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Chapter IX Middle Classes in Mughal Miniatures

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Chapter IX

Middle Classes in Mughal Miniatures

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[10] Depiction of

Middle Class Professionals in Mughal Miniatures

Mughal miniature paintings have since long been appreciated for their

aesthetic value. Some scholars have also utilized the Mughal miniatures as a source

for reconstructing the material culture of the Mughal period.'"^^ Yet no attempt

appears to have been made to exploit the Mughal miniatures to help reconstructing

various aspects of social history.

A study of the Mughal society from the fore going chapters reveals the

existence of a "middle-class" comprising of the physicians, architects, teachers,

scholars, poets, painters, musicians and a large nimiber of master craftsmen, apart

from the merchants wAo made their living by selling their professional skill. The

Mughal School of painting, xmlike the Persian and Pre-Mughal Indian schools of

paintings, being more attuned to realism depicts the members of this class with

much accuracy. In fact a number of premises fonnulated by a reading of the textual

evidence get confirmed if collated with the information revealed by the Mughal

miniatures. The extreme emphasis on accuracy of portraiture and the realistic

depiction of historical events was the hallmark of the paintings made under Akbar

and his siuxessors.

Learned Professions:

Amongst the middle classes, members of the learned professions appear to

be the most numerous in depictions in the Mughal miniatures. A total number of

'**' S.P. Verma, Art and Material Culture in the Paintings ofAkbar's Court, New Delhi, 1978; Ahsan J.Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture (AD. 1498 - 1707), Delhi, 1982; idem. Building Construction in Mughal India: The Evidence from Painting, Delhi, 1988; idem, 'Agricultural Technology Depicted in Mughal Paintings, Itinerario, vol.XVl, no.2, 1992, Leiden, pp.61-84; Rana Firdaus, "Professions and Craft as Depicted in Mughal paintings", M.Phil dissertation (unpublished) AMU, 1985; SR Sarnia, "Astronomical Instruments in Mughal Miniatures", in Inge Wezler (ed.). Studies zur Indologie und Iranistk, Reinbek, 1992

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sixty-four Mughal paintings (including 8 margin depictions) are devoted to the

members of this section of the middle class. Around 48% of these representions

belong to the reign of Akbar.

TABLE I

Total REIGN Teachers Scholars Poets Calligraphers

Paintings

AKBAR

JAHANGIR

IHAHJAHAN

TOTAL

31

26

14

64

7

7

5

12

14

7

4

25

5

4

3

12

5

8

2

15

Amongst the learned professions depicted, largest number is that of the

ubiquitous 'scholars': the learned men depicted with books, pens and inkstands. The

second largest number is that of the calligraphers; who were more represented

imder Jahangir. Almost invariably the dress code of the teachers and scholars

was similar to that of the ulema. Most of them have been depicted wearing a long

wide-sleeved qaba over an ankle- length Jama which was held in place with the

help or a simple/Taf^a or katzeb. V^spatka in the case of teachers and scholars was

mostly plain, and was possibly made of cotton.''*^ The dress of the older poets

depicted in the Mughal miniatures resembles the attire of the ulema and the

'*^ See for example "A Scholar and his Pupil", attributed to Mir Sayyid Ali, Edwin Binney 3"* Collection, Brooklines, Massachusetts, cf. Brand and Lowry, Akbar's India: Art from the Mughal City of Victory, New york, 1985, p.l03, pl.67; "Shaikh Husain Jami & Attendant", signed by Govardhan, Musee Guimet, Paris, no. 7173, cf. Amina Okada, Imperial Mughal Painters, Indian Miniatures from l(f'' & 17* Century, tr. Deke Dusinberre, Flammarion, Paris, p. 198, pi. 234

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scholars'^^ but in the case of younger members of this aesthetic profession, the

resemblance is much more with the members of the bureaucracy and nobles. The

most distinguishing feature of the Mughal attire was the dastar or turban. It was the

dastar which signified the social status and dignity of a person.''* ' This dastar was

folded in loops which could be crosswise, circular or oblique on either a cap (kulah)

or directly on the head,'"* " Our paintings testify that the teachers mostly tied very

heavy turbans, (See Chart I, % 12, 18, 19, 20, 22) which' were tied in oblique

loops. All these turbans were made of a unicolor piece of cloth.''* ' In one m~rgin

painting a teacher is shown sporting a turban (Chart I, fig. 17) which was tied by

twisting the cloth in the shape of a rope.''*^^

It is interesting to note that whenever a teacher is depicted, he is shown

along with his pupils and books. They are invariably shown seated either on a

platform or on a mat. The importance of imparting knowledge during the reign of

Akbar can be gauged firom the fact that under him two paintings of madrasa and

one of pathshala were commissioned.' ^^ The pundits while teaching, are shown

'**' For example, "Zafar Khan with Poets and Scholars", attributed to Bishandas, Masnavi of Zafar Khan, Royal Asiatic Society, London, MS.,Pcrs.310,#19 (b)-20 (a), cf. Amina Okada, op.cit.. pl.l94; "Poetry Recital", (first quarter of the seventeenth century) cf. AJ Qaisar, Indian Response to European Technology, op.cit., pl.9; "Portrait of Jam Qudsi", by Bichitr, Art Gallery, Indian Museum, Calcutta, no.33, cf. Percy Brown, Indian Painting under the Mughals AD 1550 to AD 1750, Oxford, 1924, pl.61, fig.1. ' "Poet & Listener", margin decoration by Goverdhan in Muraqqa-i Gulshan, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Nasli & Heerman Collection, no.M.78.9.11r., cf Amina Okada, op.cit., pl.231. '**' For a discussion on the turban of the king, nobility and working classes, see SP Verma, Art and Material Culture, op.cit., pp.49-50 """/fcW.,p.50 '*" See for example, "A School Scene", painted by Dharamdas, Khamsa of Amir Khusrau, Walter Art Gallery, Baltimore, W.613,/26 (b), cf Rumer Godden, Gulbadan: A Portrait of a Rose Princess at the Mughal Court. New York, 1980, pi. p.37; "A School Master & His Pupil", cf. Brand & Lowry, Akbar's India, op.cit., pl.42; "Prince with his Teacher", cf. Miniatures in Lahore Museum Collections, vol.1, ed. M.Baqir, The Panjabi Adabi Academy, Lahore, 1964, pl.8 etc. 1452 "Teacher and Student", Margin Painying by Govardhan, in Jahangir's Album, State Libray, Berlin, MS. 117,/ 25 (b), cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 232 '"'' "A madrasa scene", painted by Lai & Sanwala, Khamsa-i Nizami, Keir Collection, Pontresina, 119 (a), cf BW Robinson, Islamic Painting and the Arts of Book, London, 1976, pi.112; "A School Scene", painted by Dharamdas, op.cit.; "A School outside the walls of a Town", by Asi Kahar, Razmnama, John Frederck lewis Collection, Philadelphia, cf. SP Verma, Mughal Painters and their Work: A

