retains its state of rest or state

of motion, until an external force is applied

on it.” This law is also known as law of

inertia or law of Galileo.

First law gives the definition of inertia.

Inertia is the virtue of a body due to which

it tries to retain its state.

Second Law

“The force applied on a body is equal to

the product of mass of the body and the

acceleration produced in it F = ma.”

The second law of motion gives the

definition of force.

A force is any influence that causes an

object to undergo a certain change, either

concerning its movement, direction and

geometrical structure.

SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Third Law

“Every action have equal and opposite

reaction.” Action any reaction always act on

the different bodies.

On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed

to backward direction.

When the boatman is jumped from the

boat, the boat is pushed back.

In a rocket, „gases are ejected with a

great speed from the rocket backwards and

rocket is pushed forwards.

While swimming, a person pushes the

water backwards (action). The water pushes

the swimmer forward with the same force

(reaction).

Linear Momentum

The product of the mass and the velocity

of a body is called the linear momentum of

the body.

It is a vector quantity. Its unit is kg-m/s.

∴ Momentum = Mass × Velocity

A heavier body has a larger linear

momentum than a lighter body moving with

the same velocity.

In the absence of external forces, the

total linear momentum of teh system

remains conserved.

Application of Conservation of Linear

Momentum

When a man jumps from a boat to the

shore, the boat slightly moves away from

the shore. Rocket works on the principle of

conservation of momentum.

When a bullet is fired from a gun, the

gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in backward

direction.

Impulse

If a force acts on a body for a very short

time Δt, then the product of force and time

is called the impulse.

Impulse = Change in momentum

= Force × Time interval

Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.

Concept of Impulse

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A cricketer moves his hands backwards

while catching a ball.

FRICTION

It we slide or try to slide a body over a

surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding

between the body and the surface. This

resistance is called frictional force.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Friction

Walking is possible due to friction.

The transfer of motion from one part of a

machine to other part through belts is

possible by friction.

Brake works on the basis of friction.

Friction causes wear and tear of the

parts of machinery in contact. Thus their

lifetime gets reduced.

Methods of Reducing Friction

By polishing, by lubrication, by proper

selection of material, by using ball bearing

the friction can

be reduced to same extent.

Work, Energy and Power

Work

When a body is displaced by applying a force

on it, then work is said to be done. It is a

scalar quantity. Its unit is joule (J).

Energy

It is defined as capacity of doing work.

Its unit is joule in SI and erg in CGS system.

Mechanical energy is in two forms;

kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic Energy

It is the energy possessed by a body by

virtue of its motion.

If a body of mass m is moving with

velocity v, then kinetic energy

𝐾𝐸 = 1

2 𝑚𝑣2 =

𝑝2

2𝑚

where p is the linear momentum.

When momentum is doubled, kinetic

energy becomes four times.

Kinetic energy of air is used to run

wind mills.

Kinetic energy of running water is used

to run the water mills.

A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a

target due to its kinetic energy.

If a body is moving in horizontal circle

then its kinetic energy is same at all points,

but if it is moving in vertical circle, then the

kinetic energy is different at different points.

Potential Energy

It is the energy possessed by a body by

virtue of its position.

Suppose a body is raised to a height h

above the surface of the earth, then

potential energy of body – mgh.

When a body is falling downwards, then

its potential energy goes on changing to

kinetic energy.

The potential energy of the wound

spring of a clock is used to drive the hands

of the clock.

The potential energy of water in dams is

used to run turbines in order to produce

electric energy using the generators.

Law of Conservation of Energy

According to the law of conservation of

energy, “energy can neither be created nor

be destroyed but it can be transformed from

one from to another.

The sum of all kinds of energies in an

isolated system remains constant at all

times.

Transformation of Energy

In a heat engine, heat energy changes

into mechanical energy.

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In the electric bulb, the electric energy is

converted into light energy.

In burning coil, oil, etc, the chemical

energy changes into heat energy.

In solar cell, solar energy changes into

electrical energy.

In playing sitar, mechanical energy

changes into sound energy.

In microphone, sound energy changes

into electrical energy.

