John D. Hostettler' and Kenneth Brooks

University of Colorado at Colorado Springs I Chemistry in "The *sent of Man" Colorado Springs, CO 80907 I

In 1959, C. P. Snow described the relationship between two cultures-that of scientists and that of literary intellectu- als-in the following terms:

Between the two a gulf of mutual ineamprehension-some- times (particularly among the young) hostility and dislike, but most of all lack of understanding. They have a curious distorted image of each other. ( I )

Snow went on to point out that the mutual ignorance and hostilitv of the two cultures has serious. practical. and verv . . undesirable consequences for sbciety a t large. His ideas created intense debate but not the educational reforms he so urgently sought.

Durine the 1950's Jacob Bronowski had been express in^ many of the same ideas in a series of lertttrri entitled "Science and tlumnn Values." Hronowski, as a mathetnatician plying his trade in the sciences and as apoet, literary critic, historian and philosopher of science, was uniquely qualified to address both scientists and literary intellectuals. In addition, as an administrator, inventor, and teacher, he was keenly aware of and concerned about the uractical conseauences of the two cultures split.

In the late sixties Bronowski was persuaded bv the British Brmdcilstiny Corporation (LlR(:r to narrate a wrwi of films on theevolution ofscirnccannlogoujt~,Sir Kenneth (Iark's "Civilisation" series on the evol;tion of art. Thirteen films collectively titled "The Ascent of Man: A Personal View By Jacob Bronowski" were produced. The series was telecast by the BBC in Britain and by the Public Broadcasting System in this country in the early seventies. In these films, Bronowski visits 27 countries recreating times from prehistoric to modern and ranrine over subiects as diverse as stone aee tools and " " relativity. I t is an impressive series-fresh, dramatic, visually powerful-but it has its faults and its critics. Specialists often object that the films' treatment of their disciplines is super- ficial, inaccurate. and biased. Some generalists take issue with ~ronhwski's his&rical generalizatiok, his romantic vision of the nature of man, and his bullish attitudes toward science and technology. Philosophers find Bronowski's "personal view" to be far less than a coherent, systematic philosophy. Finally, there is the danger of being charmed by a masterful teacher and potent images into believing everything Bronowski says-a phenomenon that might be referred toas the St. Jacob syndrome. For all its faults, the films come across as lyrical, inspiring, and stimulating masterpieces on the way science came to be and what it means to society. In Britain and then

Presented in p v t at the 4th Biennial Conference on Chemical Education, Madison, Wisconsin, August 1976.

Correspondence should be addressed to this author. 2Additional sources of information on "The Ascent of Man"

courses: University Extension, University of California, San Diego, PO. Box 109, La Jolla, CA 92037; Miami-Dade Community College, 11011 S.W. 104th Street, Miami, FL 33156; The Corporation fur Public Broadcasting, 111 16th Street N.W., Washington, DC 2003% Center for Advanced Study in Education, Graduate Center, City University of New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036; Ontario Educational Communications Authority, Media Resource Centre, P.O. Bux 200, Station Q, Toronto, Ontario MT1 2T1; ERIC Document Reproduction Service, P.O. Box 190, Arlington, VA 22210.

:'These films can he rented or purchased from Time-Life Films, Time & Life Building, New York, NY 10020. Loan or rental may also be arranged thnmgh the film divisions of some state libraries.

again in America, this BBC series has been a smashing suc- cess.

In the wake of this wave of popularity have arisen some 500 courses ( 2 ) based upon "The Ascent of Man" film^.^,^ Manv of these courses use commercial materials (3-9) which hoG closely to the script of the films. The University of Colorado a t Colorado Springs (UCCS) course does not use the com- mercial materials but does use the films. We hope to avoid some of the problems inherent in the films whiie retaining their strenpths. Our course has several novel features and includes a considerable amount of chemistry. In this paper we describe "The Ascent of Man" course a t UCCS, some suc- cessful chemical topics in it, and the use of these topics in traditional chemistry courses.

