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Chapter FiveChapter FiveMeaningMeaning

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1. The Study of Meaning1. The Study of Meaning Semantics:Semantics:

The meaning of words: Lexical The meaning of words: Lexical semanticssemantics

The meaning of sentences: The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, Propositional meaning, compositional meaningcompositional meaning

Linguistic semantics vs. Logical Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semantics/philosophical semanticssemantics

Pragmatics:Pragmatics: The meaning of utterancesThe meaning of utterances

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2. Semantic Meaning2. Semantic Meaning

Semantics is the study Semantics is the study of meaning in of meaning in language.language.

Meaning has been Meaning has been studied for thousands studied for thousands of years by of years by philosophers, logicians philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.& Aristotle.

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Logicians and philosophersLogicians and philosophers have have tended to concentrate on a restricted tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.a single language.

The linguistic approachThe linguistic approach is broader in is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.languages as possible.

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3. The meaning of meaning3. The meaning of meaning C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards

(1923). (1923). The Meaning of The Meaning of MeaningMeaning..

John John meansmeans to write. to write. A green light A green light meansmeans to go. to go.

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Health Health meansmeans everything. everything.

His look was full of His look was full of meaningmeaning..

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What is the What is the meaningmeaning of life? of life?

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What does ‘capitalist’ What does ‘capitalist’ meanmean to to you?you?

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What does ‘cornea’ What does ‘cornea’ meanmean?? The transparent, convex, anterior The transparent, convex, anterior

portion of the outer fibrous coat portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.with the sclera.

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Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). SemanticSemantics: The Study of Meanings: The Study of Meaning. Seven types . Seven types of meaning:of meaning: Conceptual meaningConceptual meaning Connotative meaningConnotative meaning Social meaningSocial meaning Affective meaningAffective meaning Reflected and meaningReflected and meaning Collocative meaningCollocative meaning Thematic meaningThematic meaning

AssociativeMeaning

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(1) Conceptual meaning(1) Conceptual meaning Also called Also called

‘denotative’ or ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ ‘cognitive’ meaning.meaning. Refers to logical, Refers to logical,

cognitive or cognitive or denotative content.denotative content.

Concerned with the Concerned with the relationship relationship between a word and between a word and the thing it denotes, the thing it denotes, or refers to.or refers to.

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(2) Connotative meaning(2) Connotative meaning

The communicative value an expressioThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over n has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual contenand above its purely conceptual content.t. A multitude of additional, non-criterial prA multitude of additional, non-criterial pr

operties, including not only physical charaoperties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social cteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.properties, as well as typical features.

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Involving the ‘real world’ experience Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.when one uses or hears it. Unstable:Unstable: they vary considerably they vary considerably

according to culture, historical period, according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.and the experience of the individual.

Any characteristic of the referent, Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which meaning of the expression which denotes it.denotes it.

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Step motherStep mother

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(3) Social meaning(3) Social meaning What a piece of language conveys What a piece of language conveys

about the social circumstances of about the social circumstances of its use.its use. Dialect:Dialect: the language of a geographical the language of a geographical

region or of a social class.region or of a social class. Time:Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. the language of the 18th c., etc. Province:Province: language of law, of science, language of law, of science,

of advertising, etc.of advertising, etc. Status:Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality:Modality: language of memoranda, language of memoranda,

lectures, jokes, etc.lectures, jokes, etc. Singularity:Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc. the style of Dickens, etc.

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domicile:domicile: very formal, official very formal, official residence:residence: formal formal abode:abode: poetic poetic home:home: general general

steed:steed: poetic poetic horse:horse: general general nag:nag: slang slang gee-gee:gee-gee: baby language baby language

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The five clocks by Martin JoosThe five clocks by Martin Joos

Frozen Formal Consultative Casual Frozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateIntimate

Formal <------------------------------> Formal <------------------------------> InformalInformal

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(4) Affective meaning(4) Affective meaning

Reflecting the personal feelings of Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.something he is talking about. You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous

reprobate, and I hate you for it!reprobate, and I hate you for it! I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I

wonder if you would be so kind as to wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. lower your voices a little. oror

Will you belt up.Will you belt up.

