chapter eight arguing, challenging and discussing history ... filechapter eight arguing, challenging...

34
© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004 Page 1 Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall social purpose of the Exposition, Discussion and Challenge text types is to argue the case for or against a particular interpretation of the past. In contrast to Factorial and Consequential Explanations, which generally present their interpretation of the past as categorical fact, these text types foreground the interpretative nature of historical investigation. Hence, the organisation of the text types reflects the valued historical paradigm whereby an hypothesis or thesis is proved or disproved through the marshalling of evidence. Analytical Exposition Social Purpose Within the context of history, an Exposition is an analytical text which puts forward a particular interpretation of the past and then ‘proves’ the interpretation through a series of arguments. These arguments act as evidence (and may be referred to as such) for the ‘truth’ of the interpretation. They are supported and elaborated upon through reference to institutions, social practices and events. They may also quote or report on documentary evidence and other primary source material as further proof. Historians' judgements (secondary sources) can also be called upon to give support to the writer's interpretation. Although the integration and acknowledgment of primary and secondary sources may occur in earlier years, it is in the senior years that this practice becomes an increasingly valued and expected feature of the student essay. It is a feature that is seen as contributing to the persuasive power of the interpretation. We can say, then, that the overall social purpose of an Analytical Exposition within the domain of history is to persuade readers to accept the writer's interpretation of the past as the most reasonable and accurate version that is available, if not the truth itself. Analytical Expositions in school history writing

Upload: trankhanh

Post on 10-Mar-2019

223 views

Category:

Documents


1 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 1

Chapter EightArguing, challenging and discussinghistory: the language resourcesIntroductionIn history, the overall social purpose of the Exposition, Discussion and Challengetext types is to argue the case for or against a particular interpretation of the past. Incontrast to Factorial and Consequential Explanations, which generally present theirinterpretation of the past as categorical fact, these text types foreground theinterpretative nature of historical investigation. Hence, the organisation of the texttypes reflects the valued historical paradigm whereby an hypothesis or thesis isproved or disproved through the marshalling of evidence.

Analytical ExpositionSocial PurposeWithin the context of history, an Exposition is an analytical text which puts forwarda particular interpretation of the past and then ‘proves’ the interpretation through aseries of arguments. These arguments act as evidence (and may be referred to assuch) for the ‘truth’ of the interpretation. They are supported and elaborated uponthrough reference to institutions, social practices and events. They may also quote orreport on documentary evidence and other primary source material as further proof.Historians' judgements (secondary sources) can also be called upon to give supportto the writer's interpretation. Although the integration and acknowledgment ofprimary and secondary sources may occur in earlier years, it is in the senior yearsthat this practice becomes an increasingly valued and expected feature of the studentessay. It is a feature that is seen as contributing to the persuasive power of theinterpretation.

We can say, then, that the overall social purpose of an Analytical Exposition withinthe domain of history is to persuade readers to accept the writer's interpretation ofthe past as the most reasonable and accurate version that is available, if not the truthitself.

Analytical Expositions in school history writing

Page 2: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 2

Expositions are one of the key text types that students are expected to have masteredby profile level 6. The NSW 7–10 history syllabus states that, by this level, studentsshould be able to read a variety of sources in order to make judgements and be ableto construct a logical argument. Sophisticated control of this text type is critical tostudents’ success as they move into senior high school and prepare for the HigherSchool Certificate (HSC). However, observation shows that, although many studentslearn to argue and persuade well (and have done so since primary school), their textsmay be emotive and personal and lack the analytical dimension that is required ofExpositions within the context of school history. Explicit teaching of the AnalyticalExposition can, therefore, facilitate students' academic success.

Texts that argue the case for a particular interpretation of the past are, in some ways,similar to texts that explain the past. However, whereas Factorial and ConsequentialExplanations explain historical phenomena in terms of reasons and outcomes,Expositions highlight how likely such an explanation of the past is. The information is,therefore, organised in terms of arguments or evidence; in other words, it is theinterpretative, and therefore arguable, nature of historical knowledge that isemphasised. As a result, historical questions which demand as a response anExposition (or Discussion or Challenge) are typically framed in terms of probabilityor degree. Here are some examples:

To what extent was the failure of international securitydue to the lack of commitment towards disarmament in the1930s?,

How far was overproduction the cause of the Depression inthe USA?

How important were economic factors in driving Japan intowar in the Pacific and South-east Asia in 1941?

How far did Stalin's doctrine ‘Socialism in one country’influence Soviet foreign policy in the period up to 1945?

Questions such as these require students to make a judgement about the explanatoryvalue of specific factors in bringing about an historical outcome. This requires acareful weighing up of available evidence in order to construct a thesis whichmeasures how far/to what extent/the degree to which factors or consequences canexplain the past. In other words, the student must plot the extent of the part playedby the historical phenomenon along a continuum which stretches from, at one end,‘no part at all’ to, at the other end, ‘the only part’.

Page 3: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 3

The extent to which a factor played a part in bringing about the outcome

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------No part at allsome part an average part a large part the only part

Alternatively students may be asked to judge the extent to which a society changedas a result of an historical event. For example:

How far did the Whitlam government abandon, rather thanmaintain, the goals of the Chifley government?

In this last question, the event is a change of government and the degree of changecan be measured by comparing the policies of the Chifley government with thepolicies of the Whitlam government.

In addition to learning how to evaluate interpretative frameworks for explaining thepast, students may also need to learn how to use the Exposition text type as a way ofevaluating evidence. Such a task is particularly common in Year 10 and the senioryears when students are required to critically analyse and argue about the validity ofa piece of historical evidence. Here are some examples of such questions are:

How does the film Dances with Wolves conform to the oldideas of Indians? To what extent is it historicallyaccurate?

How far would a historian studying the impact of war onthe home front find sources C and D of value?