The UCCS Course on "The Ascent of Man"

"The Ascent of Man" was established as a two semester. three credit honors elective a t UCCS in 1975-76. ~nrol lmeni was limited to 30 upperclass honors students. Majors in science, the humanities and professional areas took the course. Sixteen facultv from eleven disciplines in arts and sciences were involvedjn planning and teaching various segments of the course. One of the present authors served as course coor- dinator (JDH).'

The major theme of our course, and of the films, is the ev- olution of science with a special emphasis on the interde- pendence of science, art, and society. The scope of the course is obviouslv verv broad. In order tomake it more manaeeable. - - - we have organized its content chronologically by ages: Pre- historic. Medieval. Renaissance. Enliehtenment. Victorian. ~ o d e r n , and Future. The films ioughry correlate with these ages so that two films can be assigned to each age (see the table). Four to five weeks of class time were allotted to each of the seven ages. Each age was introduced with a film and general d i s r~~ss im. Then the appropriate faculty devel<,ped nnt! ur twt , topics from thir film in some detitil via 1ccturr.s. discussions, and bibliographies. The second film of each age was treated in the same manner-a general discussion fol- lowed by specific lectures on selected topics.

Oraanlzation of the UCCS Course on "The Ascent of Man"

Chemical Topics Ages Films from The Films

Prehistoric 1. Lower than the Angels 2. The Harvest of the Seasons

Medieval 3. The Grair. in the Stone 4. The Hidden Structure Alchemy

Renaissance 5. The Music of the Spheres 6, The Starry Messenger

Enlightenment 4. (The Hidden Structure) Chemical Revol~tion

7. The Majestic Clockwork Victorian 8. The Drive for Power Science and the

Steam Engine 9. The Ladder of Creation

Modern 10. World Within World The Manhanan Project

11. Knowledge or Cerlainty Future 12. Generation Upon Generation Man and Superman

13. The Long Childhood

430 / Journal of Chemical Education

The selection and development of film topics were guided by ohjectives derived from the two-cultures problem. In part, our ohjectives were an improved and enthusiastic under- standing of science per se: scientific methods, the organization and nature of scientific knowledge, and some acquaintance with the more major scientific ideas. In addition, we hoped to show the ways in which the scientific culture shapes and, in turn, is shaped by society at large. In particular, we aimed for improved understanding of science-technology-society in- teractions, scientific freedom and responsibility, and science and human values. The importance of these ohjectives and their relevance to chemical education will be armed elsewhere (10). The application of these ohjectives to the chemical topics in our course on "The Ascent of Man" is described below.

The Chemical Toplcs We have chosen five topics from the course to illustrate how

these ohjectivei were realized in the discipline of chtmistry. 'I'he iirst two t o ~ i c s "Akhemv" and "The Chemical Itevolu- tion" are especially germane to an understanding of science per se. "Science and the Steam Engine," "The Manhattan ~roject," and "Man and Superman" involve some social as- pects of science as well. Three hours of class time were devoted to each topic. We will discuss these topics chronologically so that their relations to one another and to the course as a whole are more evident (see the table).

Alchemy The alchemv t o ~ i c was nresented in the Medieval section . .

of the course. Our objective was an understanding of scientific methods: that is. the methods used to generate and evaluate - scientiiic knowl~dye. Our first cmcern was the generation of scientific knowledge. In a lecture, we developed the thesis thar deduction, experimentation, and re\.elatinn were important met hods used hv alchemists in their search ior knowledge. To clarify the nature of these methods, we discussed the tradi- tions which gave birth to alchemy: Greek philosophy, which favored deduction from first principles; Egyptian technology, which fostered experimentaion; and Oriental mysticism, which nlared its faith in revelation. A brief sketch of the subseauent c--.. ~

history of alchemy (11) revealed the continued use of these methods hut not in a way which would he called scientific.