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wearing very small turbans (Chart I, Figs. 4 & 28) lightly placed on their heads.''* '*

As far as the pupils are concerned, in most cases they appear to be princes or young

high bom gentlemen. It is only in one case that a student appears to belong to a

lower stratum of society.'"^^ But then possibly, the artist was here giving vent to his

imagination while trying his hand on a Western theme.

The scholars in the Mughal miniatures are similarly identifiable with the

help of the books and pen either in their hands or placed nearby, hi most of the

cases their dastars were similar to the das tars adorning the heads of the theologians

(Chart I, Figs. 11, 18, 22-27). Some times they simply wore a Kulah without a

turban.''''* (Chart I, Fig. 34).

The dastars of the poets were generally shorter than those of the scholars &

ulema, though much similar in resemblance (Chart I, Figs. 12, 23).''**^ Sometimes

they resembled the turbans of the nobihty, yet were more simpler in make(Chart I,

Figs. 8 & 12).''''*

Unlike the dastar of the teachers, scholars and the poets, the dastars of the

calUgraphers were quite dissimilar to the headgear of the theologians(Chart I, Figs.

4, 10, 14 & 16). Only in a. few cases were they tied over a fcu/a/i(Chart I, Fig.

15).''*'' Surprisingly they are never shown wearing a qaba. Mostly depicted in the

knee-long Mughal jama, shalwar, or trousers which were crinkled aroimd and

Bibliographical Survey and Comprehensive Catalogue (henceforth: A Catalogue), OUP, 1994, sv. Asi Kahar. '"" See for example, "Sa'di's Visit to Somnath", by Bishandas, Bostan-i Sa 'di, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 185 '*" "Two Students", attributed to Manohar, Nasli & Alice Heeranek Collection, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, New York, no.L.69.24.251, cf Amina Okada, op.cit.. pi.164 '*'* For example, "A Learned Man", attributed to Basawan, cf Brand & Lowry, op.cit., pl.41 '^'' "Poetry Recital", cf AJ Qaisar, Indian Response to European Technology, op.cit., pi.9; "Portrait of Muhammad Jam Qudsi", by Bichitr, op.cit. '^'* "Poet & Listener", margin Painting by Govardhan in Muraqqa-i Gulshan, op.cit.; "Zafar Khan in the Company of Poets and Scholars", op.cit. '*" "Babur dictating his Memoirs to a scribe", unsigned. State Library, Rampur, cf P.Brown, op.cit., pl.V.

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below the knees, they are, depicted with a shawl casually draping their

shoulders.''*^ Like the nobility they could tie silken & brocaded/^a/^as/'**^

True to their profession, the calligraphers are depicted along with

their long reed pens, pen-boxes, slates and sheets of paper.''' ^

Interestingly enough, the number of depictions of this Learned Class

comprising of the Teachers, Scholars, poets and Calligrapher keeps declining fixjm

the reign of Shahjahan. It is only in the case of Calligraphers, that there is a rise

during the reign of Jahangir over Akbar, only to decline to only two under

Shahjahan. (See Table I, supra).

Medical Profession:

In Mughal India, like the other professions, we find the physician's

profession had also gained prominence. Mughal Persian sources like Ain-i-Akbari,

Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh, Ma'asir-i Rahimi, Tabaqat-j Akbari, Padshahnama of

Lahori and the Ma'asir-i Alamgiri all point out the pre-eminence of the physicians.

Abul Fazl, Nizamuddin Ahmad and Lahori while listing ulema and poets also

enumerate the prominent physicians of their period.'^^ The Mughal Emperors

appear to have taken considerable interest in patronising them. A sizeable number

of these physicians were given service in various capacities and were also

' "Daulat painting Abdur Rahim Ambarin Qalam", Khamsa-i Nizami, Dyson-Perrins Collection, Malvern, BM. Or.12208,/325 (b), cf. Pageant of Indian Art (Catalogue of Festival of India in Great Britain), ed. Saryu Doshi, Marg Pubn., Bombay, 1983, pi. 12; "Scribe Abdur Rahim al-Haravi & his helper", painted by Anant, Anwar-i Suhaili. Bharat Kala Bhawan, BHU, no.9069,/ 242, cf. SP Verma, "Miniatures of Anwar-j Suhaili", RoopLekha, vol. 44, no.1-2,1977, pl.l70 '**' "Scribe Mir Abdullah Katib at Work", attributed to Nanha, Diwan-i Amir Hasan, Art Gallery, Baltimore, pi. 6 (a), cf. AK Das, Mughal Painting During Jahangir's Time, Calcutta, 1978, pi. 8 (a); "Calligrapher and Painter", Anwar-i Suhaili, Colophon, Bharat ICala Bhawan, Banaras,/ 87 (a), cf AK Das, Ibid., pl.8 (b) etc. 1462 „^ Scribe", C.1625, Fogg Art Museum, cf Amina Okada, op.cit., pl.39; "Scribe Mir Abdullah Mushkin Qalam", attributed to Nanha, op.cit.; Margins of "Potrait of Saiyyid HidayatuUah Sadr^, by Daulat, Shahjahan Album, Baron Maurice Rothschild Collection, Paris, cf P.Brown, op.cit., pill. For a detailed discussion on the portraits of calligraphers see Verma, "Portraits of the Calligr^hers depicted in the Mughal miniatures - A Historical Study", Islamic Culture, Hyderabad, vol.54, no.3, 1980, pp. 175-6; and AK Das, "Calligraphers & Painters in early Mughal Paintings", Chhavi, II, Banaras. '** For physicians, see Supra

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374

sometimes assigned mansabs (see Table II).