As students prepare for senior secondary school they need to understand the highlyinterpretative and subjective nature of historical explanation and how thisunderstanding can be reflected in their written responses to historical questions. Inother words, they need to move beyond straightforward explanations of whysomething occurred, or the consequences of that occurrence, and learn how toforeground the negotiability of their historical interpretation. To do this they need tolearn new ways of organising historical data and to expand their repertoire ofgrammatical resources. They also need to learn to recognise when it is appropriateand powerful to construct such a text.

Page 4: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 4

Developing Critical LiteracyIn terms of critical literacy, learning how to both deconstruct and construct anExposition will give students insight into the formation of historical knowledge as aset of interpretations. Whereas the Recount version of history naturalisesperspectives on, and selections of, events as social fact, Expositions highlightreconstructions of the past as probabilities which are thus arguable. Students need,therefore, to learn to survey and consider alternative positions on the past andnegotiate with these different opinions and representations in order to arrive at theirown interpretation.

In addition, students have to be critically aware of how expository texts characterisethe raw data of history generally and how their tendency to highlight trends orpatterns is ideologically determined. For example, theories of economic activity orthe role of leaders may be used as reductive and simplistic explanatory devices.Students must also learn how the construction of an objective voice in AnalyticalExpositions can easily be unpicked as a rhetorical device which acts to mask thevested interests, or limited understanding, of the historian/history student. In short,students need to learn how to critically deconstruct Expositions and construct newinterpretations of the past. As part of this process they need, of course, to be aware ofthe role of both the writer and reader's class, gender, ethnicity, age and ideologicalstance in the interpretative process.

Stages in an Analytical ExpositionThe social purpose of an Exposition is achieved by moving through three distinctobligatory stages. An optional stage ‘Background’ may also occur prior to the Thesis:

• Background (Optional)

• Thesis

• Arguments

• Reinforcement of thesis

Text 8.1 is a composit of several essays written by a Year 10 class. Evidence thatcould be used in the text was first selected and presented to the students by the classteacher. Students were then asked to write the essay independently as a homeworktask.

Page 5: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 5

Background

Thesis

8.1

To what extent was the 1920s a decade ofhope?

During the early 1920s the entire worldwas in shock over the horrific loss oflife that occurred during the Great Warof 1915– 1918. Millions of soldiers andcivilians on both sides were killed.However people thought of the war as ‘thewar to end all wars’ and the treaty ofVersailles was seen as an attempt atfairness and justice to both sides. Newborders were drawn up, creating a numberof new countries like Yugoslavia, Polandand Czechoslavakia. It can be argued,therefore, that despite the many warningsof darkness to come, the 1920s was, to alarge extent, a decade of hope. Indeedthere is a range of evidence that showsthat, even by the end of the war, aperiod of hope had begun. It also showsthat this hope was sustained throughoutmost of the twenties. This evidenceincludes Germany's display of goodwillthrough the signing of various treatiesand pacts, antiwar feeling in the generalpublic and widespread prosperity.

Arguments

Argument for

Concession

Evidence of Germany’s goodwill was firstdisplayed in 1925 when a treaty, calledthe Treaty of Locarno, was signedvoluntarily by Germany, France, GreatBritain, Italy and Belgium. In thistreaty Germany agreed to accept herwestern frontiers as laid down in theTreaty of Versailles, which previouslyshe had not agreed to. This was a goodsign, because, although it could notprevent Germany from invading anothercountry, it meant that she could not doso without breaking laws.

Page 6: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 6

Argument for

Concession

Further evidence of Germany’s good willwas provided in 1926 when she joined theLeague of Nations. Germany was then givena permanent seat on the council with theother great world powers. Even thoughthere was deep resentment in Germanytowards those nations involved in theTreaty of Versailles, joining the Leagueof Nations was a clear sign that thecountry wanted to be part of the rest ofthe world. In joining the League ofNations, therefore, Germany gave peoplethe hope that she would not start anotherwar.

Argument for The Kellog-Briand Pact of 1928 alsosupports the notion that the 1920s was aperiod of hope. The signing of the pactby sixty-five countries, including theUSA, Russia and Japan, meant that acountry could only attack another in selfdefence.

Argument for

Concession

Argument for

The hope for a peaceful future wasparticularly well demonstrated in publicreaction to the publication of Remarques’anti-war novel `All quiet on the WesternFront’ in 1929. Soon after publicationthe book became a best seller and wastranslated into several languages. Thiswas evidence of the strength of anti-warfeelings. In addition, the fact that itwas translated into different languagesshows that it was not just one side thatwas strongly against war.

Finally, although it can be argued thatthere was evidence in the 1920s tosuggest an imminent collapse of thepayback system in which the Europeaneconomies depended on the Americaneconomy, there was at the same time asignificant increase in production, tradeand personal incomes. Thus, despite someanticipation of an impending Depression,the overall result of the economic boomwas an increase in optimism. This, then,is another argument for the twentiesbeing a period of hope.

Page 7: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 7

Reinforcement ofThesis

Although there was certainly evidence toshow that the 1920s heralded a period ofeconomic doom, it is clear from theanalysis above that, to a large extent,the 1920s can be seen as a decade ofhope. General economic prosperity and abelief by the public in future peace,based on the signing of various pacts,are strong evidence of this.

Text 8.1: Model Analytical Exposition showing staging

Page 8: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 8

The purpose of each stageThe Background stage of an Exposition is an optional stage which, where necessary,serves to provide a context for the historical event or issue that the thesis isconcerned with.

The Thesis stage of an Exposition puts forward a possible interpretation of the pastthat will be supported and elaborated upon in the body of the text. It may beintroduced with a greater or lesser degree of certainty. In the sample text, forinstance, the fact that the thesis is possibly contentious is made clear:

It can be argued, therefore, that despite the manywarnings of darkness to come, the 1920s was, to a largeextent, a decade of hope.

In other essays the Thesis is presented more categorically. For example, in responseto the question

How far did the Whitlam government abandon, rather thanmaintain, the goals of the Chifley government?’

a student’s Thesis was

The ideals and goals of the labour movement hadnecessarily changed over this period, but Chifley's andWhitlam's goals had a substantial amount in common.