We then attempted to show that analogous methods are employed by modern chemists. Bartlett's synthesis of inert gas compounds provided an example of deductive thinking (12): Watson and Crick's manipulation of DNA models demonstrated an empirical approach (13); and Kekul6's so- lution to the benzene structure was a t least an inspired in- vention, if not exactly a revelation (14,15). We then asked what distinguished the scientific methodology of modern chemistry f;om the nonscientific of alchemy, and suggested that the difference lay in the way deduction, experimentation, and "revelation" aremade to complement each other.

After the lecture on methods used to generate scientific knowledge, we turned to those used to evaluate it. We pointed out that a scientist's work cannot he accepted as scientific knowledee until it undereoes review and publication, and that

alone cannotguarantee acceptance. We noted that there was considerable agreement on what should he accepted as valid knowledge, and that this concensus implied a strong role for tradition in science. We illustrated the powerful in- fluence of traditional ideas with references to alchemical history and the inert gas dogma. We ohserved that strong traditions are often accompanied by resistance to new ideas and gave the reception accorded Szent-Gyorgyi's cancer theory (16) as an extreme example of such resistance.

After these introductory remarks, we initiated two class discussions. In the first of these discussions the class debated ~~~- ~ ~ - ~ ~

the pros and cons of resistance to new ideas. In the second the class speculated on how today's chemistry might appear to the chemist of 2500 A.D. and what criteria that chemist might use in evaluating today's chemistry.

The Chemical Revolution By "The Chemical Revolution" we mean that burst of ac-

tivity in the age of the Enlightenment that transformed al- chemv into chemical science. Our ~ r i m a r v ohiective was an apprLciation of the nature of scieniific knbwledge: the types of problems with which it deals, how i t is organized, and its limitations. We also aim a t deeper insights into scientific methods and some understanding of oxidation, stoichiometw, - and atoms.

We began by noting that similar revolutions in astronomy and mechanics occurred earlier and suggested that the ease of conversion of a pseudoscience to science was related directly to the simplicity of the problems with which it dealt. Kuhn's ideas on scientific revolutions were briefly presented (1 7). We then proceeded to Stahl's phlogiston theory, Priestley's dis- covery of oxygen, Lavoisier's law of the conservation of mass and his oxidation theory, the Pronst-Berthelot controversy over definite proportions, and finally Dalton's atomic theory (18). The students were asked in a subseauent discussion period to express what they had learned about the nature of scientific concepts, facts, laws, and theories. We also urged the class to read mire about the personalities and interactions of the scientists involved in "The Chemical Revolution" [see, e.g., the biographies in refs. (19-20)] to stress what Schwartz (21) has called the "humanity of chemistry." We provided several references (22-29) for students interested in pursuing the methods, knowledge, and values of the scientific culture.

Science and the Steam Engine This tonic served to link the age of Enliehtenment to Vic-

torian times. I t is an especially interesting example of the stimulation of science by technology. We had earlier discov- ered that technology was low in student esteem (no pun in- tended). Thus, we introduced this topic by a brief discussion of societal needs for energy technology, focussing especially on the earth's enerm budget (30), and a historical perspective of power devices (31). The development of steam engine technolow was traced from Savery to Watt (32,331, and then the phen%enological aspects (experiments and laws) of heat were evolved through the science of Rumford, Carnot, Mayer, Joule, Kelvin, and Clausius (33-36). Finally, we described the conflicts between two competitive theories, the caloric and the kinetic molecular. both of which soueht to "explain" (i.e.. model) heat phenbmena (35-38).

The Manhattan Project In "The Manhattan Proiect" we see a modern example of

science stimulating technology and of the complex science- societv relationships that result. The earlier isolation of science from society was illustrated hy the Royal Society statutes (39) and by a description of the "golden years"at the IJniversity of Gotiingen-;hose years when quantum me- chanics was created in an atmosphere of relative freedom and oeace t401. We thrn contrasted the "eolden vears" with the kra whichfollowed by quoting some atiacks mide on Einstein and his science by Nazis (41). We pointed out that many project scientists were refugees from fascism so that the class might better understand the motivations of these scientists. The nuclear science was developed as it unfolded in the thirties (42-44). and then the nolitics and technolorn of the project itself wai explored (45-47). Finally, a bibliography was provided for students wishing to explore science-technol- bgy-society interactions and questions of scientific freedom and responsibility (48-56).