In loud speaker, electrical energy

changes into sound energy.

In battery, chemical energy changes into

mechanical energy.

In electric motor, electrical energy

changes into mechanical energy.

In candle, chemical energy changes into

light and heat energy.

POWER

Rate of doing work by a body is called

power.

i.e., 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑃 = 𝑤

𝑡

SI unit of power is watt (W) or joule

second and it is a scalar quantity.

1 Horse Power = 746 W

1 watt second (W-s) = 1J

1 watt hour (W-h) = 3600J

1 kilowatt hour (kW-h)

= 3.6 × 106𝐽

The turning effect of a force on a body is

known as the moment of the force or torque.

Torque is a vector quantity.

Simple Machines

It is based on moment of force. Moment

of force = Force × perpendicular distance of

the force from the axis of rotation.

Lever, inclined plane, screw gauge etc

are simple machine.

Scissors, sea saw, breaks of cycle, hand

pump, plass are lever of first kind.

Nut cracker and waste carrying machine

are lever of second kind.

Tong, man‟s hand and tiller are lever of

third kind.

Gravitation Force

It is always attractive in nature.

It is the weakest force but is a long

range force.

Mathematically it is represented as

𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚

𝑟2

where, 𝐹𝐺 is gravitational force, G is

gravitational constant, M is the mass of first

particle, m is the mass of second particle

and r is the distance between them.

This is called Newton‟s universal law of

gravitation.

The value of G is

6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 − 𝑚2/𝑘𝑔2

Gravity

It is the force by which Earth attracts a

body towards its centre.

The acceleration due to gravity is the

rate of increase of velocity of a body falling

freely towards the Earth.

The value of g at the surface of Earth is

9.8 𝑚/𝑠2.

Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere of

gases due to gravity. The value of g on the

Moon is 1/6th of that on the Earth surface.

Variation in the Value of g

When we go above the surface of the

Earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes

on decreasing.

When we go below the surface of the

Earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes

on decreasing and becomes zero at the

centre of the Earth.

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Decreasing the rotational motion of

Earth, the value of g increase.

When we go from the equator towards

the poles, the value of g goes on increasing.

The value of g is maximum on the

surface of the Earth.

Weight of a Body in a Lift

If lift is going up with acceleration, the

apparent weight of a body is more than the

true weight. If lift is going down with

acceleration, the apparent weight of a body

is less than the true weight.

SATELLITE

The heavenly body which revolves round

the planets is called satellite. Moon is a

natural satellite of Earth.

The speed of a satellite does not depend

upon the mass of the satellite.

A satellite revolving very close to earth‟s

surface has a period of revolution about 84

min and its speed is nearly 8 km/s.

Every body inside the satellite is in a

state of weightlessness. Total energy of the

satellite is negative.

Artificial satellites are of two types

Geostationary and Polar satellites

(i) The satellite whose time period is 24 h, is

called geostationary satellite. It is used to

reflect TV signals and telecast TV programs

from one part of the world to another. This

satellite revolves around the Earth at a

height of 36000 km. INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C

are geostationary satellites of India.

(ii) Polar satellites revolve around the

earth in polar orbits at a height of

approximately 800 km. The time period of

these satellites is approximately 84 minute.

These satellite are used for weather

forecasting in studying upper region of the

atmosphere in mapping etc.

Escape Velocity

The minimum velocity of the body that

should be given to the body to enable it to

escape away from Earth‟s gravitational field

is called escape velocity. It is given by

𝑣𝑒 =

2 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

× 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑕

Its value on the Earth‟s surface is 11.2 km/s.

The value of the escape velocity of a

body does not depend on its mass. Its value

on the moon surface is 2.38 km/s. So, there

is no atmosphere around the moon.

Escape velocity is 2 times the orbital

velocity.

Satellites are launched with the escape

velocity as needed.

Kepler’s Laws

All planets move around the sun in

elliptical orbits having the sun at one foci of

the orbit.

The areal speed of a planet around the

sun is constant.

The square of the period of revolution of

any planet around the Sun (T) is directly

proportional to the cube of its mean distance

from the Sun (a), i.e., 𝑇2 ∝ 𝑎3 .