The function of the Arguments stage is to put forward a series of arguments that, asa whole, will persuade the reader to accept the writer's interpretation. Thesearguments can be thought of as ‘micro-arguments’ which are brought together inorder to prove the overall macro-argument or thesis. Sometimes these micro-arguments are referred to as evidence which supports or counters the macro-argument or thesis. This is the case in the sample text.

Evidence or arguments that challenge the Thesis may be included but are eithercritiqued or weakened by the force of the evidence and arguments that support theThesis. These counter arguments may have the status of a complete stage and, in thatcase, may be labelled ‘Arguments against’. Alternatively they may be weaved into an‘Argument for’ stage where, typically, they are realised as a dependent clause. Thistype of counter evidence which does not have the status of a complete stage islabelled Concession.

Page 9: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 9

Exposition arguments are not necessarily of equal weight. Often there are very clearordering patterns which govern these arguments, for example, the most powerfularguments may be placed at the beginning and end of the essay with counterarguments being conceded but dismissed along the way. Alternatively the rhetoricalpattern may be to move from the weakest to the most forceful evidence in order towork towards a climax. Sometimes a counter argument is dismantled just before thelast most convincing argument.

In history the data or evidence that is used to substantiate the main arguments istypically comprised of condensed Historical Recounts or Accounts, Reports andExplanations. The writer may also acknowledge the primary and secondary sourcesthat he/she is drawing upon. This is particularly common if evidence is in the formof documents, media reports or well known secondary interpretations.

The Reinforcement of Thesis stage reaffirms the thesis that was stated in the initialstage. In this stage, however, the statement of the thesis is often much stronger andmore direct than in the opening of the text:

Although there was certainly evidence to show that the1920s heralded a period of economic doom, it is clear fromthe analysis above…

Amplification is also a typical part of this stage. It functions to show the degree towhich a thesis and evidence hold true, for example:

…to a large extent, the 1920s can be seen as a decade ofhope. General economic prosperity and a belief by thepublic in future peace, based on the signing of variouspacts are strong evidence of this.

How the Context of Situation affects language choicesField and language choice: Building a picture of the worldIn Text 8.1 the Field is historical events in the 1920s. New patterns in nationalthinking and behaviour are contrasted with past thoughts and actions. The thesisthat the 1920s were, to a large extent, a period of hope relies very much on thechanges that took place after the Great War had ended. It is, therefore, a text that isconcerned with change and continuity. Through an accumulation of evidence thewriter characterises 1918 onwards as, overall, a period of hope whereas pre-1918 isdescribed as a period when whole populations were ‘in shock’. It is also a text that isconcerned with causality, with some of the arguments being elaborated by mini-

Page 10: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 10

Account sequences which chart the changes in national behaviour. These changes arethen interpreted as reasons for seeing the 1920s as a period of hope.

Much of the specialised vocabulary in this sample Exposition is concerned withlegal and bureaucratic Processes, many of which are specific. For example:

as laid down in the Treaty of Versaillesa treaty, called the Treaty of Lugarno, was signedvoluntarilythe signing of various pactsGermany joined the League of Nations and was then given apermanent seat on the councilThe Kellog-Briand Pact

The generalised human Participants are often described through the Nominal group.For example:

Millions of soldiers and civilians on both sideswere killed

Numerative Thing Qualifier

Most of the non-human Participants in the sample text are abstract and form part ofa dense Nominal group in which the abstract Thing is classified, described andqualified. This is typical of an Exposition in the context of school history. Here aresome examples:

Germany was then given a permanent seat on thecouncilDeterminer Classifier Thing Qualifier

Many Participants are formed through Nominalisation:

Evidence for this lies in Germany’s display of goodwill,Determiner Nominalised Thing Qualifier

the signing of various pacts,Determiner Nominalised Thing Qualifier

antiwar feeling in the general public, andwidespread prosperity.

Classifier Nominalised Thing Qualifier Describer Nominalised Thing

The hope for a peaceful future was particularly welldemonstrated...Determiner Nominalised Thing Qualifier

Page 11: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 11

This was evidence of the strength of anti war feelingsNominalised Thing Qualifier

Time, change and continuityLike many Analytical Expositions within history, Text 8.1 is concerned with changesthat took place over a period of time. These changes, however, are not chronicled ina simple sequence. Instead, earlier and later parts of the 1920s are contrasted in orderto highlight changes. In addition the whole essay sets out to prove that the 1920's canbe characterised in a particular way. Therefore time is frequently given the attribute,‘decade of hope’. A range of grammatical resources need to be drawn on to do this.Some examples are:

• Simple time words

Germany was then given a permanent seat on the council

• Dependent clauses

Evidence of Germany’s goodwill was first displayed in 1925when a treaty, called the Treaty of Locarno, was signedvoluntarily…

Further evidence was provided in 1926 when she joined theLeague of Nations…

• Circumstances of Time

During the early 1920s the entire world was in shock ...

Indeed there is a range of evidence that shows that, evenby the end of the war, a period of hope had begun.

It also shows that this hope was sustained throughout mostof the twenties.

In this treaty Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontiers, as laid down in the Treaty of Versailles, whichpreviously she had not agreed to.

Further evidence of goodwill was provided in 1926 when shejoined the League of Nations

Evidence of Germany's goodwill was first displayed in 1925

Soon after publication the book became a best seller

• Processes

Evidence that shows that even by the end of the war, aperiod of hope had begun...

Page 12: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 12

• Nominalisation and the Nominal group

Evidence that shows that even by the end of the war,a period of hope had begun…

Nominalised Thing Qualifier

The Kellog–Briand pact of 1928 also supports thenotion that the 1920swas a period of hopeQualifierNominalised Thing Nominalised Thing Qualifier

From the analysis above… the 1920s can be seen as aa decade of hope

Nominalised Thing Nominalised Thing Qualifier

CausalityAnalytical Expositions are concerned with using evidence to support a particularinterpretation of history. This evidence often consists of a sequence of events whichserve to prove the writer's point of view (a compressed or mini-Historical Recount).Sometimes there are causal as well as temporal links between the events (acondensed or mini-Historical Account). These serve to make explicit how one eventis externally linked to another. Here are some examples of the range of resources thatthe writer draws on to express cause and effect.

