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A newspaper columnist, Walter Lippmann argued that the policy of containment could not work because he did not think the U.S. could contain the Soviet Union everywhere. He published his columns about containment in a book he titled, The Cold War. Lippmann came up with the term Cold War to describe a kind of war that did not include bloodshed.


A. The division between Western Europe and Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe was the beginning of the Cold War. The Soviet Union feared the capitalist West. The United States feared communism.

I. Confrontation of the Superpowers (pages

584–586)

B. After World War II, the United States and Great Britain wanted the Eastern European nations to determine their own governments. Stalin feared that the Eastern European nations would be anti-Soviet if they were allowed free elections.


C. In early 1947 President Harry S Truman issued the Truman Doctrine, which stated that the United States would give money to countries threatened by Communist expansion. As stated by Dean Acheson, the U.S. secretary of state, the United States was concerned that communism would spread throughout the free world if left unchecked.


584–586)

President Harry S Truman


D. In June 1947, the European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan, began. This program was set up to rebuild war-torn Europe.

E. The Soviet Union and its economically and politically dependent Eastern European satellite states refused to participate in the Marshall Plan.


584–586)


F. In 1949, the Soviet Union set up the Council for Mutual Assistance (COMECON) as a response to the Marshall Plan. COMECON was established to help the economies of Eastern European states.

G. In 1947, the United States adopted the policy of containment to keep communism within its existing boundaries and prevent further Soviet aggressive moves.


584–586)


H. By 1948, Great Britain, the United States, and France worked to unify the three western sections of Germany and Berlin and create a West German government. The Soviets opposed the creation of a West German state, so they tried to prevent it by setting up a blockade of West Berlin. The United States and Great Britain set up the Berlin Air Lift to fly in supplies to West Berlin. The Soviets ended the blockade of West Berlin in May 1949.


584–586)


I. The Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany, was formally created in September of 1949. A month later, the German Democratic Republic was set up by the Soviets. Berlin was divided into two parts.


584–586)


A. Chinese Communists took control of the government of China in 1949. As a result of the fall of China to communism and the Soviet Union’s explosion of its first atomic bomb in 1949, the Soviet Union and the United States began an arms race, in which both countries built up their armies and weapons.

B. In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed. This military alliance, which included Great Britain, France, other Western European nations, and the United States and Canada, agreed to provide mutual help if any one of them was attacked.

II. Spread of the Cold War (pages 586–588)


C. In 1955, the Soviet Union and Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania formed the military alliance called the Warsaw Pact.

D. The Korean War began in 1950 when the Communist government of North Korea, allied with the Soviet Union, tried to take over South Korea. As a result, the United States extended its military alliances around the world. By the mid-1950s, the United States was in military alliances with 42 nations.



E. The United States, Great Britain, France, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to stop the Soviet expansion in the East. Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Great Britain, and the United States formed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) to stop Soviet expansion to the south.



F. In 1957, the Soviets sent Sputnik I, the first man-made space satellite, to orbit the earth. Americans feared there was a missile gap between the Soviet Union and the United States.

G. In August 1961, on the order of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, the East German government began to build a wall between West Berlin and East Berlin in order to stop the flow of East Germans escaping into West Berlin.



H. In 1959, President Kennedy approved a secret plan for Cuban exiles to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs and revolt against the Soviet-supported Cuban dictator, Fidel Castro. The invasion failed.

I. The Soviet Union sent arms and military advisers to Cuba. In 1962 Khrushchev began to place nuclear missiles in Cuba.



J. In October 1962, President Kennedy found out that Soviet ships carrying nuclear missiles were headed to Cuba. So he ordered a blockade of Cuba to stop the ships from reaching Cuba.

K. Khrushchev agreed to send the ships back and remove nuclear missiles in Cuba if Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba. Kennedy agreed.

L. The Cuban missile crisis brought the world close to nuclear war.



A. The Vietnam War had an important impact on the Cold War. Its purpose was to keep the Communist government of North Vietnam from gaining control of South Vietnam.

B. U.S. policy makers applied the domino theory to the Vietnam War. According to this theory, if South Vietnam fell to communism, then other countries in Asia would fall like dominoes to communism.

III. Vietnam and the Domino Theory (page 589)


C. An antiwar movement escalated in the United States as a result of the growing number of American troops sent to Vietnam and the mounting destruction of the war, which was brought into American homes by television.


American student opposition to the Vietnam War was one of the strongest causes for student unity.


D. President Johnson decided not to run for reelection because of public opinion against his handling of the war. Former Republican vice-president Richard M. Nixon won the election with the promise to end the war and reunite the American people. In 1973, Nixon reached an agreement with North Vietnam allowing the United States to withdraw its troops. Within two years, Vietnam was forcibly reunited by Communist armies from the North.