Quick Digest

The Earth rotates on its axis from West

to East. This rotation makes the sun and the

stars appear to be moving across the sky

from East to West.

The response of plants to gravity is

called geotropism.

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We are able to see a live telecast of

cricket matches or other programmes with

the help of a communication satellite, which

is a geostationary satellite.

CHEMISTRY

Matter

Matter is anything which has mass and

occupies space.

It exists in five phases, viz, solid, liquid,

gas, plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate.

Melting Point

It is a temperature at which a substance

converts from its solid state to liquid state.

Melting point of ice is 0°C.

Melting point decreases in the presence

of impurity.

Sublimation

It is the process of conversion of a

substance from the solid phase to the gas

phase without passing through an

intermediate liquid-phase.

It is used to separate a sublimate

(substance undergoing sublimation like

camphor, naphthalene, ammonium chloride

etc) from non-sublimate.

Boiling Point

It is a temperature at which vapour

pressure of a liquid becomes equal to

atmospheric pressure.

It is different at different places.

Boiling point of water at normal

conditions is 100°C.

It usually decreases at high altitudes,

that‟s why at high altitudes, the boiling point

of water is less than 100°C and more time is

required to cook a food.

Boiling point of water in pressure cooker

is high due to high pressure and hence, less

time is required to cook the food.

Boiling point increases in the presence of

impurity.

Evaporation

It is the process of conversion of a liquid

into vapours at any temperature below its

boiling point. It increases with increase in

surface area and temperature.

In produces cooling. That‟s why we feel

cool when some nail polish remover or spirit

is kept on our palm.

Condensation

Is the process of conversion of gas into

liquid.

Solids, liquids and gases are inter

convertible by changing the conditions of

temperature and pressure-

Fluorescent Tube contains helium (He)

gas and neon (gas) Sign bulb contains neon

(Ne) gas.

Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law

At constant temperature, the pressure of a

fixed amount of gas (number of moles) is

inversely proportional to its volume.

The mathematical equation is

𝑃 ∝1

𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘

Charles’ Law

At constant pressure volume of a fixed

mass of a gas is directly proportional to its

absolute temperature.

This law can be written as

𝑉 ∝ 𝑇

Avogadro’s Law

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It states that equal volumes of all gases

at the same temperature and pressure

contain the equal number of molecules.

Ideal and Real Gases

Ideal gases follow gas laws in all

conditions of temperature and pressure.

Real gases follow gas laws only at high

temperature and low pressure.

Critical Temperature

It is the temperature above which a gas

cannot be liquefied.

Elements

Elements known at present are 118. Out

of which 94 are natural. Elements which are

liquid at room temperature are mercury (Hg)

and bromine (𝐵𝑟2).

Elements which become liquid at a

temperature slightly above the room

temperature (303 K), are gallium (Ga) and

cesium (Cs).

Examples (of elements) are sulphur,

phosphorus, oxygen, etc.

Elements have the following order of

abundance in earth crust. Oxygen > silicon >

aluminium (metal) > iron > calcium.

Elements have the following order of

abundance in human body: Oxygen > carbon

> hydrogen > nitrogen

Elements combine to give molecules.

Atom

It is the smallest particle of matter that

takes part in chemical reactions. (by

Dalton’s atomic theory).

It can neither be created nor destroyed

(law of conservation of mass given by

Lavoisier).

Mixtures

Mixtures can be homogeneous, i.e., have

uniform composition throughout (e.g., salt

solution, sugar solution, air, true solutions

etc.) or heterogeneous, i.e., have non-

uniform composition (e.g., mixture of salt

and sugar, colloidal solutions etc).

Solutions or True Solutions

These are homogeneous mixtures of two

or more substances.

Colloidal Solutions

These are heterogeneous mixtures.

These contain two phases, i.e., dispersed

phase and dispersion medium.

These can scatter light because of the

presence of large solute particles, i.e., they

show Tyndall’s effect and Brownian

movement.

Blue colour of sky is also due to

scattering of light by dust particles

suspended in air.