Man and Superman Our primanaims wirh the"Man and S~~perman" topic were

to alert the students to impending hioethical problems and to force an examination of values. At the ourset WP ohserved thar ihe ultimate control of many important features of life ~mrtabolism. erowih and diffrrentiatinn. hereditv) resides in DNA. After aUhrief summary of DNA research i13, 571, we

Volume 57, Number 6, June 1980 / 431

discussed hioethical problems from the Time reprint "Man and Su~erman": problems associated with genetic engineer- ing, amkocentes&, artificial innovulation, and mind control. The subject of values arose quite naturally from these con- siderations. Bronowski's "Science and Human Values" (25) and "The Identity of Man" (26) were used to direct class conversation on the values generated hy science and their relation w the v a l u e s generated by the nrts. Further references on ethirs and human v a l u e s were supplied 1%-fi0J.

Use of the Chemical Topics In Chemistry Courses The chemical topics, suitably expanded or condensed, can

he profitably transplanted from "The Ascent of Man" course to the chemical curriculum. All five topics have been suc- cessfully used in enlarged form as major components of our chemistry for nonscientists course. Expanded versions of all these tol>lc; wgruld seem appropriate in a history of chemistry course for chemists 161) or nonrhemisrs (6'). One topic rould serve as the suhiect matter of a "winterim" minicourse. Al- chemy has beendeveloped in this way elsewhere (63).

Another way to use the chemical topics is to condense them to lecture length. We have used "The Chemical Revolution" topic as a lecture in our science majors' general chemistry course to stimulate interest in stoichiometry and reinforce earlier lectures on scientific method and measurement. "Science and the Steam Engine" can he used in physical chemistry as an introductory thermodynamics lecture or as part of a Carnot cycle lecture.

A third means of exploiting the chemical topics is to use them as supplementary material: lecture aids, discussion topics, or extra credit exercises. An abridged version of "The Manhattan Project" which emphasizes the nuclear science of the thirties is a very effective way to communicate the prin- c i ~ a l features of radioactivity, transmutation, and fission to general rhemists. A brief referenre i n n lecture to impending bioethical problems can underscore the importance of nurleic acid chemistry and motivate otherwise disinterested students in the biochemistry sections of general chemistry courses.

Conclusions Course evaluations showed that student interest in the five

chemical topics was very high. The three most popular topics were "Alchemy," "The Manhattan Project," and "Man and Superman." More papers were written on each of these three topics thau any other topics in "The Ascent of Man" course. While no papers relevant to "Science and the Steam Engine" were written. students found this t o ~ i c to he interesting and enjoyable. he students, especially t<e nonscientists, we; less enthusiastic about "The Chemical Revolution." Interest in ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~

this topiccould be increased ronsiderahly by adding demon- strations and historical videotapes (64.65).

Student interest in the chemical topics was much easier to measure thau their understanding of the science or of science-society relationships. Comments on student evalua- tions were encouraging, however. Nonscientists expressed a new confidence in their ahility to learn science and a new re- spect for science and technology. Scientists seemed to espe- cially appreciate the attention given the scientific method and the social aspects of science. Both groups judged the chemical tonics to he;nformative and imnortant, --=--- ~~ ~- ~

Lastly, we would like to communicate our enthusiasm for this educational experiment. It has heen deeply satisfying to create-with the help of artists and scientists, students and facub-tonics for the "The Ascent of Man" course and to see thesetopic; enlighten and brighten conventional chemistry courses. It is our sincere hope that these efforts will inspire other attempts to bridge the "two cultures" gap.

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432. 1 Journal o f Chemical Education