Table II

Reign

AKBAR

JAHANGIR

SHAHJAHAN

Total

Physicians

42

19

24

Those

holding

Mansabs

8

7

15

Depicted

1

1

1

Physicians

who did

not enjoy

mansabs

34

12

9

Depicted

8

2

-

The Mughal miniatures too reflect their prosperity. Out of the total sixteen

miniatures which I have been able to consult which depict the physicians, eight

belong to the reign of Akbar.

TABLEm

Reign

AKBAR

JAHANGIR

SHAHJAHAN

Actual

Portraits

-

3

1

Court

4

-

-

General

4

-

-

Bazar

-

1

-

ToUl

Paintings

8

7

1

This talhes with the fact that, Akbar had the largest number of physicians

under him. In the subsequent reigns their numbers probably declined, yet as far as

their status is concerned it appears to have remarkably improved. Physicians like

Muqarrab Khan, Alimuddin Wazir Khan and Muqarrab Khan rose to the mansabs

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of 5000.''*^ Muqarrab Khan and Masihuzzaman were given important

administrative assignment of the port-officer ship of Surat.'"* * And ultimately

Muqarrab Khan rose to the position of the governor ship of Gujarat.''*^^

Mughal miniatures reflect this growing prosperity of the medical profession.

Under Jahangir we find the depiction of this physician standing amongst the

courtiers. He can be identified basically fi-om an inscription "shabih-i Muqarrab

Khan"}^^ In all the depictions he is shown wearing a white silken dastar (Chart I,

Fig. 1) with a golden design. This attire is typical of a Mughal noble, with the

exception that he is always shown wearing sober colours. Unlike him, the other

physician-bureaucrat, Masihuzzaman khan is depicted donning a dress which is

typical to the attire of the scholars and ulema}'^^

The Mughal miniatures confirm the stray remark of Manucci that there was a

hierarchical division amongst the physician serving the kings and the princes.''*^' In

three or four miniatures, a chief physician is depicted tending the patient along with

his sub-ordinate colleagues.''*'° The practice of setting private clinics in the bazars by

the physicians also finds place in the Mughal miniatures. A miniature attributed

randomly to Abul Hasan, and pertaining to the reign of Jahangir depicts a physician

'*** Farid Bhakkari, Zakhira tul Khawanin, ed. Moin-ul Haque, Karachi, 1961-74, vol.1, pp.243 - 44; Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, ed., Saiyid Ahmad Khan, Ghazipur, 1863, vol.11, pp.37 - 59; Lahori, Badshahnama, ed. K.Ahmad & Abdur Rahman, Calcutta, 1867, vol.11, pp.724. ' ^ ' For Masihuzzaman and other mutasaddis of Sural, see supra '*** For Muqarrab Khan's biography, see supra. '** "Jahangir Amongst his Courtiers", Victoria & Albert Museum, IM. 9 - 1925 cf. Ivan Stchoukine, La Peinture Indienne A L 'Epoque des Grands Moghols, Paris, 1929, pi. xxviii; "Jahangir being offered food by Dervishes", Jahangimama, Edward Binney 3"* Collection, San Diego, cf AK Das, Splendour of Mughal Painting, Bombay, 1986, pI.V; "Jahangir holding his Court in a Garden", State Library, Rampur, no.l / 5, cf. P.Brown, op.cit, pl.65. 1468 "Portrait of Hakim Sadra, Masiuz Zaman", signed by Mir Hashim, Folio of an Album, British Museum, Add. 18801, no.30, cf P.Brown, op.cit., pl.65 '**' Manucci, Storia do Mogor, tr. & Introdn., W.Irvine, Calcutta, 1966, vol.11, p.215 '*™ See "Babur stricken by illness in Samarqand", signed by Nama, Babwnama, BM. Or.3714,/79 (a), cf. Miniatures of Babumama, Samarqand, 1969, pi.8; "Doctors and Patient", signed by Mirza Ghulam, Diwan-i Hasan Dehlavi, Walter Arts Gallery, W.650,/ 127, cf Amina Okada, op.ci7.,pl.l20; "One physician killing Another", signed by Miskina, Khamsa-i Nizami, BM. Or. 12208, (Dyson-Perrins Collection)/23 (b) cf Amina Okada, op.a7.,pll.l43

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sitting under a shamiana on a platform, and advising an old patient.''*'' All around the

old physician (or was he just a druggist?) on the platform are displayed vials, bottles,

jars, cups and bags containing a number of drugs, viz. sufiif (powder), sharbats

(syrups) and '^arq (medicinal liquid extracts). A number of books are at hand, as is a

small mortar and pestle to mix the medicines. On one of the bottles is inscribed

'sharbat-i diq'' (syrup for consumption). Every bottle and bag is labelled. Behind the

physician stands a boy, who probably acted as his assistant.

The physicians' attire under the Mughals appears to have resembled that of the

religious classes: their dastar (Chart I, Figs. 11, 12, 13, 15, and 36) were heavy and

circular in shape. Their yamas were shorter than those of the mullas, and were only

upto the knees, and had (unlike ih& jamas of the religious classes) tight sleeves. The

physicians are frequently shown wearing a shawl.