They are separated by special technique

like centrifugation.

They are of following types on the basis

of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

Colloidal solutions are coagulated by

adding an electrolyte.

Colloidal solutions are purified by

dialysis, which is also used in the purification

of blood with the help of artificial kidney

machine.

Coagulation found its use in purification

of water by alum, stoping bleeding by 𝑒𝐶𝑙3 ,

formation of delta at the junction of sea and

river.

Colloidal Solutions

Disperse

d Phase

Dispersion

Medium

Type of

Colloid

Example

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds,

mist

Solid Gas Aerosol

(solid)

Smoke,

automobile

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exhaust

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving

Cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsio

n

Milk, face-

cream

Solid Liquid Sol Milk of

magnesia

mud,

Gas Solid Foam Foam,

rubber,

sponge,

pumice

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly,

cheese,

butter

Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured

gemstone,

milky glass

Separation of Mixtures

A number of physical and chemical methods

are used to separate the number of

mixtures. Some important methods are

discussed below

Centrifugation

It is based upon the principle that the

denser particles are forced to the bottom

and the lighter particles stay at the top when

spin rapidly.

It is used in diagnostic laboratories for

blood and urine tests, in dairies and home to

separate butter from cream, in washing

machine to squeeze out water from wet

clothes.

Distillation

It is a method of separating mixtures

based on differences in volatilities of

components in a boiling liquid mixture.

It is used to separate mixtures of ether

and toluene, benzene and aniline etc.

Fractional Distillation

It is used to separate liquids having very

less difference in their boiling points.

It is used to obtain pure diesel, petrol,

kerosene oil, coaltar etc from crude oil or

mineral oil.

It is used to separate a mixture of

acetone (329 K) and methyl alcohol (338 K).

Vacuum Distillation

It is also known as distillation under

reduced pressure

It is used for the substances which

decompose below their boiling point.

It is used to obtain glycerol and 𝐻2𝑂2 and

to concentrate sugar cane juice in sugar

industry.

Steam Distillation

It is used to separate a steam volatile

compound from non-volatile or non-steam

volatile compounds. It is used to purify

sandalwood oil, turpentine oil, aniline,

nitrobenzene etc.

Crystallisation

It is used to separate a mixture of inorganic

solids. It is done with the help of suitable

solvent. Their examples include separation of

a mixture of sugar and salt by using ethyl

alcohol.

Chromatography

It is the modern technique used for

separation and purification of organic

compounds. It was discovered by Tswett.

It is used for the separation of coloured

pigments from a plant.

Reverse Osmosis

It is a technique in which solvent

molecules move from the solution of higher

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concentration to the solution of lower

concentration when these are separated by

semipermeable membrane and excess

pressure is applied to the solution of higher

concentration.

It is used for desalination of sea water.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND

RADIOACTIVITY

Modern Atomic Theory

According to this theory, „Atom is made up of

three fundamental particles called electrons,

protons and neutrons.

Discovery of Cathode Rays and

Electrons (−𝟏𝒆𝟎)

Cathode rays were discovered by Sir

Julius Pluckur.

These originate from cathode and travels

in a straight line towards anode.

These rays carry negative charge and

generate X-rays.

Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson.

It‟s antiparticle is positron.

Discovery of Anode Rays and Protons

(1H or P)

Anode rays were discovered by

Goldstein. (also called positive rays.)

These do not originate from anode.

These are positively charged and have

velocity less than cathode rays.

Proton was discovered by Rutherford.

It is positively charged.

It is present in the nucleus

It has mass 1836 times that of the

electron.

Discovery of Neutron (𝟎𝒏𝟏)

Neutron was discovered by Chadwick.

It has zero charge and 1.674 × 10−17 𝑘𝑔

or 1.00867 u mass.

It is present inside the nucleus. Its

antiparticle is antineutrino.

Hydrogen is the only atom in which

neutrons are not present.

Electromagnetic forces bind electrons

with the nucleus.

Atoms having same number of electrons

and protons are neutral.

Discovery of Nucleus

It contains protons and neutrons which

are collectively called nucleons.