Simple cause words

In joining the League of Nations, therefore, Germany gavepeople the hope that she would not start another war

• Dependent clauses

This was a good sign because … it meant that Germanycould not invade without breaking any laws

• Processes

The signing of the pact by sixty-five countries …meantthat a country could only attack another in self defence

• Nominalisation and the Nominal group

Thus, despite some anticipation of an impendingDepression, the overall result of the economic boomwas an increase in optimism.

Determiner Classifier Nominalised Thing Qualifier

Page 13: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 13

Tenor and language choice: How the writer relates to the readerIt is the use of various types of persuasive strategies at both the level of text and thelevel of clause that distinguishes AnalyticalExpositions (together with Discussionsand Challenges) from other types of historical writing. Whereas Factorial andConsequential Explanations build a picture of the past which is unproblematical, thearguing text types present a more complex picture. They are texts that build a pictureof how the world could have been rather than how it was. To do this successfully thewriter must persuade the reader that his version of how the past could have been isnot only probable but, in relation to alternative interpretations, the most accurateand likely version.

Acknowledging alternative interpretations and points of view, together withcritically examining and weighing up evidence, are the key strategies of thepersuasive process. In a successful Exposition the interpretation is revealed as thelogical outcome of the critical interrogation of a range of evidence which bothsupports and counters the thesis. Rather than working with black and whiteexplanatory categories (such as, ‘the reasons for the Second World War were a, b andc’) the writer works along a finely graded continuum of probability (such as,‘although it can be argued that, to some extent, a and b were reasons for the SecondWorld War, x, y and z probably played a more important role’). The result is a finelytuned interpretation.

The patterning and weighting of evidence which both supports and counters thethesis is critical to the success of an Exposition. History students need to have controlover language resources that weaken counter evidence and strengthen supportingevidence. Increasingly, as they enter the senior years, they need to write Expositionsin which evidence is interrogated critically. In this way the Exposition text typeserves to demonstrate the complexity of their investigation and final interpretation.

Another persuasive strategy that is used in Analytical Expositions, and which iscommon to history writing generally, is the depersonalised nature of the writing.Unlike spoken arguments where the speaker is clearly the source of interpretationand where reasoning is straightforward, in written Expositions, the writer appearsdetached and reasoning is often buried and therefore difficult to counteract. Over thenext several pages we examine some of the resources used to produce a persuasiveargument in historical texts.

Page 14: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 14

Weakening evidence : the role of Dependent clausesIn an Exposition the thesis is put forward in the opening stage of the text and thefunction of the rest of the text is to support it through the use of evidence. Ratherthan refer only to supporting evidence, it is important that the writer acknowledgescounter arguments and evidence so that his or her interpretation of the past is notseen as simplistic. However, the counter arguments and evidence cannot be givenequal weight, otherwise the text would cease to persuade the reader of the validity ofthe thesis. One linguistic resource that is used to diminish the power of counterarguments is to place them in Dependent clauses. Look at the following examplestaken from the sample text (Dependent clauses are in bold)

It can be argued, therefore, that, despite the manywarnings of darkness to come, the 1920s was, to a largeextent, a decade of hope.

This was a good sign, because, although it could notprevent Germany from invading another country, it meantthat she could not do so without breaking laws.

Even though there was deep resentment in Germany towardsthose nations involved in the Treaty of Versailles,joining the League of Nations was a clear sign that thecountry wanted to be part of the rest of the world.

Finally, although it can be argued that there was evidencein the 1920s to suggest an imminent collapse of thepayback system in which the European economies depended onthe American economy, there was at the same time asignificant increase in production, trade and personalincomes.

Although there was certainly evidence to show that the1920s heralded a period of economic doom, it is clear fromthe analysis above that, to a large extent, the 1920s canbe seen as a decade of hope.

Tempering the writer’s opinion: the use of modalityIn the opening stage of an Analytical Exposition a thesis or interpretation is putforward. Since any interpretation of the past is simply an hypothesis the thesis isoften stated tentatively as a possibility rather than a certainty. To do this the writerwill need to draw on the resource of Modality. Modality, which was explored inChapter 4, is a system of grammatical resources for grading degrees of probability orusuality within a proposition. For example, in the sample student essay, the writeruses the Modal ‘can’ to adjust the negotiability of his claim:

It can be argued therefore that by the end of the war aperiod of hope had begun

Page 15: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 15

It can also be argued that this hope was sustainedthroughout the twenties

Likewise in the Reiteration of Thesis stage the writer is also careful to make tentativehis proposition through the use of the Modal ‘can’:

From the evidence above it is clear that, to a largeextent, the 1920s can be seen as a decade of hope

Rather than use the Modal ‘can’ the writer could have chosen the Modal ‘must’ inorder to increase the probability and strength of his/her assessment. Equally he/shecould have chosen not to use Modality at all in order to make a categorical ratherthan a negotiable statement. Look at the following, rewritten examples:

From the evidence above it is clear that, to a largeextent, the 1920s must be seen as a decade of hope

From the evidence above it is clear that, to a largeextent, the 1920s is seen as a decade of hope

In Chapter 4 we looked in detail at how the system of Modality adds the speaker's orthe writer’s personal perspective on whether the information being negotiated in aparticular clause is valid. We saw how Modality allows us to temper an exchange byexpressing, rather than absolutes (Polarity); that is, degrees of:

probability (between yes and no)

usuality (between always and never)

In Analytical Expositions within the discipline of history, Modality is an importantresource for writers to have control of. It enables them to make continuousassessments about how committed they are to the information they are presenting.Thus, rather than express an oversimplistic, clear-cut view of the past, they are ableto construct a more complex and therefore, more persuasive picture.