The perusal of the Mughal miniatures shows that the artist, to mark the

presence of a physician, would always place nearby a mortar and a pestle to signify

the mixing of the drugs. In most of these paintings a yoimg man or a woman is

depicted sitting preparing the medicines with this ahandasta.

The Mughal physicians, as we have earlier seen in another chapter, were also

pharmacologists. Was the depiction of the preparation of medicines in the presence of

the physicians diagnosing their patients due to this fact?

The profession of Nurses and Midwives is also mentioned "in our sources. The

statement of Fryer to the effect that the services of midwives and nurses were needed

only by the rich'^^ is also partially supported by our paintings. The royal birth scenes

"*" "An Old Man Consults a Doctor", Bostan-i Sa'di, Aboulala Soudavar Collection,/176r, cf. SC Welch, et. al.. The Emperor's Album: Images of Mughal India, New York, 1987, fig.25 '* ' John Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia in Eight Letters Being Nine Years Travel Begun 1627 & Finished 1681, Delhi, 1985, p.ll5

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depict nurses and midwives.''*'^ Their garb consisted of '"a long flowing dress from

neck to ankles known as peshwaz and a bhadar. Sometimes they would also don a

kulah (cap) Uke a Turkish cap (Chart I, Fig. 32).

Astrologers & Astronomers:

As seen in an earlier chapter, the profession of the astrologers and the

astronomers was equally important. This profession has been much depicted in the

Mughal miniatures.

In the 10 miniatures (out of which 8 belong to the reign of Akbar) pertaining

to the theme, 19 astrologers have been depicted, three of whom are Hindus. "" ^ Like

the Muslim astrologers, they are shown wearing the Jama, which however, was tied to

the left, and a pair of tight fitted trousers. The Dastars of the Hindu astrologers was

smaller in size (Chart I, Figs. 28, 29 & 38) than those of the Muslim astrologers,

which were larger and heavier (Chart I, Figs.5, 11,12,13,19 & 32). Interestingly one

of the Hindu astrologers is depicted with a tilak on his forehead.''*^* Was he a

brahmin? We know of two very famous Hindu astrologers of Akbar's court, Jotik Rai

Nilkantha and Krishna Dwaijna."*^^ The same painting depicts two Hindu astrologers,

one, an old man with the tilak, and the other, a young man. Are they Nilkantha and

Krishna? If so, then who is the well dressed dark complexioned Hindu court-

astrologer standing before 'Akbar, presenting the horoscope of Salim written in

devnagari script?'^'' His dress betrays his high status and affinity to the coiirt. Is he

then the Jotik Rai of Akbar's Court?

'"'^ "Rejoicings at the Birth of Salim", signed by Kesav Kalan & Dharamdas, Akbamama, V &A, IS, 2 - 1896, no.l 17, pi. 78, cf. Geeti Sen, Paintings from the Akbamama, Varanasi, 1984, pl.56, etc. ^"* "News of Salim's birth brought to Akbar", signed by Kesav Kalan & Chitra, Akbarnama, V & A, IS - 2 - 1896, no.l 17, pl.79, cf Geeti Sen, op.cit., pl.3 & 58 (detail); "The Birth of Prince Khun^m", attributed to Bishandas, Jahangirnama, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Inv. 14. 657, cf Amina Okada, op.cit., pi.191. ' ' ' "Birth of Prince Khurram", attributed to Bishandas, op.cit. ''' * SR Sarma, "Astronomical Instruments in Mughal Miniatures", op.cit., pp.256 - 57 '*" "Akbar Receiving News of Salim's Birth", signed by Kesav Kalan & Chitra, op.cit.

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As far as the Muslim astrologers are concerned, they resemble (as per the

statements of Mundy) the theologians in their attire. In their case the sleeves of the

jama were wide and they wore either a shawl or donned a qaba on top of it.

The ^^bazar"^ astrologers referred to by Manucci'"*'* have been depicted by the

Mughal painters as well. A miniature of the Akhlaq-i Nasiri, painted sometime

between 1590-95 depicts a bazar scene, where an astrologer, just as in the case of the

bazar physician, is seen sitting on a platform shielded by a shamiana, accompanied

with the tools of his trade: a few books, a sand-clock, a box, and an astrolabe. Behind

him stands his assistant, a young boy.''* ' He is surrounded by a predominantly female

clientele. Just as the mortar and pestle of the physician, he annoimces his presence by

the astrolabe on a tripod. His receipts by way of fee are stored in three small bags of

money.

Another such astrologer is depicted by Govardhan, the painter of Shah Jahan.

He is shown amidst a rural setting.' *" Like the bazar astrologer, he sits in fix)nt of his

hut consulting a book, surroimded by a rural clientele. His astronomical instruments -

an astrolabe, an inkpot, a globe and a sand clock - are strewn all aroimd.

A few representations of astronomers too are to be found in our paintmgs. Just

like their astrologer friends, the astronomers too are depicted along with their

instruments: the sand-clock, the books, the astrolabe and, most importantly the ring

dial.'"**' Basically depicted aboard vessels' *^, the astronomers wear the long flowing

'"^ Manucci, op.cit., I, p.205. '^^ "Bazar Astrologer with his Clients", Akhlaq-i Nasiri. Prince Sadruddin Agha Khan Collection, Museum Rietzberg, Zurich, cf. SR Sanna, "Astronomical Instruments", op.cir.,pl.lO "•*" "Astrologer and the Holy Men", Govardhan, Shahjahan Album, Musee Guimet, Paris, MA2471, cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 224. '"*' See for example "An Astronomer", on a margin of Jahangir's Album, Naprtek, Prague, cf. SR Sarma, "Astronomical Instruments", op.cit., pi. 8 '**- "Babur, proceeding in a Convoy of Boats is presented with a Fish", signed by Miskin & Shankar, Babumama, Keir Collection, Pontresina, V,43, cf. BW Robinson, Islamic painting and the Arts of the Book (The Keir Collection), London, 1976, pl.34; "Babur's Boats", signed by Khem, Babumama,

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jama with full sleeves and dastars (Chart I, Figs. 13,21, 30 & 36).

