CHEMISTRY and the COLLEGE of LIBERAL ARTS

P. W. SELWOOD

Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

C

M UCH current criticism of highet education in But the aims of "progressive education" do not seem to America concerns the college of liberal arts. include any form of mental discipline. The writer is The lack of a guiding principle, the surrender aware that a psychological theory discredits the possi-

to vocational fads, the dilution of course material, and bility of transferring acquired mental technics from one the exaggeration of athletics do not greatly concern the field of learning to another. A misunderstanding of professional institutes or the professional schools of the the scope of this theory has done considerable harm to larger universities. It is important, therefore, to state the progress of scientific teaching. The kind of mental the aims of the college of liberal arts, which was once, training referred to by the writer is applicable to all and can still be, the keystone of the educational system. conscious uses of the healthy human mind. A man is

Almost everyone will agree that the aim of a college not necessarily a historian even if he has a good memory of liberal arts is to give a general education. This is for dates. Training of the mind connotes, to use a helpful a t least in a negative way because it simplifies homely phrase, training to put "two and two together." the problem. The courses in the main should not he The trained mind can take apparently unrelated obser- definitely professional. vations, induce such generalization as may be inherent

In the writer's view the primary aims are fourfold. in the data, and deduce the necessity for such ohserva- The first purpose of a liberal education should be to tions as may be pertinent to the proof of his geueraliza- train the mind. To be sure, this is not a process which tion. Such operations are as much the "method of should start and stop with college. Habits of thought everyday lie" as they are the "method of science." may he most easily inculcated during the high-school It is sometimes difficult to make students, and others, years and should there receive the greatest emphasis. realize that the untrained mind is less useful than the

u d e d mind. One of the duties of the educator is to make the mental training of a student as interesting and more significant than the physical training of an athlete.

A second aim of a liberal education is "to give the students knowledge of and respect for things of which the value is enduring, and has endured." These are the words of Lowell in "What a University President Has Learned." He does not say what these enduring things are. The writer conceives them to be such things as Christian ethics, political and religious freedom, and the common law. And surely no education is complete unless its students have also acquired health, tolerance, and courage, in so far as these virtues may be taught.

A third aim is to equip the students for living the life of their society. One might add, not only to live the l ie, but to live i t constructively and enjoyably. This implies a great range of accomplishments, from being able to earn a living, to being able to enjoy the friend- ship of one's neighbors, from being able to lead one's fellow men along a path of constructive social effort to being able to enjoy a symphony.

The fourth aim of a liberal education may be summed up in the word "broadening." Why is travel consid- wed to be educationally desirable? Because i t "broad- ens" the individual. This means that the traveler sees that alien modes of life seem to work well, perhaps even better than his own. He sees where civilization may have stagnated, owing to resistance to change. He sees where nature has worked and is working her great marvels. No man should be considered educated until he has traveled extensively not only in the geographical world, but in the worlds of chemistry and of astronomy, and above all in the dimension of time, the record of man's accomplishments, for good or bad, through all recorded history.

Whiie subscribing to President Hutchins' criticisms of the American university, the writer does not agree with his suggestions for modification of the curriculum. It is believed that a satisfactory curricufum may be con- structed for achievement of the primary aims outlined above. In order to do so it is necessary to state to what aim each field of learning will contribute, and, if possible, to give a quantitative estimate of the contribu- tion. For this purpose the writer has constructed a table. The four primary aims are abbreviated to (1) mind training, (2) enduring values, (3) living, and (4) broadening. However, in addition to these four, in- cidental but essential contributions are made by cw- tain subjects. For instance, the technic of mathematics is necessary in order to understand physics, chemistry, astronomy, or modern economics. It is also desirable to be able to communicate with one's fellow men al- though this might be included under "living." At any rate, two categories have been added in the table. These are abbreviated to (5) technic, and (6) communi- cation. An effort has been made to suggest quantita- tive significance by giving three stars for superlative performance in the manner popularized by motion pic- ture critics. Finally, it should be added that the writer

will be the first to admit that his table is, to say the least, open to argument.

TABLE 1

Mind Enduring Brood- Tech- Cornmu- ,raining vo1ucr Lining rning nic nicetian

Anthropology (4) x x xx Art and music (5) X I xx r. Astronomy (5) x* x xx Biological sciences (6) xx XI xx Chemistry (7) xxx xx xx

U U X X - Physical education (3) - Physics (6) xxx = xx Political science and soci-

The first conclusion to be drawn from the table is that a liberal education is only to be obtained by studying all the fields of learning commonly taught in colleges. The relative importance of the subjects is as follows.