Constructing an ‘objective’ voiceIn Chapters 5 and 6 the interpersonal dimension of Historical Recounts, Accountsand Explanations was explored. We found that, although these text types mayappear to neutrally chronicle or explain the past, they do, in fact, position the readerto see events and issues from a particular perspective. Thus, we have seen how so

Page 16: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 16

called ‘objectivity’ is simply a linguistic trick and can be achieved in a number ofways. For example we have seen how:

• the past is presented as a series of indisputable events which lead toinevitable (and ‘logical’) conclusions;

• in Historical Recounts and Accounts, events may evoke ImplicitJudgement (in other words act as Tokens of Judgement) in the Record ofEvents stage and these judgements may then be made explicit in theDeduction stage;

• in Factorial and Consequential Explanations, reasons for, andconsequences of, historical events are presented as though definitive andunproblematic;

• the sources of appraisal and evaluation are people other than the writer orare the historical events themselves. There is no clear, explicit link betweenAppraisal that is made within the text and the author of the text.

Generally, the distinction between the persuading text types and other text typesused in history is the presentation of the past as a perspective rather than fact.However, even though the Analytical Exposition sets up its thesis as a probability(based on the writer's analysis and interpretation of evidence) as opposed to anunquestioned truth, the subjective nature of the interpretation is greatly playeddown. This is achieved by distancing the writer from the arguments and evidencehe/she presents. As in the case of other history text types, language resources areused to make the text and the thesis it presents appear unbiased and objective. Manyof these resources are similar to those listed above. However, the presentation of thepast as hypothesis rather than fact means additional resources need to be drawn on.These resources are explored in Grammar Reference 8.1.

Grammar Reference 8.1Expressing degrees of probability objectively —Interpersonal MetaphorModality can be expressed in a straightforward (congruent) way using Modal verbsand a less straightforward (incongruent) way using a range of grammaticalresources. When Modality or any kind of interpersonal meaning is expressed in aless straightforward way the technical term is Interpersonal Metaphor. Table 8.1shows the range of resources for expressing degrees of probability.

Page 17: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 17

Table 8.1: Resources for expressing degrees of probability

Morestraightforward

1. Revolutions can bedetermined more by thebehaviour and actions ofpersonalities at the head ofthe revolution than by a setof ideologies

Modal verb (otherexamples: ‘may’,‘might’, ‘will’, ‘must’)

Lessstraightforward- InterpersonalMetaphor

2. Revolutions are possiblydetermined more by thebehaviour and actions ofpersonalities at the head ofthe revolution than by a setof ideologies

3. It is possible thatrevolutions are determinedmore by the behaviour andactions of personalities atthe head of the revolutionthan by a set of ideologies

4. It is a possibility thatrevolutions are determinedmore by the behaviour andactions of personalities atthe head of the revolutionthan by a set of ideologies

Modal Adjunct (otherexamples: ‘probably’,‘certainly’)

Attribute (otherexamples: ‘probable,certain’)

Thing (otherexamples:‘probability’,‘certainty’)

In the examples above the writer is making an assessment about how likely it is thatrevolutions are determined by the behaviour and actions of personalities ascompared to a set of ideologies. In none of the examples, however, does the writerexplicitly intrude into the text and present the assessment as a subjective view bywriting, for example, ‘In my view...’ or ‘I think...’. In addition, as the writer moves fromthe more straightforward ways of expressing Modality to the less straightforwardways of expressing Modality, the proposition appears more impersonal and moreobjective. It also becomes more difficult to argue with. This is because:

1. In the first example:

Revolutions can be determined more by the behaviour andactions of personalities at the head of the revolutionthan by a set of ideologies

the word ‘can’ can be easily picked up and thrown back and forth in an argument, —yes they ‘can’, ‘no they can’t’. Thus it is the probability of the proposition being true— as expressed in the Modal ‘can’ — that is bandied back and forth.

In the second, third and fourth example, however, the argument would revolvearound the word ‘is’ rather than ‘can’- ‘yes it is’ or ‘no it isn’t’. In this way, theargument over the probability of the proposition being true would be lost.

2. In the first and second examples the word ‘revolutions’ is in Theme position:

Page 18: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 18

Revolutions can be determined more by the behaviour andactions of personalities at the head of the revolutionthan by a set of ideologies

Revolutions are possibly determined more by the behaviourand actions of personalities at the head of the revolutionthan by a set of ideologies

In examples 3 and 4, however the word ‘it’ is the point of departure. Thus the focusof the main proposition — ‘revolutions’ — is left out of subsequent negotiations – ‘yesit is’, ‘no it isn’t’.

Page 19: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 19

Attributing the assessment of probability to sources other than the writer ofthe textIn the sample text the thesis is not only presented as a possibility but as a possibilityput forward or argued by people/historians generally. The language resource used isthe passive voice whereby the agent responsible for the process (e.g. theperson/people who are arguing or ‘seeing’) is omitted. This device of attributingassessments of probability or usuality to sources other than the author of the textmeans that they are not seen as directly responsible for the propositions presentedin the Exposition and thus remain an impartial and neutral recorder. Some examplesare:

It can be argued (by people/historians generally)therefore that by the end of the war a period of hope hadbegun.

It can also be argued (by people/historians generally)that this hope was sustained throughout the twenties

From the evidence above it is clear that, to a largeextent, the 1920s can be seen (by people/historiansgenerally) as a decade of hope

Page 20: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 20

Making Assessments — Modal AdjunctsWe have already seen how degrees of probability can be expressed in a variety ofways. One resource was the Modal Adjunct (e.g. ‘possibly’, ‘probably’, ‘certainly’).Apart from expressing degrees of probability, Modal Adjuncts can express a writer'sassessment of a proposition in other terms. The most common of these, within thecontext of history, are set out in Table 8.2 below :

Table 8.2: Resources for making assessments: Modal Adjuncts

Type Meaning Examplesusuality how often?

how typical?rarely, seldom,occasionally,sometimes, usually,typically, for the mostpart, often, always,never

probability/obligation how likely?how obvious?how necessary

perhaps, maybe,possibly, probably,certainly, surely, ofcourse, obviously,definitely, necessarily

presumption how presumable? evidently, apparently, nodoubt, presumably,clearly

degree to what extent? scarcely, hardly, quite,almost, nearly, entirely,utterly, completely,absolutely, totally

intensity just, simply, ever, only,really, actually

admission I admit admittedlyassertion I assure you without doubt,

undoubtedlydesirability how desirable? (un)fortunatelyvalidity how valid? in general terms, on the

whole, generally,objectively

Modal Adjuncts such as those illustrated above are common in history as they allowthe writer to temper statements that might otherwise appear to overgeneralise or tobe overly categorical. They can also be used to strengthen the persuasive power ofthe writer's interpretation, particularly those adjuncts related to presumption andassertion.

