chapter 4: ancient greece, 1900-133 b.c. · ancient greece 1900Ð133 b.c. ... compare and contrast...

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Ancient Greece1900–133 B.C.

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of early Greece.

• Athens and Sparta emerged as the leading Greek city-states.• The Greek military defeated the Persian army.

• Greek theatre, arts, and architecture flourished during the Classical Age.• Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle established the foundations

of Western philosophy.

The Impact Today• The Olympic games are held every two years.

• Greek architecture is still considered the classical model of grace and symmetry.• Greek plays continue to be performed throughout the world.

• Current democratic systems of government and citizenship are based on ideas originally developed by the Greeks.

World History Video The Chapter 4 video, “The Early Olympics,”chronicles the origins of the Olympic games.

1900 B.C.Minoancivilization onCrete peaks

c. 1250 B.C.According to Homer,Greeks sackTroy

1900 B.C. 1700 B.C. 1500 B.C. 1300 B.C. 1100 B.C.

Mycenaean ceremonial cup

1300 B.C.Mycenaeancivilizationreaches itsheight

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Plato’s School, a mosaic from the Hellenistic period

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 4–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com

Art or Photo here

900 B.C. 700 B.C. 500 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C.

700 B.C.Athensbecomes aunified polis

500 B.C.ClassicalGreeceflourishes

405 B.C.AthenianEmpire isdestroyed

431 B.C.GreatPeloponnesianWar begins

323 B.C.Alexander theGreat dies atage 32

750 B.C.Dark Age ofGreece ends

The goddess Athena

The Parthenonin Athens

Alexander the Great

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http://wh.glencoe.com

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n 431 B.C., war erupted in Greece as two very differentGreek states—Athens and Sparta—fought for domination

of the Greek world. Strengthened by its democratic ideals,Athens felt secure behind its walls.

In the first winter of the war, the Athenians held a publicfuneral to honor those who had died in combat. On the dayof the ceremony, the citizens of Athens joined in a procession.The relatives of the dead mourned their loved ones.

As was the custom in Athens, one leading citizen wasasked to address the crowd. On this day it was Pericles who spoke to the people. He talked about the greatness ofAthens and reminded the Athenians of the strength of theirpolitical system.

“Our constitution,” Pericles said, “is called a democracybecause power is in the hands not of a minority but of thewhole people. When it is a question of settling private dis-putes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a questionof putting one person before another in positions of publicresponsibility, what counts is not membership in a particularclass, but the actual ability which the man possesses. No one . . . is kept in political obscurity because of poverty. And,just as our political life is free and open, so is our day-to-daylife in our relations with each other. . . . Here each individualis interested not only in his own affairs but in the affairs of thestate as well.”

IPericles Addresses Athens

Pericles giving his famousFuneral Oration

Why It MattersIn his famous speech, called theFuneral Oration, Pericles describesthe Greek ideal of democracy andthe importance of the individual.This is but one example of how theGreeks laid the intellectual founda-tions of Western civilization. Theyasked basic questions about thepurpose of life, divine forces, andtruth. The Greeks not only strove toanswer these questions, they alsocreated a system of logical thoughtfor answering such questions. Thissystem of thought remains worth-while today.

History and You Reread thequote by Pericles. What portions ofAthenian democracy described inthis passage are found in the Consti-tution of the United States? Preparea report explaining your positionwith examples from the UnitedStates Constitution. FCAT LA.B.1.4.2

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CHAPTER # Chapter Title 109

The First Greek Civilizations

CHAPTER 4 Ancient Greece

✦1500 B.C. ✦1400 B.C. ✦1300 B.C. ✦1200 B.C. ✦1100 B.C. ✦1000 B.C. ✦900 B.C. ✦800 B.C.

1450 B.C. Minoan civilizationon Crete collapses

1300 B.C.Mycenaean civilization peaks

750 B.C.Dark Age ofGreece ends

Guide to ReadingMain Ideas• Mycenaean civilization flourished in

Greece between 1600 and 1100 B.C.• The Greeks used the Iliad and Odyssey

to present role models of the values ofcourage, honor, and excellence.