Atomic Number (Z)

It is equal to the number of protons.

It is equal to the number of electrons in

neutral atom.

Mass Number (A)

It is equal to the sum of number of

protons and number of neutrons.

It is written as a superscript to the right

of the symbol of the atom, e.g., 𝐶12 here 12

is the mass number of carbon (C).

Mass number = Number of protons +

Number of neutrons = Atomic number +

Number of neutrons = Number of electrons

+ Number of neutrons (in case of neutral

atom)

Isotopes

These have same atomic number but

different mass number. Example isotopes of

hydrogen i.e., 1H1, (protium), 1H

2 or D

(deuterium) and 1H3 or T (tritium). T is

radioactive.

Isotopes of polonium are maximum.

Hydrogen (H–1) is the lightest isotope

and lead-208 is the heaviest isotope (with

mass 207.974).

Isobars

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18

These have the same mass number but

different atomic number.

18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40 are isobars.

Isotones

These have same number of neutrons, e.g.,

1H3 and 2He4 as both have two neutrons.

Niels Bohr Model

The electrons are confined into clearly

defined, quantised orbits and could jump

between these, but could not freely spiral

inward or outward in intermediate states.

Planck’s Quantum Theory

According to this theory

1. Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb

energy only in the form of discrete packets

of energy called quanta.

2. The energy of quantum (E) is proportional

to its frequency (v),

i.e., E = hv

where, h = Planck‟s constant 6.626 ×

10−34 𝐽𝑠

3. The energy is quantized.

De-Broglie Concept

It suggests that matter possesses dual

nature, i.e., has wave nature as well as

particle nature.

It also suggests that wavelength (λ) of

electron is inversely proportional to its

momentum (p) i.e.,

𝜆 =𝑕

𝑝=

𝑕

𝑚𝑣

where, m = mass of electron

and v = velocity of electron

Radioactivity

It was discovered by Henry Becquerel

but term radioactivity was given by Madam

Curie. It is the process of spontaneous

disintegration of nucleus and is measured by

Geiger counter.

It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus

remains unaffected by external factors like

temperature, pressure etc.

It involves emission of 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾

rays/particles and has units Curie,

Becquerel, Rutherford.

Alpha (𝜶) Particle

These are positively charged helium

nuclei (2He4) 2+. They have +2 unit charge

and 4u mass.

They have low penetrating power but

very high ionizing power and kinetic energy.

Beta (𝜷) Particle

These are more dangerous than 𝛼 − rays.

These have high penetrating power as

compared to 𝛼 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠.

Gamma (𝜸) Rays

These are electromagnetic radiation and

have very high penetrating power.

These have low ionising power and

kinetic energy.

Their emission does not affect the

position of nuclei in the Periodic Table.

Half-Life Period

It is the time in which a radioactive

substance remains half of its original

amount.

Nuclear Fission

It is a process in which a heavy nucleus

is broken down into two or more lighter

fragments.

It is usually accompanied with the

emission of neutrons and large amount of

energy. It is used in nuclear reactor and

atom bomb.

Atom Bomb

It is based on uncontrolled nuclear

fission. It contains 235U or 239Pu as fuel.

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19

Nuclear Reactor

It is a device that is used to produce

electricity and permits a controlled chain

nuclear fission.

It contains fuels e.g., 92U235, moderator

(e.g., graphite and heavy water, D2O) to

slow down neutrons and control rods (made

up of boron steel or cadmium) to absorb

neutrons.

It may also contain liquid sodium as

coolant.

Nuclear Fusion

It is a process which involves fusion of

two or more lighter nuclei to give a heavier

nuclei.

It occurs only at extremely high

temperature > 106 𝐾 , so also called

thermonuclear reactions.

It is used in hydrogen bomb. Energy of

Sun is also a result of a series of nuclear

fusion reactions.

Hydrogen Bomb

It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide

(D2O) and tritium oxide (T2O) in a space

surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.

Radiocarbon Dating

It is used in determining the age of carbon

bearing materials such as wood, animals

fossils etc. It is based on the concentration

of C12 and C14 isotopes.