Page 21: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 21

Appearing to present an unbisaed , factual accountSo far we have seen that writers of persuasive texts have many interpersonalresources to choose from in order to convince their readers of the validity of theirinterpretation. These include a set of language resources to construct finely tunedassessments of their evidence so that their argument is not too black and white. Theyalso include resources for distancing themselves from their assessments and makingtheir reconstruction of the past seem objective. In this subsection we will explore theway in which the reconstruction of the past is not only made to appear an objectivereconstruction, uninfluenced by the writer's (albeit unconscious) set of beliefs andvalues, but a reconstruction that appears to be largely factual and thereforeunchallengeable.

A reconstruction of the past that is largely presented as factual and unchallengeablemay at first seem at odds with the construction of a thesis which concedes that whatwill be argued is merely one perspective on the past. After all, a thesis that begins ‘Itcan be argued that...’ implies that the proposition is negotiable, that other peoplemay argue differently. However, apart from in the beginning and end stages (theThesis and Reiteration of Thesis stages) of a written Analytical Exposition, theretends to be little use of explicit Modality. Hence, for the most part, little attention isdrawn to the notion that the text is just one among many interpretations.

Let us look more closely at how the arguments and evidence which are used toprove the writer's thesis are constructed within an Exposition essay. This willprovide insight into one of the ways in which an Exposition persuades a reader toaccept information as indisputable fact.

The first point to note is that, just as in the case of Recounts, Reports andExplanations, it is the selection of evidence that allows certain conclusions to bedrawn. In the sample text, for example, had different evidence been selected we canimagine that different conclusions would have been reached. This selection processapplies to counter evidence as well as to support evidence. The former must beselected on the basis that it does not outweigh the latter. It must also be referred to ina way that weakens it— such as through the method illustrated in the sample text(Concession) or through a full analysis and critique. Without the acknowledgment ofcounter evidence, the persuasive power of an Analytical Exposition would bediminished. It is far more compelling for a reader if the writer appears to becontinually weighing up all the available evidence and then making finely graded

Page 22: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 22

assessments. Equally, however, too much acknowledgment of counter evidencewould diminish the strength of the thesis.

With questions which are framed in terms of ‘To what extent…’, ‘How far…’,evidence must, of course, be carefully selected to match up with what the thesis hasput forward as the degree or extent that something is the case. For example, if inresponse to the question: ‘To what extent did the military and material strength ofthe armies determine who won World War I?’ a student wrote the following thesis:

Military and material strength was the crucial factor inthe victory for the allies in the Great War'

then he/she would have to select evidence that showed how, largely, it was militaryand material strength that determined World War I. The student would also have toacknowledge how there were other factors that contributed to the victory, since thethesis does not claim that military and material strength were the only factors.However he/she would have to play down these factors as being less critical thanmilitary and material strength. In addition the student may choose to acknowledgehow other historians have attributed less importance to military strength and moreto some other factor. This counter argument would, however, have to be weakenedor critiqued.

The second point to note is that, apart from the selection of evidence, it is theanalysis and interpretation of the evidence, as much as the evidence itself, thatleads to particular deductions which in turn ‘prove’ the thesis. Look at how thefollowing piece of evidence is used to prove Germany’s goodwill and as a ‘logical’next step in the argument that the 1920s was a decade of hope.

Evidence of Germany’s goodwill was first displayed in 1925 when a treaty, called theTreaty of Locarno, was signed voluntarily by Germany, France, Great Britain, Italyand Belgium. In this treaty Germany agreed to accept her western frontiers, as laiddown in the Treaty of Versailles, which previously she had not agreed to. This was agood sign, because, although it could not prevent Germany from invading anothercountry, it meant that she could not do so without breaking laws.

A different writer, of course, could have used the same evidence to support adifferent thesis. For example the Treaty of Locarno could have been read as awarning signal in that it did not set up measures to prevent Germany from invadinganother country.

Page 23: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 23

The process whereby a piece of evidence is analysed and a deduction made is similarto the process of a Historical Recount or Account whereby events are selected andpresented and a logical deduction drawn. From our exploration of Recounts andAccounts we found that there was nothing natural about the deductions that weredrawn in the final (Deduction) stage of the text type. That is, although they appearedlogical and inevitable and were often attributed to sources other than the writerhim/herself, they were in fact the outcome of the writer's selection and presentationof particular events. These events often acted as Tokens of Appraisal to skew thereader towards a particular conclusion. We also saw how words such as ‘prove’,‘show’ and ‘demonstrate’ served to give the deductions the status of fact,particularly when the deductions were directly linked to the events or the evidenceand, in this way, the deducer or Appraiser erased from the text.

In a persuasive text type, evidence is often used in a similar way: data, typically inthe form of a mini-Recount or Account, is presented and a deduction then made.This deduction usually links back to and supports the thesis. Let us look at theelaboration of evidence from the paragraph quoted above and break it into theRecord of events and Deduction:

Events …a treaty, called the Treaty of Locarno, wassigned voluntarily by Germany, France, GreatBritain, Italy and Belgium.In this treaty Germany agreed to accept herwestern frontiers, as laid down in the Treatyof Versailles, which previously she had notagreed to.

Deduction This was a good sign, because, although itcould not prevent Germany from invadinganother country, it meant that she could notdo so without breaking laws.

