Chapter Eight:

Trade Restrictions: Tariffs

8.1 Introduction Nations impose restrictions on the free flow of

international trade. Since these restrictions and regulations deal with the

nation’s trade or commerce, they are known as trade or commercial policies.

Restrictions are advocated by interest groups who benefit from them.

The most important restrictions are tariffs. A tariff is a tax levied on the traded commodity as it

crosses a national boundary. An import tariff is a duty on the imported commodity,

while an export tariff is a duty on the exported one.

Import tariffs more important and will concentrate on. Tariffs can be either: Ad Valorem: is expressed as a fixed percentage of the

value of the traded commodity. Specific: is expressed as a fixed sum per physical unit

of the traded commodity. Compound: is a combination of an ad valorem and a

specific tariff.

Tariffs in Some Developed Countries

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Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products 2004 (Percentages)

Australia Norway New Zealand Iceland

Wood, pulp, paper & furniture 3.5 0.0 1.6 2.5

Textiles and clothing 12.8 3.4 7.3 5.2 Leather, rubber & travel goods 7.0 0.0 5.1 5.9 Metals 3.4 1.1 2.7 0.8 Chemicals & photo. supplies 1.8 0.0 1.0 1.0 Transport equipment 4.1 0.0 4.7 2.1 Non-electric machinery 3.2 0.0 4.1 0.7 Electric machinery 3.3 0.0 3.4 2.0 Mineral products 1.8 0.0 1.6 1.8 Other manufactures 1.5 0.0 2.3 3.6 Fish & fish products 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.2

Petroleum 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1

Average 4.6 0.6 3.4 2.4 _____________________________________________________________________

Source: WTO, World Trade Report 2005 (Geneva: WTO, 2005), Appendix II and IV.

Dr. Reyadh Faras

Tariffs in Some Developing Countries

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Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products 2004 (Percentages)

Argentina Turkey Indonesia Malaysia Philippines_

Wood, pulp, paper & furniture 12.8 1.5 5.2 12.5 7.2 Textiles and clothing 19.7 8.1 10.5 16.2 10.8 Leather, rubber & travel goods 15.9 4.4 7.7 15.1 6.7 Metals 13.0 4.2 7.3 8.8 4.6 Chemicals & photo. supplies 9.6 4.8 5.4 3.8 3.8 Transport equipment 13.6 4.3 12.2 19.6 8.8 Non-electric machinery 5.7 1.9 2.2 3.7 2.3 Electric machinery 13.8 2.6 6.0 8.1 3.7 Mineral products 9.3 2.1 5.1 9.9 4.9 Other manufactures 15.5 2.6 7.5 6.2 4.9 Fish & fish products 12.0 46.7 4.9 6.4 8.0 Petroleum 0.3 3.4 2.1 5.0 2.9

Average_ 12.9 5.3 6.7 _ 9.1________ _ 5.8____

Source: WTO, World Trade Report 2005 (Geneva: WTO, 2005), Appendix II and IV.

Dr. Reyadh Faras

Escalating Tariffs in Some Developed Countries

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Table Cascading Tariff Structure on Imports of Industrial Products Percentages) Australia Switzerland______

Raw Semi- Finished Raw Semi- Finished Materials Manufactures Products Materials Manufactures Products

Wood, pulp, paper & furniture 0.3 7.0 8.9 1.2 2.9 1.7 Textiles and clothing 1.5 22.9 35.7 1.6 3.9 5.5 Leather, rubber & travel goods 4.2 11.5 22.0 0.1 0.8 3.2 Metals 0.6 0.8 11.8 0.0 1.1 1.3 Chemicals & photo. supplies 0.0 9.8 7.6 0.0 1.5 1.2 Mineral products 2.4 6.0 11.1 1.7 1.5 1.4 Fish & fish products 0.4 0.0 3.2 0.3 0.2 1.1

______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Norway New Zealand _______________________

Raw Semi- Finished Raw Semi- Finished Materials Manufactures Products Materials Manufactures Products

Wood, pulp, paper & furniture 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.0 4.6 5.6 Textiles and clothing 0.1 7.8 9.5 0.0 9.2 34.4 Leather, rubber & travel goods 0.0 0.0 4.4 5.9 14.8 23.1 Metals 0.0 0.3 2.5 0.0 9.4 15.2 Chemicals & photo. supplies 0.0 3.0 2.9 0.0 4.1 11.4 Mineral products 0.2 0.0 1.3 2.1 1.6 13.1 Fish & fish products 0.0 0.0 30.9 1.1 0.0 6.6

______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Source: WTO, Market Access: Unfinished Business (Geneva: WTO, 2001), pp. 36-39.

Dr. Reyadh Faras

8.2 Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a TariffThe partial equil. analysis is most appropriate when a

small nation imposes a tariff on imports competing a

small domestic industry. Then the tariff will affect

neither world prices nor the rest of the economy.

A. Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff In Fig.-8-1, DX is demand curve and SX is supply

curve of Commodity X in Nation 2. Without trade, intersection of DX and SX defines

equil (E); 30X is demanded and supplied at PX=$3.

With trade at world price PX=$1, Nation 2 consumes 70X (AB), of which 10X (AC) is produced domestically and 60X (CB) is imported.