(1) Philosophy; (2) English literature, history, and mathematics; (3) Chemistry, English composition, modern foreign

literature, and political science and sociology; (4) Biological sciences, physics, psychology, and pub-

lic speaking; (5) Art and music, astronoriry, classics, economics,

geological sciences, andmodern language composition; (6) Anthropology; (7) Physical education.

The table should not necessarily be interpreted to mean that the most important subjects should be taught first, but that they should be taught most intensively.

It is suggested therefore that the basic liberal arts curriculum be made up as follows.

TABLE 2

Cou~rr Smesler hmrs

Philaoophy 10 ~ = ~ l i % h nterature 10

. Hirtory 10 Mathematics 10 Natural science (general) 10 Special science 10 Modern foreign literature and compo=ition 7% Englirh comporition 5 Social sdencen (general) 5 Soeeial sacial odence 5 ~Eychology Public speaking Classics Art and mvsie Physical education

This would leave from twenty to thirty hours avail- able for specialization. The writer believes it to be an essential part of education that the student should study some subject intensively. Specialization is also a prerequisite for admittance to graduate schools.

Nothing has yet been said with regard to the educa- tional value of extracurricular activities. These are no less important than the formal classroom work. The writer would insist that a good college of liberal arts should foster outdoor sports for all, student-faculty social relationships, amateur theatricals, student socie- ties, and the like. He doubts the value of intercollegi- ate sports as now conducted, of fraternities, and of cer- tain other aspects of collegiate life.

With regard to instructional methods in the college of liberal arts, the writer does not feel competent to say much except in relation to the teaching of chemistry and related sciences. This topic will be treated later. The writer does, however, agree with Lowell that "all true mental growth comes from self-education under guidance," and that one of the troubles with higher education is that "instead of applying the principle of self-education there has been too much dragging of youth over the ground in perambulators and wondering why their running does not improve."

It will have been observed that in the proposed cur- riculum there is much more natural science than is com- monly required in liberal,arts colleges. It is necessary, therefore, to defend the inclusion of what may never be of any ':practical" use to the students. "Sir William Beveridge (of the London School of Economics) held the enlightened view that some of the students might beneiit from a general introduction to natural knowl- edge." Sir William's views led to one of the finest books that has come to the writer's attention-Lance- lot Hogben's "Science for the Citizenw- from which the above and the following three sentences are quota- tions.

"Natural science is an essential part of the education of a citizen because scientific discoveries affect the lives of everyone."

"'Science for the Citizen' is written for the large and growing number of intelligent adults who realize that the imfiacl of science on society is now,the focus of genu- inely constructive social effort."

"It is also written for the large and growing number of adolescents, who realize that they will be the 61st vic- tims of the new destructive powers of science misap- nl iw" re---.

"In the course of the last few centuries the scientific approach has been gaining acceptance as the guiding principle for the intellectual activities of Western man." (Gideonse in "The Higher Learning in a Democracy.")

"Modern education must put its main emphasis on the method of science." (Gideonse.)

"Education segregates the scientific specialist from those who study problems of government and social welfare." (Hogben.) What more important function can the college of liberal arts play than to see that the social scientist and the natural scientist are not sepa- rated too soon, and to see that there are men who under- stand the language and the methods of both?

"Science must be interested in the humanistic impli- cations of the scientific habit of mind." (Gideonse.)

Society must be interested in all implications of the scientific habit of mind.

The writer does not believe a student's time could be spent better than by reading "Science for the Citizen." There is enough material here to cover two years' work in the natural sciences. Such work should be followed by one or two years in a special branch of the sciences. This program would retain the virtues of both the his- torical and logical presentations of the sciences. As Hogben says, "Hence science for the citizen must be science as a record of the past and as an inventory for future human achievements. Inevitably i t cannot be divorced from history." But the historical approach to science can also lead to great confusion in the stu- dent's mind. Just why both historical and logical ap- proaches are necessary will be discussed later.

The writer believes that chemistry is able to make certain unique contributions to a liberal education. It may be taken for granted that the "broadening" in- fluence is valuable. Every educated man should know something of atoms and molecules, of the structure of matter, of the great natural laws. What is even more important is the use of chemistry as a vehicle to demon- strate the operation of two aspects of the scientific method. The scientific method consists, in part at least, of the operations: (1) observation, (2 ) reflection, and (3) c o n h a t o r y observation, or considered action. These operations are inherent in practically all chemi- cal progress. The writer does not believe there is any better place to train the mind in this aspect of the sci- entific method than the chemical laboratory. Through the use of carefully designed experiments the student is forced to conduct the three essential mental operations until they become part of his normal mode of thought. Precisely how such experiments may be designed is dis- cussed later.