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‘‘Colorful’ meaningColorful’ meaning

CommendatoryCommendatory tough-mindedtough-minded resolute, firmresolute, firm

shrewdshrewd childlikechildlike wisemanwiseman

man of usual talentman of usual talent portly, stout, solid, portly, stout, solid,

plumplum slender, slimslender, slim

DerogatoryDerogatory ruthlessruthless obstinateobstinate sly, craftysly, crafty childishchildish wiseguywiseguy freakfreak fleshy, fat, tubbyfleshy, fat, tubby lean, skinny, lanky, wlean, skinny, lanky, w

eedy, scraggyeedy, scraggy

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(5) Reflected meaning(5) Reflected meaning Arises in cases of Arises in cases of

multiple conceptual multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of of a word forms part of our response to another our response to another sense.sense. When you hear ‘click the When you hear ‘click the

mouse twice’, you think of mouse twice’, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Tom so you feel excited.

Many taboo terms are Many taboo terms are result of this.result of this.

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(6) Collocative meaning(6) Collocative meaning The associations a word acquirThe associations a word acquir

es on account of the meanings es on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur iof words which tend to occur in its environment.n its environment. pretty:pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, girl, boy, woman, flower,

garden, colour, village, etc.garden, colour, village, etc. handsome:handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, boy, man, car, vessel,

overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.

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(7) Thematic meaning(7) Thematic meaning

What is communicated by the way in What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, fothe message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.cus, and emphasis. Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize. The first prize was donated by Mrs BessiThe first prize was donated by Mrs Bessi

e Smith.e Smith. They stopped at the end of the corridor.They stopped at the end of the corridor. At the end of the corridor, they stopped.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.

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4. The Theory of Reference4. The Theory of Reference Words → Meaning:Words → Meaning: Words ‘name’ or Words ‘name’ or

‘refer to’ things‘refer to’ things -- Platonic-- Platonic Words→Concepts→Things:Words→Concepts→Things: Ogden & Ogden &

RichardsRichardsthought/concept/imagethought/concept/image

symbolizessymbolizes refers torefers to

symbol referentsymbol referent(word) (word) stands forstands for (object) (object)

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airplaneairplane

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5. Sense5. Sense

‘‘Meaning’ is not some kind of Meaning’ is not some kind of ‘entity’ separate from language.‘entity’ separate from language. That words ‘have meaning’ means That words ‘have meaning’ means

only that they are used in a certain only that they are used in a certain way in a sentence. There is no way in a sentence. There is no ‘meaning’ beyond the meaning of ‘meaning’ beyond the meaning of individual words and sentences.individual words and sentences.

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Ludwig Wittgenstein: ‘The meaning Ludwig Wittgenstein: ‘The meaning of a word is its use in the language’. of a word is its use in the language’.

Meaning is studied by making detailMeaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and seed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.ntences are used in specific contexts. Reference:Reference: how language how language refersrefers to this e to this e

xternal worldxternal world Sense:Sense: the way people relate words to ea the way people relate words to ea

ch other within the framework of their lch other within the framework of their languageanguage

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The family treeThe family tree

舅父 舅父 = ‘mother’s br= ‘mother’s brother’other’

叔叔 叔叔 = ‘father’s you= ‘father’s younger brother’nger brother’

伯父 伯父 = ‘father’s elde= ‘father’s elder brother’r brother’

姨母 姨母 = ‘mother’s sis= ‘mother’s sister’ter’

姑母 姑母 = ‘father’s sist= ‘father’s sister’er’

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6. Sense Relations6. Sense Relations

SynonymySynonymy

AntonymyAntonymy

HyponymyHyponymy

Gradable

Complementary

Converse

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6.1 Synonymy6.1 Synonymy

buy/purchasebuy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingythrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fallautumn/fall flat/apartmentflat/apartment tube/undergroundtube/underground

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6.2 Gradable antonymy 6.2 Gradable antonymy

good ----------------------- badgood ----------------------- bad long ----------------------- shortlong ----------------------- short big ----------------------- smallbig ----------------------- small

Can be modified by adverbs of Can be modified by adverbs of degree like degree like veryvery..

Can have Can have comparativecomparative forms. forms. Can be asked with Can be asked with howhow..

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6.3 Complementary 6.3 Complementary antonymyantonymy alive : deadalive : dead male : femalemale : female present : present :

absentabsent innocent : innocent :

guiltyguilty

odd : evenodd : even pass : failpass : fail boy : girlboy : girl hit : misshit : miss

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6.4 Converse antonymy6.4 Converse antonymy

buy : sellbuy : sell lend : borrowlend : borrow give : receivegive : receive parent : childparent : child husband : husband :

wifewife

teacher : studentteacher : student above : belowabove : below before : afterbefore : after host : guesthost : guest employer : employer :

employeeemployee

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6.5 Hyponymy6.5 Hyponymy

InclusivenessInclusiveness A is included in / a kind of B.A is included in / a kind of B. Cf.: Cf.: chairchair and and furniturefurniture, , roserose and and floweflowe

rr Superordinate/hypernym:Superordinate/hypernym: the more gener the more gener

al termal term Hyponym:Hyponym: the more specific term the more specific term Co-hyponyms:Co-hyponyms: members of the same class members of the same class

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AnimalAnimal

bird fish insect animalbird fish insect animal

human human animalanimal

tiger lion tiger lion elephant ...elephant ...