Uranium Dating

It is used to determine the age of earth,

minerals and rocks. Periodic Classification of

Elements

Uses of Radioisotopes

1. Iodine – 131 is employed to study the

structure and activity of thyroid gland. It is

also used in internal radiation therapy for the

treatment of thyroid disease.

2. Iodine – 123 is used in brain imaging.

3. Cobalt – 60 is used in external radiation

therapy for the treatment of cancer.

4. Sodium – 24 is injected along with salt

solution to trace the flow of blood.

5. Phosphorus – 32 is used for leukemia

therapy.

6. Carbon – 14 is used to study the kinetics

of photosynthesis.

BIOLOGY

Introduction

Study of plants is called Botany and

study of animals is called Zoology. Zoology

and Botany are collectively called Biology.

The term „Biology‟ was coined by Lamarck

and Treviranus.

Theophrastus is known as Father of

Botany.

The Cell

The Cell is the basic structural and

functional unit of all known living organisms.

It is the smallest unit of life and is often

called the building block of life.

The branch of Biology which deals with

the study of cell, is called Cytology.

The first living cell was discovered by

Leeuwenhoek.

Differences between Prokaryotic and

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Simplest and

primitive in

nature.

Developed and

comparatively complex in

nature.

Lacks nuclear

envelope

Nucleus is present with

elaborate nuclear

envelope

Membrane bound

cell organelles are

Membrane bound cell

organelles are present.

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absent.

Single naked

chromosome

present.

Many chromosomes are

present.

Cell division is

direct.

Cell division occurs by

mitosis or meiosis.

Facts about Cell

The largest known cells are unfertilized

Ostrich egg cells (size 6 inch diameter)

The smallest cell is of PPLO

(Mycoplasma gallisepticum of size 0.1-

0.3µ.m.

Human nerve cell is the longest animal

cell.

Largest unicellular plant is Acetabularia

(10 cm) and animal is Amoeba, (1 mm).

The largest human cell is the female

ovum and the smallest human cell is the red

blood cell.

Parts of Cell and their Functions

A typical cell consists of cell wall and

protoplasm.

Protoplasm of Cell

It is the living fluid matter present inside the

plasma membrane. The fluid present outside

the nuclear membrane is called cytoplasm

and the fluid present inside the nuclear

membrane is called nucleoplasm.

Deutoplasm is the non-living matter of the

cell.

Cell Wall

It is present in plant cells, bacteria, fungi,

algae and some archaea. It is composed of

cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi. It is

non-living. Its main function is to provide

shape and rigidity to the cell.

Plasma Membrane

The cell is enclosed by a thin membrane

called the cell membrane or

plasmalemma. It is composed of proteins

and phospholipid molecules. It is elastic,

living and selectively permeable, i.e., provide

passage for various substances.

Mitochondria

It is a semi-autonomous (can form its own

copies) organelle and is called power house

of the cell because in it stepwise oxidation

of fuel occurs which results in release of

chemical energy. This energy is stored in the

form of ATP.

Plastids

These are present only in plant cells and

are of three types-chloroplasts (green),

leucoplasts (white) and chromoplasts (of

various colours except green). Chloroplast is

the site of photosynthesis as it contains

chlorophyll, while leucoplasts are storage

plastids. Chloroplast is called the kitchen of

the cell.

The red colour of tomatoes is due to the

presence of lycopene pigment, i.e.,

chromospheres.

The colour of carrot is due to carotene.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough enodoplasmic reticulum is the site of

protein synthesis, while smooth endoplasmic

reticulum is the site of synthesis of steroids

and detoxification.

Golgi Apparatus

It was discovered by Camillo Golgi. It is

made up of sac-like flattened structures and

play an important role in secretion,

transportation and acrosome formation.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes were discovered by GE Palade.

These are minute, non-membranous

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21

particles, composed of RNA and protein. 70S

type of ribosomes are found in prokaryotes,

while 80S type in eukaryotes. These are the

site of protein synthesis.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve.

These are polymorphic organelles having

hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes function

at acidic pH ~ 5 . These are sometimes

called suicidal bags of the cell.