The other important aspect of the scientific mode of thought is the use of hypotheses dud temporary approxi- mations to the truth. Gideonse, in the "Higher Learn- ing in a Democracy," criticizes the educational pro- posals of President Hutchins with particular reference to Aristotelian metaphysics as follows: "And so under the emotional seduction of having achieved absolute truth, an early and in itself noble stape of thought came to be consid&ed the final siage of &ought."- This is precisely the difficulty that is so effectively combated by the historical approach to chemistry. Nowhere can such vivid presentation be made of the rise, triumph, and fall of beliefs concerning the nature of the universe. The importance in education is that here is repeatedly shown the slippery nature of absolute truth and the nevertheless meat value of temoorarv aooroximations - * .A

to the truth. The phlogiston theory in chemistry marked a great advance. Without it the next and cur- rent approximation to the nature of combustion might have been delayed a hundred years. But the phlogis- ton theory is now known to have been utterly false.

No matter how liberal i t may be desired to keep the cumculum of a liberal arts college, nevertheless there is the fact that many students wish to go on to graduate

schools or to enter professional schools for which certain courses are prerequisite. As a tentative cumculum in chemistry the writer suggests a three-year course de- signed to follow a t least one year of general science. Such a curriculum would include the following: one semester each of advanced general chemistry, of qualita- tive analysis, of quantitative analysis, and of inorganic chemistry; to be followed by a year each of organic and of physical chemistries.

It is now possible to summarize the ohjectives of the chemistry courses. First, to train the mind in the various aspects of the scientific method; second, to in- crease the student's power and enjoyment in the art of living; third, to broaden his horizon regarding the nature of the physical world; and fourth to equip him with such basic training as he may require for admit- tance to professional schools.

It remains to discuss the instructional methods suit- able for the attainment of these ohjectives. These methods are considered a t length in a paper by the writer entitled, "The Course in General Chemistry."' The following is, in part, a modified summary of what is contained in that paper.

It is clear that the ohjectives may be achieved only by a combination of lecture, recitation, and laboratory work. Generally speaking, the second, third, and fourth ohjectives mentioned are to he attained by suit- able course content, but training of the mind is to be achieved by method of presentation.

In the matter of course content, certain criteria may he set up. These are

(1) Is the topic of general significance as regards all or a t least many chemical phenomena?

(2) Does the topic touch everyday experience so closely as to arouse natural curiosity, or even so closely as to he taken for granted?

(3) Is the topic essential to what is generally dis- cussed in the next courses in the abject?

(4) Can the student be expected tor grasp the topic with his present factual and technical equipment?

However, inculcation of "scientific method" de- pends, not on course content, but on approach. In the lecture and recitation rooms efforts should be made to foster the scientific attitude by non-dogmatic presenta-

tion, by insistence on the occasional necessity for sns- pended judgment, and by written exercises designed to relate multiple observations by inductive thinking to general principles. But the best place to teach "sci- entific method" is in the laboratory. Here, too, the objective is to be achieved by form rather than by con- tent of the experiments carried out. It is therefore pos- sible to adopt experiments which achieve the minor objectives of the course provided they are adapted to the primary objective.

This adaptation may be done as follows. The first requirement is a clear, concise statement of the purpose of the experiment, followed by strict limitation of the work to that one purpose. The experiment must have an end. The student should be able to do the experiment, or, better, solwe the problem, with the mental and manual equipment already at his disposal. He should not have to rely on instructor or text for information needed to complete understanding of the problem. He should go, like a research worker, with a certain amount of knowl- edge and he should ask of and receive from nature an extension of that knowledge.

The writer wishes to conclude with a reference to the use of research as an instructional device. "Is i t not too much assumed that productive scholarship must be confined to the large universities and bodies organized for research?" (Lowell.) The small college can scarcely hope to compete with the large university in intrinsic value of the discoveries made. But in the small college, research is to he considered as primarily an instructional device rather than as a device for securing new knowledge. The educatiinal values of research are to he found in the inspiration and training to be oh- tained by contact with men actively engaged in making discoveries. "A large part of educated American youth are trained in our colleges, where their attitude is largely determined by the intellectual enthusiasm of their teachers, and is not this spirit.much heightened by the presence among those teachers of men flushed with the ardor of discovery?" (Lowell.)

In large universities the art of teaching is often neg- lected for the sake of research, and not even research as an educational tool, but as a means to promotion. The writer believes that sma!l liberal arts colleges too often fail to see in research one of their most ~owerful

1 SELWOOD, J. CHEM. EDUC., 16, 466-71 (1939). instructional devices.