FIGURE 8-1 Partial Equlibrium Effects of a Tariff.

The line SF represents the infinitely elastic free trade foreign supply curve of X to Nation 2.

With a 100% ad valorem import tariff, PX in Nation 2 will rise to $2, and consumption will be 50X (GH), of which 20X (GJ) is produced domestically and 30X (JH) is imported.

The line SF+T represents the new tariff inclusive foreign supply curve of X to Nation 2.

The consumption effect of a tariff equals 20X (BN). The production effect equals 10X (CM). The trade effect equals 30X (BN+CM). The revenue effect equals $30 (MJHN).

NOTE: The more elastic is (DX), the greater is the

consumption effect. The more elastic is (SX), the greater is the production

effect. The more elastic are (DX and SX), the greater is the

trade effect, and the smaller is the revenue effect of a tariff.

B. Effect of a Tariff on Consumer and Producer Surplus

The increase in price leads to a reduction in consumer surplus and an increase in producer surplus.

Left panel of Fig. 8-2 shows that the loss of consumer surplus is equal to shaded area AGHB=$60.

Reason: before the tariff, consumers consume 70X at PX=$1. consumers pay for each unit as much as they are willing to pay for the last (70th) unit (point B).

Consumers however receive more satisfaction and are willing to pay higher prices for earlier units they buy.

Consumer surplus: the difference between what consumers are willing to pay for each unit of the commodity, and what they actually pay.

FIGURE 8-2 Effect of Tariff on Consumer and Producer Surplus.

With the tariff, price rises from PX=$1 to PX=$2 and purchases decline from 70X to 50X.

Consumer now pay OGHZ=$100 for 50X. Consumer surplus shrinks from ARB=$122.5 to

GRH=$62.5, or by AGHB=$60. Producer Surplus In the right panel of Fig. 8.2, the increase in rent or

producer surplus resulting from the tariff is given by shaded area AGJC=$15.

Reason: at free trade PX=$1, domestic producers produce 10X and receive OACV=$10 in revenues.

With the tariff and PX=$2, they produce 20X and receive OGJU=$40.

Of the $30 increase (AGJC+VCJU) in the revenue of producers, VCJU=$15 represents the increase in their cost of production, while the remainder (shaded area AGCJ=$15) represents the increase in the:

Producer surplus: a payment that need not be made in the long run in order to induce domestic producers to supply the additional 10X with the tariff.

Producer surplus is referred to as the subsidy effect of the tariff.

C. Costs and Benefits of a Tariff Fig 8-3 shows that of the reduction of the consumer

surplus of AGHB= a+b+c+d= $60, MJHN= c= $30 is tariff revenue collected by government, AGJC= a=$15 is addition to producer’s surplus, while the remaining $15 (CJM= b= $5 and BHN= d= $10 represents the protection cost, or deadweight loss to the economy.

The production component (CJM=b= $5) of the deadweight loss arises because, with the tariff, some domestic resources are transferred from the more efficient production of exportable commodity Y to the less efficient production of importable X.

FIGURE 8-3 Partial Equilibrium Costs and Benefits of a Tariff.

The consumption component (BHN=d= $10) of the deadweight loss arises because the tariff artificially increases PX relative to PY and distorts the pattern of consumption.

In Sum: The tariff redistributes income from domestic

consumers to domestic producers and from the nation’s abundant factor (producing exportables) to the nation’s scarce factor (producing importables).

This leads to inefficiencies referred to as the deadweight loss of the tariff.

8.3 The Theory of Tariff Structure

A. The Rate of Effective Protection Very often, a nation imports a raw material duty free

or imposes a lower tariff rate on the importation of the input than on the importation of the final commodity produced with the imported input.

The nation does this in order to encourage domestic processing and employment.

In this case, the rate of effective protection exceeds the nominal tariff rate.

Domestic value added equals the price of the final commodity minus the cost of the imported inputs

While the nominal tariff rate is important to consumers, the effective tariff rate (ETR) is important to producers because it indicates how much protection is actually provided to the domestic processing of the import-competing commodity.

The effective rate of tariff protection is important to producers in stimulating the domestic production in competition with imported goods.

Whenever the imported input is admitted duty free or a lower tariff rate is imposed on the imported input than on the final commodity produced with the imported input, the effective rate of protection will exceed the nominal tariff rate.

FIGURE 8-4 Pre- and Post-Uruguay Round Cascading Tariff Structure in Industrial Countries.

The rate of effective protection is usually calculated using the following formula:

g = (t – aiti) / (1 – ai) Where:

g = the rate of effective protection to producers of the final commodity.

t = the nominal tariff rate on consumers of the final commodity

ai = the ratio of cost of imported input to price of final commodity in the absence of tariffs.

ti = the nominal tariff rate on the imported input

Example:

An imported wool =$80 used to produce a $100 suit. If t = 10%, ai = $80/$100= 0.8, and ti = 0.

g = (t – aiti) / (1 – ai)

g = ( – x ) / ( – ) g = ( – ) / ( ) = If a 5% nominal tariff is imposed on imported input: g = ( – x ) / ( – ) g = ( – ) / ( ) = If a 20% nominal tariff is imposed on imported input: g = ( – x ) / ( – ) g = ( – ) / ( ) =