Architects & Engineers:

Another 'middle-class' profession which was of consequence was that of the

architects and engineers. The hectic building construction activity under the Mughals

is beyond dispute. Apart from the royalty and the nobihty, the members of the lower

social groups like petty bureaucrats, who otherwise kept on complaining of paucity of

money and office, are also credited with having taken an active interest in building

their houses at large expenses.''**^ Abul Fazl devoted a full ain on the building

establishment,''* '* yet no Mughal source, be it Abul Fazl himself, Khwand Amir,

Badauni, Nizamuddin Ahmad, or Lahori, mention the name of Mughal architect, as

had been done in the case of the scholars, physicians and poets.''**^ A perusal of our

sources point out that the work of building construction was headed by an officer who

supervised the construction of a building or an edifice, known as Mir-i Imarat. Below

him in the hierarchy was the chief-architect, the saramad- i me' maran who was

sometimes simply called me'mar. Under him were the masons (me 'mars) and other

master-craftsmen. Another very important professional involved in the building

construction activity was the Naqshanawis or the Plan drawer.''**^

Our Mughal miniatures offer a faithfiil record the presence of these

professionals. In a number of paintings depicting the construction activity is depicted

a well-attired individual, usually on a raised platform and flanked by attendants and

Samarqand, 1969, pl.31; "Noah's Ark", attributed to Miskin, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC, no.48.8. cf. SC Welch, Imperial Mughal Painting, London, 1978, pl.9. '*'' See for example, Bayazid Bayat, Tazkira-i Humayun wa Akbar, ed. Hidayat Hosein, Calcutta, 1941, pp. 375, 376; Sural Singh, Tazkira-i Pir Hassu Taili, MS. Research Library, Department of History, AMU,# 176 (a), 181 (b); Bhimsen, Nuskha-i Dilkusha, MS. BM. Or. 23 (Rotograph, Deptt.of History, AMU),/ 24 (b) etc. '*** Ain-i Akbari, Nawal Kjshore, vol.1, 'a/n-/ imarat', p.l 17. '*" See Ahsan J Qaisar, Building Construction in Mughal India, op.cit.; See also Chapter on Architect and Engineers, supra I486 c

See supra

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horses.''*^' He is the supervisor of construction, the Mir-i Imarat. His attire resembles

that of the nobility: a colourful full-sleeved jama, embroidered silken patka, a long

scarf or thin shawl and a dastar (Chart I, Figs. 1 & 3).

In almost all the miniatures dealing with building construction, are depicted

men with long sticks giving instructions to the various craftsmen. They wear knee-

lengthyama, embroidered siHksD. patka, trousers and shoes. Wherever a group of stone

cutters, masons or labourers are doing a job, this ubiquitous man keeps a watchful

eye. He appears to be the over-seer or supervisor of construction activity, reference to

whom is missing in the written records. Some paintings dealing with building

construction depict another professional whose status appears in the paintings to be

higher than that of the overseer and lower to that of the Mir-i Imarat. He is always

near to the site of hectic activity either taking down notes''**^ or explaining a, point to

the visiting digniteiry verbally'^*' or with the help of a graph.''*'" At other times this

person is also depicted as just standing or giving directions to the overseer.'"*'' His

dastar (Chart I, Figs.5 & 35) was less ostentatious than that of the mir-i imarat, but

would sometimes resemble that of the higher classes (Chart I, Figs. 31 & 39). This

person was perhaps the chief architect.

The importance and affluence of architects and engineers can thus be deduced

fix>m their portrayal in Mughal miniatures. Fully clothed from head to foot they

'*' "Building of the City of Fathpur", signed by Balchand, Akbarnama, Chester Beatty Library,j^l52 - 53, cf Arnold & Wilkinswi, The Library of A .Chester Beatty: A Catalogue of Indian Miniatures, London, 1936, vol. II, pl.24; "Construction of Hathipol at Fathpur Sikri", signed by Tulsi & Bhawani, Akbarnama, V & A, IS - 2 - 1896, no.ll7, pi. 86, cf Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 15 '"** "Building of the Agra Fort", (II part) signed by Miskin & Tulsi Khwurd, Akbarnama, V & A, IS -2 - 1896, cf Geeti Sen, op.cit., pi. 31 '**' "Akbar Supervises the Construction of Fathpur Sikri", signed by Tulsi, Bandi & Madhav Khwurd, Akbarnama, V & A, IS - 2 - 1896, no.ll7, pi. 91, cf Geeti Sen, op.cit., pl.61; "Construction of a Tomb near Khoja Sih Yaran Spring near Kabul", signed by Mahesh, Baburnama, BM. Or. 3714,/ 180 (b), cf Miniatures of Baburnamah, Samarqand, 1969, pi. 14 '*'*' "Babur Supervising work in Bagh-i Wafa Garden", signed by Bishandas & Nanha, Baburnama, V & A, IM. 276 - 1913, cf Hambly, Cities of Mughal India: Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri, London, 1977, pi. 20 ""' "Building of a Palace", V & A, no. 1995 - 1965; "Construction of a Building", Jam 'ut Tawarikh, Imperial Library, Teheran, cf AJ Qaisar, Building Construction, op.cit, pi. 5 & 7.

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appear to have had a fairly high status in society.

These Mughal miniatures also show us the various master-craftsmen involved

in the building work. From these depictions, it appears that the naqqash (carver) had a

superior position to that of a sahakar (plain-stone cutter).'"*' A sadahkar is mostly

depicted wearing a crude turban, a shortyama and short trousers,''*'^ while a naqqash

is shown wearing a more elaborate turban (Chart I, Fig. 4), a longer yama and a

whole-length pair of trousers.' ** They are also sometimes shown wearing shoes,

which may determine a degree of respectability over the lower goups involved in

building work.