In this example the Deduction rather than coming out as a Process such as ‘prove’,‘show’ or ‘demonstrate’ has come out in a less straightforward way as the noun‘sign’ which is then qualified by the Describer ‘good’ – ‘good sign’. Likewise, inparagraph three, the deductive process has also been Nominalised:

Joining the League of Nations was a clear sign that thecountry wanted to be part of the rest of the world.

It is, of course, the accumulation of several of these supporting deductions whichserves to prove the overall thesis.

Page 24: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 24

The third technique used to persuade the reader that the information presented isindisputable is the use of polarity in the argument stage. In the sample texts youmay have noticed how many of the arguments that are called upon to support theoverall thesis, for example, Germany's display of goodwill through the signing ofvarious treaties and pacts and antiwar feeling in the general public, are presented inabsolute terms, as if they were indisputable facts and therefore unchallengeableproof of the overall thesis. In other words, although Modality is typically selected inthe Thesis and Reinforcement of Thesis stage, Polarity (use of absolutes) is oftenchosen in the presentation of the micro-arguments or evidence in order to drawattention away from the arguments being the writer's particular interpretation ofevidence. In this way the writer’s case is strengthened. Here are some examples ofhow polarity is used to naturalise the interpretative process:

Evidence of Germany's goodwill was first displayed in 1925when a treaty, called the Treaty of Locarno, was signed...

Further evidence of Germany's goodwill was provided in1926 when she joined the League of Nations.

The Kellog - Briand Pact of 1928 also supports the notionthat the 1920s was a period of hope.

The hope for a peaceful future was particularly welldemonstrated in public reaction to the publication ofRemarques's antiwar novel All Quiet on the Western Frontin 1929.

A fourth technique for appearing to present a factual account is to present the Thesisas fact. Different writers make different uses of Modality within the AnalyticalExposition text type. For instance, in the following extract from a successful HigherSchool Certificate text (Text 8.2) Modality is not present either in the Thesis or in theReinforcement of Thesis stages. Instead the propositions are presented as fact.However the combination of some Modality in the opening and closing stages of atext with a move towards Polarity in the body of the text seems to be a particularlyvalued pattern within the context of history within secondary schools.

Question:

8.2

Revolutions are shaped more by dominantpersonalities than by ideologicalconsiderations.How far did your study ofrevolutions show this to be the case?

Page 25: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 25

Thesis

Reinforcementof Thesis

It is clear that the course of revolutions isdetermined more by the behaviour and actionsof personalities at the head of therevolutions, rather than by the set ofideologies. Revolutions are also shaped by theactions of social groups who are led oropposed by these personalities. The influenceof personalities in both France and Russiaovershadowed the numerous, sometimes abandonedideologies of those two revolutions.

In both France and Russia, the dominantpersonalities of the two revolutions had amuch larger influence in shaping therevolutions than revolutionary ideologies,primarily because the survival of bothrevolutions depended on the temporary castingoff or destruction of existing ideologicalconsiderations.

Text 8.2: from Board of Studies 1990 Sample HSC answers Modern History 2/3 unit: 85

Mode and language choice: Organising the textAs in the case of Factorial and Consequential Explanations, Analytical Expositionstend not to organise historical events and issues along a time line. Just as reasons andfactors are the pegs on which information is hung in Explanation text types,arguments and evidence are the organising principles in the Persuading text types.When available, chronology may also be used as an organising principle. In thesample text, for example, the evidence referred to is arranged chronologically.However, it is also important to note that chronology and time periods are not thepoint of departure for the information presented. The emphasis is far more on whatwas the evidence rather then when was the evidence. In an Exposition text typearguments and evidence are made cohesive through the use of Theme (TextPreview, Section Preview and clause level Theme) as well as text sequencing words.

Text PreviewIn the Thesis stage of the sample text, there is a section that foreshadows the orderand type of arguments or evidence that will be elaborated upon. This use of a TextPreview is common in the Analytical Exposition text type. In the Arguments stage ofthe text, each of the arguments listed in the Preview become Section Previews ortopic sentences. This relationship between Text and Section Previews helps to bindthe text together, as shown in Table 8.3.

Page 26: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 26

(See photocopy No 24Draw in arrows!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)

Table 8.3: Relationship between Text Preview, Section Preview in Text 8.1

Text Preview This evidence includes Germany'sdisplay of good will, the signing ofvarious pacts, antiwar feeling in thegeneral public and widespreadprosperity.

Paragraph 2Section Preview

Evidence of Germany’s good will wasfirst displayed in 1925 when a treaty,called the Treaty of Locarno, wassigned voluntarily by Germany, France,Great Britain, Italy and Belgium.

Paragraph 3Section Preview

Further evidence of Germany's good willwas provided in 1926 when she joinedthe League of Nations.

Paragraph 4Section Preview

The Kellog-Briand Pact of 1928 alsosupports the notion that the 1920s wasa period of hope.

Paragraph 5Section Preview

The hope for a peaceful future wasparticularly well demonstrated inpublic reaction to the publication ofRemarques's anti-war novel All quiet onthe Western Front in 1929.

Paragraph 6Section Preview

Finally, although it can be argued thatthere was evidence in the 1920s tosuggest an imminent collapse of thepayback system in which the Europeaneconomies depended on the Americaneconomy, there was at the same time asignificant increase in production,trade and personal incomes.