During Nikita Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization program, the government destroyed pictures and statues of Stalin. Many places named after Stalin, such as Stalingrad and Stalin Peak, were renamed during this program to dishonor Stalin.


A. The economy of the Soviet Union was devastated by World War II. To create a new industrial base, goods were produced almost exclusively for export. The money from export goods was used to buy machinery and Western technology.

I. Recovery Soviet-Style (pages 593–594)


B. By 1950, the Soviet Union had built new power plants, canals, and giant factories. Heavy industry, the manufacture of machines and equipment for factories and mines, increased. The development of the hydrogen bomb in 1952 and the launch of the first space satellite, Sputnik I, in 1957 made the Soviet Union a world power.

C. In 1946, the Soviet government said that all literary and scientific work must conform to the political needs of the state.



D. Stalin died in 1953.

E. After Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev became the chief policy maker in the Soviet Union. Under his leadership, de-Stalinization, or the process of eliminating some of Stalin’s ruthless policies, was put in place.



F. Khrushchev loosened government controls on literature. For example, he allowed the publication of a work by Alexander Solzhenitsyn that depicted life in a Siberian forced-labor camp. He tried to increase the production of consumer goods and agricultural output.

G. Khrushchev’s attempts to increase agricultural output failed and the industrial growth rate also declined. In 1964, he was forced into retirement.



A. After World War II, Soviet-controlled Communist governments took control of Eastern European countries. However, in Albania, the Communist government grew increasingly independent of the Soviet Union.

B. After World War II, Yugoslavia, led by Josip Broz or Tito, was an independent Communist state until Tito’s death in 1980.

II. Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain (pages 594–

596)


C. Between 1948 and 1953, Eastern European satellite states instituted Soviet-type five year plans with emphasis on heavy industry. They began to collectivize agriculture. They set up secret police and military forces.


596)


D. After Stalin’s death many Eastern European states tried to make reforms. The Soviet Union, however, made it clear—especially in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia—that it would not allow its Eastern European satellites to become independent.


596)

Soviet tanks in Hungary


E. In 1956 revolts against communism erupted in Poland and a series of reforms were adopted. Fearful of a Soviet armed response, however, the Poles pledged to remain loyal to the Warsaw Pact.

F. In 1956, after calls for revolt from Soviet control, Hungarian leader Imre Nagy declared Hungary a free nation. Three days later, Soviet troops attacked Budapest and reestablished control of the country.


596)


G. In January 1968, Alexander Dubček was elected first secretary of the Communist party in Czechoslovakia. He introduced reforms to the country, including freedom of speech and press. By August 1968 the Soviet Army invaded Czechoslovakia and crushed the reform movement and reestablished Soviet control.


596)


West Germany produced the richest economy in Western Europe by the mid-1950s. The West German economy was based on free enterprise and provided state insurance for all workers.


A. The Marshall Plan helped the countries of Western Europe recover relatively rapidly from the devastation of World War II. The 1950s and 1960s were periods of dramatic economic growth and prosperity in Western Europe.

I. Western Europe: Recovery and New Unity (pages 598–600)

German bridge


B. For almost 25 years after World War II, France was mostly led by Charles de Gaulle. He established the Fourth Republic, which featured a strong parliament and a weak presidency. But the government was largely ineffective, and de Gaulle withdrew from politics. He returned in 1958 and established the Fifth Republic, which featured a strong presidency. De Gaulle became the first president of the Fifth Republic. France became a major industrial producer and exporter. Government deficits and a rise in the cost of living led to unrest. De Gaulle resigned from office in 1969.



C. From 1949 to 1963, Konrad Adenauer, leader of the Christian Democratic Union, served as chancellor of West Germany. Under Adenauer’s leadership and that of the minister of finance, Ludwig Erhard, West Germany’s economy was revived. The unemployment rate fell greatly. Erhard became chancellor from 1963 to 1969. The Social Democratic Party, led by Willy Brandt, became West Germany’s leading political party in 1969.



D. At the end of World War II, Great Britain had large economic problems. The Labour Party, which promised far-reaching reforms, defeated Churchill’s Conservative Party. Prime Minister Clement Attlee and the Labour Party created a modern welfare state—a state in which the government takes responsibility for providing citizens with services and a minimal standard of living. The British welfare state became the norm for most European states after the war.



E. The cost of building a welfare state caused Great Britain to dismantle the British Empire. Many British colonies gained their independence.

F. After World War II, many Europeans wanted European unity. Nationalism, however, was too strong for European nations to give up their sovereignty. Instead the countries focused on economic unity.



G. In 1957, France, West Germany, the Benelux countries, and Italy created the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the Common Market. The six-member nations would impose no tariffs on each other’s goods.

H. By the 1960s, the EEC was an important trading bloc—a group of nations with a common purpose.



A. Between 1945 and 1970, the ideals of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal determined the patterns of American domestic politics.