Another category of craftsmen involved in the construction activity was that of

the iron smiths, whose position in society appears to have been the same as that of the

naqqash. Like him they wear a turban (Chart I, Figs. 6 & 7), a \on%jama and troxisers.

But imlike the attire of the naqqash, the shoes are conspicuous by their absence.'"*'

Painters:

Much impetus was provided to the performing arts under the Mughals. It was

during the reign of Akbar that two important fields - painting and music - were given

a new meaning and import.

Although nothing is known about the presence or absence of painters under

Babur, it was during the reign of Humayun that attention started being paid to

recruiting accomplished painters to the Mughal Court.'"'^ For his reign we get the

names of six painters. During Akbar's reign, the number rose steeply to about 260,"*'

Ain-i Akbari, op.cit., p.l 17 1492

'"" See for example, "Building of the Agra Fort", (I & II part), cf Geeti Sen, op.cit., pis. 31 & 32. '*** Ibid., see also, "Construction of Hathipol", signed by Tulsi and Bhawani, cf Amina Okada, op.cit.. pi. 15 14? *' "Alexander the great building an iron wall across Caucasus against the people of Gog and Magogs", Khamsa-i Nizami, BM. Or. 1982, pi. 57 "*'* Bayazid Bayat, op.cit., pp. 67 - 69,176-87 '*' See SP Verma, Mughal Painters and their work, op.cit., p. 24.

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56 % of whom were Hindus (See Table IV below). In the subsequent reigns, the total

nxunber of the members of this class recruited by the Mughal state kept on declining.

This in no way would mean a decline in the members of this professional group in the

Mughal Society.

Table FV

Reign

Himiayun

Akbar

Jahangir

Shahjahan

Aurangzeb

Actual

Painters

6

260

84

35

12

Total

Depicted

-

11

9

4

-

Total

Hindus

-

145

43

17

8

Hindus

Depicted

-

2

6

4

-

Total

Muslims

6

115

41

18

4

Muslim

Depicted

-

5

3

-

-

A sizeable niunber of this group earned its hveUhood in the private ateliers

established by the by the Mughal nobles. By the latter half of the 17* Century, the

bazar painters who were self-employed begin to be noticed."*'* Even during the reign

of Akbar it appears that these painters would attract clients to their place of work to

have their portraits drawn. Thus a miniature preserved in State Library, Berlin, depicts

two anonymous painters at work and an old man of high birth walking away after

being provided with his portrait made by these painters.''*''

The painters who were recruited by the Mughal state were paid regular

monthly salaries. According to Abul Fazl:

""* Thevcnot, Indian Travels ofThevenot and Careri, ed. S. Sen, New Delhi, 1949, pp. 55,65; Bemier, Travels in the Mughal Empire, 1656 - 58, tr. A. Constable & Smith, London, 1968, pp. 254 - 55. "*'' "Artists at Work", Berlin Album, Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, of. SC Welch, India: Art and Culture, Ahmadabad, 1988, pi. 105.

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The work of all painters is weekly laid before His Majesty by the Daroghas

and the clerks; he then confers rewards according to excellence of

woriananship, or increases the monthly salaries.'^°°

These salaried state painters, apart from illustrating books conmiissioned by

their benefactors, were also required to be present in private gatherings to record the

events visually for posterity.'^°' The importance of this class can be gauged from the

fact that they were sometimes ordered by the Emperor to include their self-portraits

on the colophon.' °^ Sometimes, the painters could also be allowed to enter the

haram. ' " The art of painting was not an exclusive male profession. Nadira Banu,

Sahifa Banu and Ruqaiya Banu are known to have painted during the reigns of Akbar

and Jahangir. Accordingly, a folio from Khamsa-i Nizami depicts a woman painter

busy making a self portrait.' *^

It is interesting to note that although the percentage of Hindu painters fell from

56% imder Akbar to 51% under Jahangir, the number of portraits of Hindu nobles

rose to 6 out of 9 from 2 out of 11 paintings. In the reign of Shahjahan the strength of

the Hindu painters was about half (48.6%). Yet all the four painters depicted were

Hindus. No portrait of a Muslim painter from the reign of Shajahan survives or been

so identified.

From the 24 or so portraits and self portraits of the painters it appears that

there was not much meu ked difference between the dress of the Hindu and Muslim

^^ Abu'l Fazl, Ain-i Akbari. op.cit., p. 116 1501 «22f3j Khan with poets and scholars while artist takes their likeness", Masnawi of Zafar khan. Royal Asiatic Society, London, MS. Pers. 310 (dted. AD 1662 - 63), ff. 19 (b) & 20 (a), cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 194. ^^°' See inscription on the miniature, "Daulat Painting the portrait of the Calligraphist Abdur Rahim Ambarin Qalani", Khamsa-i Nizami, Dyson-Perrins Collection, Malvern, BM. Or. 12208,/ 325 (b), cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 2; See also "Manohar & Muhammad Husain Kashmiri", Gulistan-i Sa'di, Royal Asiatic Society, London, No. 258,/ 128, cf. Amina Okada, op.cit., pi. 155. "" "A Princess examines a Portrait", (Akbari), Bodlein Library, Pers. 6 1 , / 23 (b) cf Ivan Stchoukine, A L 'Epoque des Moghols, op.cit., pi. VII 1504 uj^^ j^ jy Paints a Self-Portrait while her attendant faces her holding the Mirror", (Akbari), Khamsa-i Nizami, BM. Or. 12208,/ 206 (a), cf AJ Qaisar, ne Indian Response, op.cit., pi. 7 (a).

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painters. Almost all of them wore dastars (Chart I, Figs. 1-9), long jamas, full

trousers, apatka, which could be single or embroidered, and a shawl. It is only in the

case of Kesavdas that the dress is irregular. The painter in this portrait wears a dhoti

and a shawl draping his naked shoulders and torso.' °^ He was, we are informed, a

kahar by birth.