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7. Componential 7. Componential AnalysisAnalysis HUMANHUMAN

man (ADULT, MALE)man (ADULT, MALE) woman (ADULT, FEMALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE) boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE) girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)

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7.1 Animal words7.1 Animal words

MALE FEMALE NON-ADULT

bull cow calf

ram ewe lamb

boar sow piglet

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7.2 Domestic animals7.2 Domestic animals

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7.3 English motion verbs7.3 English motion verbs

NATURAL HURRIED FORWARD ONE FOOT

ALWAYS ON GROUND

walk + ━ + +

march ━ + + +

run ━ + + ━

limp ━ ━ + +

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7.4 More complex ones7.4 More complex ones

father:father: PARENT ( PARENT (x, yx, y) & MALE () & MALE (xx)) xx is a parent of is a parent of yy, and , and xx is male. is male.

take:take: CAUSE ( CAUSE (xx, (HAVE (, (HAVE (x, yx, y)))))) xx causes causes xx to have to have yy..

give:give: CAUSE ( CAUSE (xx, (~HAVE (, (~HAVE (x, yx, y)))))) xx causes causes xx not to have not to have yy..

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8. Meaning & Syntactic 8. Meaning & Syntactic StructureStructure The meaning of a The meaning of a

sentence is sentence is obviously related obviously related to the meanings to the meanings of the words used of the words used in it, but it is also in it, but it is also obvious that obvious that sentence meaning sentence meaning is not simply the is not simply the sum total of the sum total of the words.words.

S

NP V NP

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The cat is chasing the mouse.The cat is chasing the mouse. The mouse is chasing the cat.The mouse is chasing the cat.

I have read that book.I have read that book. That book I have read.That book I have read.

The daughter of Queen The daughter of Queen Elizabeth’s son is the son of Elizabeth’s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth’s daughter.Queen Elizabeth’s daughter.

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8.1 Compositionality8.1 Compositionality

An integrated theoryAn integrated theory Katz & Fodor (1963): Katz & Fodor (1963): The The

structure of a semantic theory.structure of a semantic theory. A A 40-page long paper published in 40-page long paper published in LanguageLanguage.. ““The method itself is years out of The method itself is years out of

date but the debate about the date but the debate about the principle of compositionality is by no principle of compositionality is by no means over.” (Cruse, 2004: 77)means over.” (Cruse, 2004: 77)

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The idea behind the principle was The idea behind the principle was to solve the problem of generating to solve the problem of generating grammatical but meaningless (?) grammatical but meaningless (?) sentences like sentences like

Colorless green ideas sleep Colorless green ideas sleep furiouslyfuriously. .

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Global warming is a fact, and while thGlobal warming is a fact, and while the word “global” makes the problem e word “global” makes the problem seem so big, you can help, even if it is seem so big, you can help, even if it is on a small scale. You can start in your on a small scale. You can start in your own home, with “own home, with “green livinggreen living.” Vani.” Vanity Fair’s ty Fair’s Virtual GreenVirtual Green website gives website gives great green ideasgreat green ideas, room by room. For t, room by room. For the kitchen, for example, the people at he kitchen, for example, the people at VirtualVirtual GreenGreen suggest a smart, cute, a suggest a smart, cute, and eco-friendly stool, the “chiquita stnd eco-friendly stool, the “chiquita stool,” made of rattan and recycled steool,” made of rattan and recycled steel.el.