B. Prosperity at home and Cold War struggles abroad characterized the 1950s in the United States.

C. Between 1945 and 1973 real wages—the actual purchasing power of income—grew an average of 3 percent a year.

II. American Dominance (pages 600–602)


D. The Cold War led to widespread fear that Communists had infiltrated the United States. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy charged that hundreds of communists were in high government positions. This created a massive “Red Scare.”

E. President John F. Kennedy, the youngest elected president of the United States, was assassinated in 1963. Vice President Lyndon Johnson became president and was elected in a landslide victory to another term in 1964.



F. President Johnson’s Great Society programs included health care for the elderly, measures to fight poverty, and aid to education.

G. The U.S. civil rights movement began in 1954 with the Supreme Court ruling that made racial segregation in public schools illegal.

H. In 1963 the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., a leader of the civil rights movement, led a march on Washington, D.C., for equality. He advocated the use of passive disobedience in gaining racial equality.



I. President Johnson worked for civil rights. In 1964 the Civil Rights Act helped end segregation and discrimination in the workplace and in public places. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 made it easier for African Americans to vote in southern states.

J. In 1965, race riots began in the Watts district of Los Angeles. In 1968, after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., race riots broke out in over a hundred cities in the United States.



K. The race riots caused a “white backlash” and racial division in the U.S. continued.

L. As the Vietnam War continued through the second half of the 1960s, antiwar protests throughout the United States grew.

M. Republican Richard M. Nixon was elected president based on his “law and order” campaign in 1968.



N. After World War II, Canada increased its industrial development. Much of the Canadian growth was financed by people from the United States, leading to U.S. ownership of many Canadian businesses. Some Canadians feared American economic domination of Canada.

O. Canada was a founding member of the UN in 1945 and joined NATO in 1949.

P. The Liberal government of Canada created a welfare state by enacting a national social security system and a national health insurance program.



A. Postwar Western society had a changing social structure. Managers and technicians joined the middle-class groups. The number of people in farming declined dramatically. The number of industrial workers declined as white-collar workers increased. A consumer society developed as the real wages increased.

B. Buying on credit became widespread in the 1950s. The automobile was a sign of consumerism.

III. Changing Values in Western Society (pages

603–605)


C. Women in many Western countries had gained the right to vote after World War I. Women in France and Italy gained voting rights in 1945.

D. Women who had worked during World War II returned to traditional roles.

E. Birthrates rose, creating a “baby boom” in the late 1940s and the 1950s.


603–605)


F. By the end of the 1950s, birthrates declined. Married women entered the workforce. Women earned much less than men did for equal work. Many women worked and raised families at the same time.

G. By the late 1960s, women renewed their interest in the women’s liberation movement. The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir influenced both the American and European women’s movements.


603–605)


H. Growing discontent in European and U.S. universities led students to revolt in the late 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, student rebels became middle-class professionals.


603–605)

Student protester facing policeman in Paris.


Chapter SummaryFollowing World War II, two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, engaged in a Cold War that was fought around the globe.


First secretary of the Communist Party after Stalin’s death, Khrushchev eventually came to be the sole Soviet ruler. In 1956, he denounced the rule of Stalin, arguing that “Stalin showed in a whole series of cases his intolerance, his brutality and his abuse of power. . . . He was a very distrustful man, sickly suspicious. Everywhere and in everything he saw enemies, two-facers, and spies.”

Khrushchev alienated other Soviet leaders by his policy in Cuba. He had other problems with the higher Soviet officials as well. They frowned on his tendency to crack jokes and play the clown. They also were displeased when he tried to curb their privileges.

1894–1971Soviet leader

Nikita Khrushchev

Charles de Gaulle had an unshakable faith in his mission to restore the greatness of the French nation. De Gaulle followed a military career and, before World War II, he argued for a new type of mobile tank warfare. After France fell to the Nazis, he fled to Britain and became leader of the French Resistance.

As president of France, de Gaulle realized that France was wasting its economic strength by maintaining its colonial empire. By 1962, he had granted independence to France’s black African colonies and to Algeria. At the same time, he believed that playing an important role in the Cold War would enhance France’s stature. For that reason, he pulled France out of NATO, saying that France did not want to be an American “vassal state.”

1890–1970French president

Charles de Gaulle

A prominent French intellectual, Simone de Beauvoir became a major voice in the European feminist movement. Born into a Catholic middle-class family and educated at the Sorbonne in Paris, she supported herself as a teacher and later as a novelist and writer.

De Beauvoir believed that she lived a “liberated” life for a twentieth-century European woman. Despite all her freedom, she still came to perceive that, as a woman, she faced limits that men did not: “What particularly signalizes the situation of woman is that she—a free autonomous being like all human creatures—nevertheless finds herself in a world where men compel her to assume the status of the Other.”

1908–1986French author

Simone de Beauvoir

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