These Mughal painters were recruited not just to illustrate the books and paint

the court scenes and important occasions, but would also execute wall paintings. A

large nimiber of Akbari and Jahangiri wall paintings survive on the walls of Fathpur

sikri, Aram Bagh (Agra), and the Lahore Fort. At least two Mughal painters, Abdus

Samad''°^ and Daswant'^"' were accompUshed in painting on the walls. A miniature

preserved in Clive Album records this fact for us.' ^

The Mughal painter was helped in his endeavour by paper makers, scribes, and

a number of apprentices.'^"'

Musicians: * °

As far as the musicians are concerned, they are depicted mostly in the court

scenes or in the company of the princes and dervishes. They are shown wearing a

dastar (Chart I, Figs. 1, 8 & 12), a longyama and the patka. From their dress it

appears that they cein be divided into two categories; the ordinary musician, who

dressed like a soldier or a naqqash, and those who were highly placed in the court

' " "Akbar, a noble and the Painter himself, signed Kesavdas, Jahangir's Album, State Library,. Berlin,/ 25 (a), cf. SP Verma, Mughal Painters, op.cit., pi. xxxv. '*"* Farid Bhakkari, Zakhirat ul Khawanin, ed. Moinul Haq, Karachi, 1961, vol.1, p.87; Shahnawaz Khan, Ma'asir-ul Umara, ed. Abdur Rahim & Ashraf Ali, Calcutta, 1891, vol.11,628; Abu'l Fazl, Ain-i Akbari, op.cit., p. 117. ""'' Abu'l Fazl, Ain-i Akbari, op.cit., p. 117. ""' "Mughal Painter executing a wall painting", Clive Album, V & A, IS-48-1956, cf. AJ Qaisar, Building Construction, op.cit., pi. 9. '"" "Akbar's Atelier", Akhlaq-i Nasiri. MS. 3 9 , / 19 (a), Prince Sadruddin Agha Khan Collection, Rietzberg Museum, Zurich, cf. Brand & Lowry, Akbar's India, op.cit., pi. 19 ' '"' See Chapter 7 for more details

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385

who would then fashion themselves like a noble.'^" Like the other professionals they

were always depicted with their instruments of profession.

Mercantile Classes:

The last, but not the least important middle class profession depicted in the

Mughal miniatures is that of the merchant. While rejecting the existence of a middle

class in the Mughal Empire, Moreland had made an exception so far as the

'mercantile class' was concerned., which he grudgingly accepted to be in

existence.'^'" W.C. Smith too had mainly concerned himself with the merchants while

argueing the case of the middle classes. To him the mercantile middle class could

survive only in a region which was given peace and tranquillity. The politico -

administrative vmification under the Mughals gave a spurt in the construction of roads

and sarais. The developments would have been "applauded the most" by the

merchants.'^'^ This thesis of Smith finds support from two Mughal miniatures. The

first of these depicts Humayun returning to the merchants goods which were

plimdered by the troops of Mirza Kamran.'*''* It depicts the conditions of the state

during a poUtical turmoil. The second painting belongs to the period of peace, when

sarais had been constructed to ensure safety and proper resting place for the

merchants in transit.' "

Most of the miniatures pertaining to merchants depict the peddlers, petty

shopkeepers and town shops.

" " Sec for example the portraits of Tansen in the Chrysler Museum, Norfolk, Virginia, and National Museum, New Delhi (50,14 /28), cf. Brand & Lowry, Akbar's India, op.cit., pi. 55. '"• W. H. Moreland, India at the Death ofAkbar-an Economic Study, London, 1925, pp. 26 - 27. '"^ W.C Smith, "The Mughal Empire and the Middle Classes", op.cit. '"" Painting signed by Miskin, Akbarnama, BM. Or. 12988, / 120 (b), cf. S.P. Verma, Mughal Painters & their Work, op.cit., s.v., Miskin, no. 46. '^'^ "Merchants asking for room in saraC, Darabnama, BM. Or. 4615, / 93 (b), cf. S.P. Verma, Mughal Painters & their Work, op.cit., s.v., Fairukh Chela, no. 8.

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Table V

Reign

Akbar

Jahangir

Shahjahan

Aurangzeb

Peddlers

3

-

-

-

Village

Shopkeepers

-

1

-

-

Town

Shopkeepers

3

1

2

1

Whole-

Sellers

2

-

-

-

Miscallaneous

4

2

-

-

ToUl

12

4

2

1

A very interesting miniature depicting a rural market shows that a village shop

could be looked after by women.'^'^ This painting depicts a man being enticed on the

one hand by the female sweetmeat seller and on the other by a fish-monger with a

basket full of fish. The milk fixjm the village dairy is also being sold by female

members of the family. The miniature reminds us of any actual present-day viUage

mart.

The petty peddlers under the Mughal very much resembled the present day

khwanche walas (hawkers), with their pair of scales, baskets and bags who can now

be found near the construction sites.'^'^

These peddling merchants would move fix)m place to place with the Mughal

encampments as well."''* Mughal miniatures depict wholesalers as well, who would

carry their goods on bullocks and camels. They wore knee-lengthyamos tied in place

with a simple patka. The dastar was worn by almost all of them (Chart I, Figs.4 &

1516 "j^^Q travelers buying food in a village", signed by Meodas, BM., Oriental Antiquities, no.1920-9-17-0255, cf. Pinder-Wilson, Paintings from the Muslim Courts of India, reprodn. No.76; see also S.P. Verma, Mughal Painters & their Work, op.cit., s.v., Meodas " ' ' "Building of the Agra Fort", (Part I), signed by Miskina & Sarwan, Akbamama, VA, IS-2-1896, no. 117, Geeti Sen, op.cit., pi. 45. '"* "Babur inspecting Encampment", Baburnama, National Museum, New Delhi, no. 50. 326,/205, cf. Rai Krishnadasa, Mughal Miniatures, Lalit Kala Academy, 1955, pi .2; "Babur sitting on an Earthen Platform erected in the Middle of Kutila Lake", signed by Pidarath, Baburnama, BM. Or. 3714,/ 459 (a), cf. Miniatures of Baburnama, op.cit., pi. 28.