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Green productGreen product Green buildingGreen building Green lifeGreen life Green guideGreen guide Green earthGreen earth Green Green

environmentenvironment Green Green

environmental environmental materialsmaterials

Green energyGreen energy

Green businessGreen business Green Green

consumptionconsumption Green internet Green internet

serviceservice Green Green

agricultureagriculture Green revolutionGreen revolution Green OlympicsGreen Olympics Green Green

economicseconomics

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According to the principle of According to the principle of compositionality, each word in the compositionality, each word in the lexicon is equipped with certain lexicon is equipped with certain components and combinations of components and combinations of words into sentences must go words into sentences must go through certain selection through certain selection restrictions in order to produce restrictions in order to produce acceptable sentences.acceptable sentences. Thus we can say Thus we can say colorful ballcolorful ball because because

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colorful {Adj}colorful {Adj} (Color) [abounding in c(Color) [abounding in c

ontrast or variety of briontrast or variety of bright colors] <(Physical Oght colors] <(Physical Object) or (Social Activitbject) or (Social Activity)>y)>

(Evaluative) [having dis(Evaluative) [having distinctive character, vivitinctive character, vividness, or picturesquendness, or picturesqueness] <(Aesthetic Object) ess] <(Aesthetic Object) or (Social Activity)>or (Social Activity)>

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ball {Nball {NCC}} (Social Activity) (Large) (Assembly) (Social Activity) (Large) (Assembly)

[for the purpose of social dancing][for the purpose of social dancing] (Physical Object) [having globular (Physical Object) [having globular

shape]shape] (Physical Object) [solid missile for (Physical Object) [solid missile for

projection by engine of war]projection by engine of war]

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Then it is possible to work out four Then it is possible to work out four readings of the combinations of readings of the combinations of colorcolor and and ballball, and further , and further combinations with other words combinations with other words (projections) will determine which of (projections) will determine which of the four is the actual meaning in the the four is the actual meaning in the sentence sentence John hit the colorful ballsJohn hit the colorful balls and and We had a colorful ball last nightWe had a colorful ball last night..

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8.2 Noncompositional meaning8.2 Noncompositional meaning Idioms:Idioms: cannot be built up as the cannot be built up as the

sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other types derived by metaphor and other types of semantic extension.of semantic extension. get up on the wrong side of the bedget up on the wrong side of the bed in the doghousein the doghouse green with envy green with envy kick the bucketkick the bucket face the musicface the music

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kick the bucket: which?kick the bucket: which?

A. Because she got mad, that hen kicked a bucket.

B. A cartoon painter about to kick a bucket of paint.

C. the process C. the process of dyingof dying

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Frozen metaphors:Frozen metaphors: a class a class of idiom-like expressions of idiom-like expressions which may show some of which may show some of the features of syntactic the features of syntactic frozenness typical of frozenness typical of idioms, such as resistance idioms, such as resistance to modification, to modification, transformation, and so transformation, and so on, but which differ from on, but which differ from idioms in an important idioms in an important respect: the effect of respect: the effect of synonym substitution is synonym substitution is not a complete collapse of not a complete collapse of the non-literal reading. the non-literal reading.

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The ball’s The ball’s in your courtin your court now.now.

on your side of the neton your side of the net

A A catcat can look at can look at a queena queen..

mousemouse an archbishopan archbishop

I can I can readread her like an open book. her like an open book.

decipherdecipher

He has He has one footone foot in the in the gravegrave..

both feetboth feet tombtomb

one legone leg coffincoffin

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I gave him a I gave him a piecepiece of my of my mindmind..

partpart conceptual conceptual systemsystem

He He drivesdrives me up the me up the wallwall..

forcesforces room partitionroom partition

He has a He has a beebee in his in his bonnetbonnet about about it.it.

hornethornet helmethelmet

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8.4 Collocations8.4 Collocations

g rea t h ea v y h ig h ex trem e d eep sev ere

fro st － ＋ － ？ － ＋

ra in － ＋ － － － －

w in d ？ － ＋ － － －

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8.5 Clichés8.5 Clichés

I’ve I’ve made my position made my position absolutely clearabsolutely clear..

I’ve given I’ve given an an unambiguous unambiguous expositionexposition of my views. of my views.

It’s raining It’s raining dogs and dogs and catscats..

He arrived He arrived safe and safe and soundsound..

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8.6 Noun compounds8.6 Noun compounds pocket knife:pocket knife: knife that can be knife that can be

carried in the pocketcarried in the pocket kitchen knife:kitchen knife: knife for use in knife for use in

the kitchenthe kitchen meat knife:meat knife: knife for cutting knife for cutting

meatmeat tablecloth:tablecloth: cloth used to cover cloth used to cover

a tablea table dishcloth:dishcloth: cloth used to wipe cloth used to wipe

dishesdishes

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8.7 “Active zones”8.7 “Active zones” a red hat:a red hat: whole hat is whole hat is

redred a red book:a red book: outside outside

covers are redcovers are red a red apple:a red apple: a a

significant portion of significant portion of

outer skin is redouter skin is red a yellow peach:a yellow peach: inner inner

flesh is yellowflesh is yellow a pink grapefruit:a pink grapefruit: inner inner

flesh is pinkflesh is pink

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a red traffic sign:a red traffic sign: symbols only are redsymbols only are red

a red pencil:a red pencil: (1) red (1) red on outside; (2) on outside; (2) writes redwrites red

red eyes:red eyes: ‘white’ of ‘white’ of eyes is redeyes is red

blue eyes:blue eyes: iris is iris is blueblue

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9. Propositional Logic9. Propositional Logic