Text sequencing wordsText 8.1 uses typical text sequencing words which are placed in Theme (or first)position in each Section Preview:

Evidence of Germany’s goodwill…

Further evidence of Germany’s goodwill…

Finally, although it can be argued…

Page 27: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 27

Analytical Exposition in a writing pathway in junior secondary school historyAs can be seen from the discussion above, learning to control an AnalyticalExposition text type requires the skilful choice and use of a range of languageresources. If students follow the suggested writing pathway (see Chapter 2, Figure2.1) many of these language resources will have been acquired through learning howto read and write Recounts, Reports, Accounts and Explanations. For instance,students will have learned different ways to express time and cause at increasinglyabstract levels, they will have gained control of resources for constructing an‘objective’ voice and for making deductions, and will be able to bind together a text.In an Analytical Exposition text type it is the skilful deployment of these resourceswhich will contribute to the persuasive power of a particular interpretation of thepast. In addition, acknowledging, critiquing and either strengthening or weakeningevidence become critical tools for persuasion. So far we have looked at the role ofdependent clauses and the system of Modality in achieving this sophisticatedmarshalling of evidence and arguments to prove a thesis. In the next section we willsee how other persuading text types – the Analytical Discussion and Challenge –assist in apprenticing students into this use. We will also look at other languagesystems such as the Valuation system and explore different ways of referring toevidence. An understanding and control of these resources is critical if students areto be successful writers of any one of the key persuasive text types.

Analytical Expositions in reading historyIn junior secondary school history textbooks, persuading text types are notcommonly found. This is because contemporary textbook writers are reluctant todirectly argue the case for a particular version of the past. The expectation is thatstudents will form their own interpretations based on the raw data and basicnarrative that the textbooks provide. In the case of raw data or primary sources, eventhough there are examples of expository texts (particularly administrative andpolitical documents) they tend to be compressed or ‘mini-Expositions with littleelaboration of the arguments. In addition, they are often Hortatory (persuading thereader/listener to act in a particular way) rather than Analytical (persuading thereader/listener to think in a particular way).

The fact that students are rarely exposed to persuasive, analytical or, historicaldiscourse, even though they are expected to write in this way, is, of course,problematic. Texts 8.3 and 8.4 are examples of expository texts which illustrate thedifference between the Expositions that students read and those that they are

Page 28: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 28

expected to write. Since the visual mode is such an important one among theprimary sources that appear in contemporary textbooks, a visual Exposition has alsobeen included as Text 8.5.

Thesis

Argument 1

Argument 2Reinforcement ofthesis

8.3

They may appear to some to be the mostwretched people on earth, but inreality they are far more happier thanwe Europeans…[The] earth and sea oftheir own accord furnish them with allthe things necessary for Life…[They]live in a fine Climate and enjoy avery wholesome Air, so that they havevery little need of Clothing… [They]seem’d to set no Value upon anythingwe gave them…this in my opinion arguesthat they think themselves providedwith all the necessarys of Life…

(Captain James Cook writing in hisjournal about the Aborigines.)

Text 8.3: Analytical Exposition from R. Darlington and J. Hospodaryk (1993) UnderstandingAustralian History, Rigby Heinemann, Melbourne, Vic: 25.

Page 29: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 29

ProposalArgument

Argument

Argument

8.4

Australia and the outbreak of the SecondWorld War

It is my melancholy duty to inform youofficially, in consequence of thepersistence by Germany in her invasion ofPoland, Great Britain has declared warupon her, and that, as a result, Australiais also at war…[I]t may be taken, thatHitler’s ambition is not to unite all theGerman people under one rule, but to bringunder that rule as many countries as canbe subdued by force. If this is to go on,there can be no security in Europe and nopeace for the world. A halt has beencalled. Force has had to be resorted to tocheck force.

(Broadcast to the nation by Prime MinisterR.G. Menzies on 3 September 1939.)

Text 8.4: Hortatory Exposition from R. Darlington and J. Hospodaryk (1993) UnderstandingAustralian History, Rigby Heinemann, Melbourne, Vic: 120.

Page 30: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 30

Overview of Analytical Exposition

Social purpose persuading an interpretation of the past

Role in school history increasingly important as students worktowards profile level six persuading text typesare an important form of assessment at HSClevel.

Staging Key languageresources

Examples from sample text

Background Nominalisation oftime

During the early 1920s…

Thesis Modality

Explicit Judgement

Amplification

Abstract Participants

Dependent clauseswith concessiveconjunctions

Text Preview(Nominal group andNominalisation)

It can be argued,therefore,…even by the end of the wara period

of hope had begun

the 1920s was, to a largeextent, a decade of hope

This evidence includes…

…despite the many warningsof darkness to come…

This evidence includesGermany’s display ofgoodwill through thesigning of varioustreaties and pacts,antiwar feeling in thegeneral public andwidespread prosperity

Page 31: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 31

Argumentsfor/Concessions

Construction ofarguments/evidencethrough:

Polarity

Abstract Participants,including time andcause

Dependent clauseswith concessiveconjunctions

Acknowledgingphrases

Deduction –(ProcessesNominalisation)

Organisation ofmessage through:

Text Preview

Section Preview (textsequencing words)

Evidence of Germany’sgoodwill was firstdisplayed

there was deep resentment……the 1920s was a period ofhope the overall result ofthe economic boom was…

Even though there was deepresentment in Germany…

although it can be arguedthat there was evidence inthe 1920s to suggest animminent collapse of thepayback system…

The hope for a peacefulfuture was particularlywell demonstrated inpublic reaction to…

Joining the League ofNations was a clear signthat the country wanted…

This evidence includesGermany’s display of goodwill through the signingof various treaties andpacts, antiwar feeling inthe general public andwidespread prosperity.Further evidence ofGermany’s goodwill wasprovided in 1926

Page 32: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 32

Reinforce-ment ofThesis

Modality

Modal Adjuncts

Explicit JudgementAmplification

Although there wascertainly evidence to showthat...

it is clear from theanalysis above that the1920s can be seen as adecade of hope

to a large extent, the1920s can be seen

Page 33: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 33

Page 34: Chapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history ... fileChapter Eight Arguing, challenging and discussing history: the language resources Introduction In history, the overall

© Metropolitan East DSP Chapter Eight (Expositions) draft only March 15, 2004Page 34

PASTE IN HORTATORY POSTER/CARTOON - see photocopy No 24a - 1991Sample HSC answers - Modern History 2/3 Unit pg. 8

Source B - A British poster from World War I

Text 8.5: Visual Horatory Exposition from C. Barnett (1979) The Great War, ParkLane Press