Lysosome helps in carcinogenesis, i.e.,

conversion of a normal cell into cancerous

cell.

Centrosome

It was discovered by T Boveri. It is

composed of two set of centrioles and

participate in the formation of mitotic spindle

during cell division.

Vacuoles

These are non-living reservoir, bounded by a

membrane called tonoplast. Pigment

anthocyanin is present in the cell vacuole,

which provide colour to flowers. It stores

toxic metabolic waste and helps in

osmoregulation.

Nucleus

It was discovered by Robert Brown. It

contains nucleoplasm, nucleolus and

chromatin material. Nucleolus is rich in

protein and RNA. All this material is covered

up by a nuclear membrane. Chromatin is the

controlling centre of cell as it form

chromosomes. Chromosomes are units of

inheritance.

Chromosome

Chromosome is thread-like structure, found

in the nucleus. Bead-like structures found on

chromosome are called genes, which are

made up of DNA and are the carrier of

genetic information from generation to

generation. In some viruses e.g. retrovirus,

RNA is the genetic material.

Differences between Plant and Animal

Cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

It has cell wall. Cell wall is usually absent.

Plastids are

found.

Plastids are usually absent.

Centrioles and

centrosome are

absent.

Centrioles and centrosomes

are found in all cells.

A big vacuole is

present.

Vacuole is absent or very

small in size.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Each nucleotide consists of a nucleoside

(i.e., nitrogenous base and deoxyribose

sugar) and a phosphate group, joined

together by phosphodi ester bonds.

It has four bases, i.e. adenine, guanine,

cytosine and thymine.

Adenine and guanine are the purine

bases; cytosine and thymine are pyrimidine

bases.

DNA was discovered by James D

Watson and Francis Crick, who got Nobel

Prize for this discovery.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

It is also made up of a long chain of

nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous

base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate

group.

It contains uracil in place of thymine.

RNA is of three types-

mRNA (messenger RNA)

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

tRNA (transfer RNA)

These three take part in protein synthesis.

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Cell Division

It is the process by which a cell increase in

number. It is essential for the growth,

development

and repair of the body.

It is of two types – Mitosis and Meiosis

(i) Mitosis: It occurs in unicellular organism

during asexual reproduction. Each mitotic

cell division results in the formation of two

daughter cell having number of

chromosomes equal to the parent cell.

Tumour or cancer is a result of uncontrolled

mitosis.

(ii) Meiosis: It occurs in reproductive cells

and is called reduction division because of

the presence of single set of chromosomes

(i.e., half of the parent chromosomes). It

results in the formation of four daughter

cells.

ECONOMICS

FIVE YEAR PLAN

When India became an independent country,

many questions had arisen in front of the

country‟s leaders at that time. The British

had left the Indian economy handicapped;

leaders had the challenges to make country‟s

economy strong. A formal model of planning

was adopted. The Planning commission was

established on 15th March 1950, with

Former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as

the Chairman. The Planning Commission is

directly reporting to the Prime Minister of

India. Now, it is known as NITI Aayog

(National Institute for Transforming India

Aayog) and established by Prime Minister

Narendra Modi on 1st January 2015.

Planning Commission was assigned the task

of formulating plans for the most effective

and balanced utilisation of resources and

determining priorities. Since then the

Planning Commission frames the centralized

and integrated national economic programs

at the interval of every five years, thereby

known as the Five-Year Plans. The First Five-

Year Plan of India was presented by Pandit

Jawaharlal Nehru in 1951.

First Plan (1951-56): It was based on

Harrod-Domar Model. Focus on Agriculture,

Price Stability, Power and Transport It was a

successful plan primarily because of good

harvests in the last two years of the plan.

Second Plan (1956-61): It also called

Mahalanobis plan named after the well

known economist. Focus on rapid

industrialization. Advocated huge imports

through foreign loans. Shifted basic

emphasis from agriculture to industry.

During this plan prices increased by 30%,

against a decline of 13% during the First

plan

Third Plan (1961-66): It stressed

agriculture and improvement in the

production of wheat, but the brief Sino-

Indian war of 1962 exposed weaknesses in

the economy and shifted the focus towards

the defence industry and the Indian Army.