Truth condition:Truth condition: conditions which conditions which must hold for the sentence to be must hold for the sentence to be used to make a true statement (at used to make a true statement (at least if it is used literally). least if it is used literally). Thus, before we can truthfully say, Thus, before we can truthfully say,

on some occasion, on some occasion, The cat is on the The cat is on the matmat, there must be some relevant , there must be some relevant feline occupying a specific position feline occupying a specific position relative to an appropriate item of relative to an appropriate item of floor covering.floor covering.

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Those aspects of the meaning of a Those aspects of the meaning of a sentence which determine its truth sentence which determine its truth conditions are collectively known as conditions are collectively known as the the propositional contentpropositional content of the of the sentence. sentence.

Two sentences with identical propositional Two sentences with identical propositional content will yield statements with the content will yield statements with the same truth values on all occasions of use, same truth values on all occasions of use, as for instance, as for instance, John caressed MaryJohn caressed Mary and and Mary was caressed by JohnMary was caressed by John. .

By the same token, if two sentences have By the same token, if two sentences have different propositional content, there will different propositional content, there will necessarily exist some conceivable necessarily exist some conceivable situation in which they will yield situation in which they will yield statements with opposite truth values.statements with opposite truth values.

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Proposition:Proposition: a statement, a statement, with a truth value (true owith a truth value (true or false), egr false), eg The earth is flat.The earth is flat. The earth goes around the The earth goes around the

sun.sun. All teachers are female.All teachers are female.

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9.1 Logical relations9.1 Logical relations

NotNot ﹁﹁ // ～～ : ¬P : ¬P And ∧: P∧QAnd ∧: P∧Q Or ∨: P∨Q, Or ∨: P∨Q, ﹁﹁ P∨QP∨Q If … then →: P→QIf … then →: P→Q Equals to ↔ : P↔ Equals to ↔ : P↔

QQ

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Truth value: Not Truth value: Not ¬¬

P ¬P

T

F

F

T

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Truth value: And Truth value: And ∧∧

P Q P∧Q

F F F

F T F

T F F

T T T

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Truth value: Or Truth value: Or ∨∨: P: P∨∨QQ

P Q P∨Q

F F F

F T T

T F T

T T T

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Truth value: Or Truth value: Or ∨∨: : ¬¬PP∨∨QQ

¬P Q ¬P∨Q

F F T

F T T

T F F

T T T

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Truth value: If…then Truth value: If…then →→

P Q P→Q

F F T

F T T

T F F

T T T

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Truth value: Equals to ↔Truth value: Equals to ↔

P Q PQ

F F T

F T F

T F F

T T T

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9.2 Predicate Logic9.2 Predicate Logic

Argument and PredicateArgument and Predicate John runs.John runs. runs’ (John’) runs’ (John’) oror R(j) R(j) John loves Mary.John loves Mary. loves’ (John’, Mar loves’ (John’, Mar

y’) y’) oror L(j, m) L(j, m) John gave Mary a book.John gave Mary a book. gave’ (John’, gave’ (John’,

Mary’, book’) Mary’, book’) oror G(j, m, b) G(j, m, b)

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One-place predicate:One-place predicate: run run Two-place predicate:Two-place predicate: love love Three-place predicate:Three-place predicate: give give

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Quantifiers:Quantifiers: all all ∀ ∀ , some , some ∃∃ All teachers are female.All teachers are female.

∀∀ x (T(x) x (T(x) F(x)) = For all x, if x is a tea F(x)) = For all x, if x is a teacher, x is female.cher, x is female.

Some teachers are female.Some teachers are female. ∃ ∃ x (T(x)x (T(x)∧∧F(x)) = There are some x’s tF(x)) = There are some x’s t

hat are both teachers and female.hat are both teachers and female.

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All teachers are female. All teachers are female. ∀ ∀ x (T(x)x (T(x)F(x))F(x))

John is a teacher. John is a teacher. T(j)T(j)

Hence, John is female. Hence, John is female. ∴ ∴ F(j)F(j)