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387

The representation of town bazaars and its shopkeepers is more common (See

Table V) and is represented in the works of the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan

and Aurangzeb. Two miniatures from the reign of Akbar depict the famous chaharsuq

bazar and the market near the Hathipol at Fathpur Sikri.' ^° As has been confirmed

from the siuA eys and excavations at Fathpur Sikri, the Mughal shops comprised of

two parts - a verandah and a small chamber constructed behind it.'^^' From these

miniatures, and the one depicting the market near the city wall of Delhi, " it appears

that the merchants-shopkeepers sat and displayed their wares on the verandah. The

chamber was used as a store-room.' ^^ The bazar shopkeepers could also sit on a

platform with a canopy.' ^^ These shopkeepers in the town markets were better

dressed than their peddler cousins. They wore fullyama, trousers, patka and dastars

(Chart I, Figs. 5, 6 & 8) which were more ornate in pattern and style.

Another group from the mercantile class, which have been depicted, is that of

the lapidaries, jewellers, and cloth and glass manufacturers. They resembled to a large

extent the master-craftsmen and master masons depicted in scenes of building

construction. Being a class above the ordinary craftsmen, they are depicted wearing

' ' " "Traders of Kand-i Badam", signed by Bhura, Babumama, EM. Or. 3714,/ 6 (b), cf. Miniatures of Babumamah, Samarqand, c^.cit., pi. 3; "A Market Scene at Kand-i Badam", signed by Surdas, Babumama, National Museum, New Delhi, no. 50.326, pi. 1 , / 4 (a), cf. M.S. Randhawa, Paintings of the Babumama, New Delhi, 1983, pi. I. "-" "Building of theCity of Fathpur", signed by Balchand, Akbamama, Chester Beatty Library,j^l52 -53, cf Arnold & Wilkinson, op.cit., pi. 24; "Rejoicing at Akbar's return to Fathpur Sikri", (II part), signed by Kesav & Jagjiwan, Akbamama, VA, IS-2-1896, no.l 17, pl.l 11, cf Brand and Lowry, op.cit.. pL 3 (a). ^•' See SAN Rezavi, "Bazars and Markets at Fathpur Sikri", Proceedings of the Indian History

Congress, Bhopal, 2001 """ "Attempted assassination of Akbar in 1563", signed by Jagan, Bhawani & Madhav, Akbarnama, VA, IS-2-1896, no. 117, pl.33, cf Geeti Sen, op.cit., pl.27. ""^ See also "Scene ofa City Gate", signed by AqaRiza,^^^^/!^^'*/!//)!/^, State Library, Berlin,/ 14 (a), cf. Kuhnle & Goetze, op.cit., pl.l; "Blind Pilgrim Procuring food from a Confectioner's shop near the Dargah at Ajmer", Signed by Hashim, Wantage Collection, VA, IM-131-1921, cf S.P.Verma, Mughal Painters and their Work, op.cit., pl.xxii '"' ' See for example, "Making of Sherbet", Jahangir's Album. State Library, Berlin,/ 21 (b), cf Kuhnle & Goetze, op.cit., pi. 19. See also the " Bazar Physician" and the "Bazar Astrologer", op.cit.

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388

dastars (Chart I, Figs. 4, 5, 12, 13, & 34), long f[oWm% jamas, and fUU trousers. They

can be identified through the depiction of their various tools of the trade.

From the above survey it appears that the representatives of the urban middle

classes can only be identified with the work which they are depicted doing in our

paintings. The work itself gets a meaning only through the placement of material

objects needed for their profession. Thus a physician is shown with his mortar and

pestle. The architect through his appearance in the middle of a construction site; an

astrologer with his astrolabe, water or sand clock; a painter with his brush and colour-

plates; the scribe and calligrapher with their pen and paper and so on.

Further, a comparative study of the depiction of the nobility (See S.P.Verma,

Material Culture, op.cit.) and that of the urban middle classes hints towards an

independent character of the latter. They dressed in very utilitarian clothing, and were

much more attached to their profession than to ostentatious show-off.

Yet interestingly enough, they never seem to unduly assert themselves. It must

be pointed out that in spite of the fact that quite a few of them, like Fathullah Shirazi,

Hakim Ali Gilani, Virji Vora, Santidas Sahu, Ustad Ahmad Me'mar left their

permanent mark on Mughal society, economy and culture, yet they never appear to

have patronized the artists and painters for their own portraiture as the nobles had

done. Even if depicted, the members of this class always appear not in a central

position but on periphery and margins. This class had thus not yet developed to the

extent as their counter parts in European societies during the sixteenth and

seventeenth Centuries.

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Table VI

S.No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Theme

Teachers

Scholars

Calligraphers / Scribes

Poets

Physicians

Nurses

Astrologers

Astronomers

Architects / BuUding Supttds.

Painters

Musicians

Master craftsmen Mercantile

Classes Religious Classes

Total

Paintings

12

25

15

12

16

5

10

5

18

22

30

12

19

113

Akbar

7

14

5

5

8

4

8

4

16

11

15

6

12

36

Jahangir

5

7

8

4

7

1

1

1

2

7

8

5

4

40

Shahjahan

-

4

2

3

1

-

1

-

-

4

7

1

2

36

Aurangzeb

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

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390

Chart 1: Dastars

r

J

ic

u.

? i^pt^ ^m

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391

%l.

25. C3

Dastars fCont.)

5c

'^

3?.

^^. ^ •SI 3J.

Z^

Zl. ^

u. a r ^

s-L. ^

• « .

3V

< ^

-><.

•A