Complete failure in reaching the targets due

to unforeseen events-Chinese aggression

(1962), Indo-Pak war (1964), severe

drought 1965-66.

Three Annual Plans (1966-69): Prevailing

crisis in agriculture and serious food

shortage necessitated the emphasis on

agriculture during the Annual Plans. During

these plans a whole new agricultural strategy

was implemented. It involving wide-spread

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distribution of high-yielding varieties of

seeds, extensive use of fertilizers,

exploitation of irrigation potential and soil

conservation. During the Annual Plans, the

economy absorbed the shocks generated

during the Third Plan.

Fourth Plan (1969-74): Main emphasis

was on growth rate of agriculture to enable

other sectors to move forward First two

years of the plan saw record production. The

last three years did not measure up due to

poor monsoon. Influx of Bangladeshi

refugees before and after 1971 Indo-Pak war

was an important issue.

Fifth Plan (1974-79): It proposed to

achieve two main objectives: 'removal of

poverty' (Garibi Hatao) and 'attainment of

self reliance'. Promotion of high rate of

growth, better distribution of income and

significant growth in the domestic rate of

savings were seen as key instruments. The

plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of

1979) when Janta Party government rose to

power. Rolling Plan (1978-80): Janta

government put forward a plan for 1978-

1983. However, the government lasted for

only 2 years. Congress government returned

to power in 1980 and launched a different

plan.

Sixth Plan (1980-85): Focus - Increase in

national income, modernization of

technology, ensuring continuous decrease in

poverty and unemployment, population

control through family planning etc

Seventh Plan (1985-90): Focus - rapid

growth in food-grains production, increased

employment opportunities and productivity

within the framework of basic tenants of

planning. The plan was very successful, the

economy recorded 6% growth rate against

the targeted 5%.

Eight Plan (1992-97): The eighth plan was

postponed by two years because of political

uncertainty at the centre Worsening Balance

of Payment position and inflation during

1990-91 were the key issues during the

launch of the plan. The plan undertook

drastic policy measures to combat the bad

economic situation and to undertake an

annual average growth of 5.6% Some of the

main economic outcomes during eighth plan

period were rapid economic growth, high

growth of agriculture and allied sector, and

manufacturing sector, growth in exports and

imports, improvement in trade and current

account deficit.

Ninth Plan (1997-2002): It was developed

in the context of four important dimensions:

Quality of life, generation of productive

employment, regional balance and self-

reliance.

Tenth Plan (2002-2007): To achieve 8%

GDP growth rate Reduction of poverty ratio

by 5 percentage points by 2007 Providing

gainful high quality employment to the

addition to the labour force over the tenth

plan period Universal access to primary

education by 2007 Reduction in gender gaps

in literacy and wage rates by atleast 50% by

2007 Reduction in decadal rate of population

growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%

Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the

plan period and to 80% by 2012 Increase in

forest and tree cover to 25% by 2007 and

33% by 2012. Cleaning of all major polluted

rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches

by 2012.

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Eleventh Plan (2007-2012): Accelerate

GDP growth from 8% to 10%. Increase

agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year.

Create 70 million new work opportunities

and reduce educated unemployment to

below 5% Raise real wage rate of unskilled

workers by 20 % Lower gender gap in

literacy to 10 percentage point. Increase the

percentage of each cohort going to higher

education from the present 10% to 15 %

Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1 Raise the

sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-

12 and to 950 by 2016-2017 Provide clean

drinking water for all by 2009 Attain WHO

standards of air quality in all major cities by

2011-12 Increase energy efficiency by 20

percentage points by 2016-17

Twelfth Plan: 2012-17 This plan‟s focus is

on instilling “inclusive growth”. The plan is

concentrated to encourage the development

of India‟s agriculture, education, health and

social welfare through government spending.

It is also expected to create employment

through developing India‟s manufacturing

sector and move the nation higher up the

value chain.

Success is the result of perfection, hard

work, learning from failure, loyalty, and

persistence

*****ALL THE BEST*****