Key Termsepic poem, arete

People to IdentifyMinoans, Mycenaeans, Homer

Places to LocateAegean Sea, Black Sea, Crete, Ionia

Preview Questions1. How did the geography of Greece

affect Greek history?2. What role did Homer’s writings play in

the lives of Greeks?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use a Venndiagram to compare and contrast theMinoan and Mycenaean civilizations.

Preview of Events

The Trojan War and other adventures had kept Odysseus away from his home formany years. Penelope, his wife, remained faithful to her husband and displayed greatcourage and intelligence in preserving their household during her husband’s longabsence. On his return, Odysseus praised her for her excellence:

“Madame, there is not a man in the wide world who could find fault with you. Foryour fame has reached heaven itself, like that of some perfect king, ruling a populousand mighty state with the fear of god in his heart, and upholding the right.”

—The Odyssey, Homer, E. V. Rieu, trans., 1946

Homer, Greece’s great eighth-century B.C. poet, wrote about heroes. Heroes likeOdysseus and Penelope in Homer’s Odyssey were expected to strive for excellence.Homer’s writings identified the ideals that were valued by the Greek ruling class.

The Impact of GeographyGeography played an important role in the development of Greek civilization.

Compared with Mesopotamia and Egypt, Greece occupies a small area. It consistsof a mountainous peninsula and numerous islands that encompass about fiftythousand square miles of territory—about the size of the state of Louisiana.

The mountains and the sea played especially significant roles in the develop-ment of Greek history. Much of Greece consists of small plains and river valleys

Voices from the Past

Minoan Civilization

Mycenaean Civilization

The followingare the majorSunshine StateStandards coveredin this section.

SS.A.2.4.4:Understand signifi-cant aspects of theeconomic, political,and social systems ofancient Greece and thecultural contributionsof that civilization.

SS.B.2.4.3:Understand how the allocation of control of the Earth’s surface affectsinteractions between people in different regions.

SS.B.1.4.4:Understand how cultural andtechnological characteristicscan link or divide regions.

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At the beginning of the twentieth century, Evansdiscovered an enormous palace complex on Crete at Knossos (NAH•suhs). The remains of this com-plex revealed a rich culture, with Knossos as thecenter of a far-ranging sea empire based on trade.

110

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Greece, 1400 B.C.

surrounded by high mountain ranges. The moun-tains isolated Greeks from one another, causing dif-ferent Greek communities to develop their own waysof life. Over a period of time, these communitiesbecame fiercely independent. It is probable that thesmall size of these independent communities encour-aged people to participate in political affairs. On theother hand, the rivalry between the communities ledto warfare that devastated Greek society.

The sea also influenced the evolution of Greeksociety. Greece has a long seacoast dotted by baysand inlets that provided many harbors. The Greekslived on a number of islands to the west, south, andeast of the Greek mainland. It was no accident thatthe Greeks became seafarers. They sailed out into theAegean Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea,making contact with the outside world. Later theyestablished colonies that spread Greek civilizationthroughout the Mediterranean world.

Explaining What role did the mountains and the sea play in the development of Greekhistory?

The Minoan CivilizationBy 2800 B.C., a Bronze Age civilization that used

metals, especially bronze, in making weapons hadbeen established on the large island of Crete, south-east of the Greek mainland. Called the Minoan civi-lization, it flourished between 2700 and 1450 B.C.Arthur Evans, the English archaeologist who firstdiscovered the civilization, named it after Minos, thelegendary king of Crete.

Reading Check

Greece’s geography helped shape Greek civilization.

Settled areas

The physical geography of Greece had a major impact onthe development of Greek civilization.

1. Interpreting Maps How many miles apart areMycenae and Troy?

2. Applying Geography Skills Using the map, giveexamples of how Greece’s geography affected Greek civilization. FCAT SC.D.2.4.1

FCAT MA.B.1.4.3

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stone blocks in a domed shape that resembled a bee-hive in appearance.

The Mycenaeans were, above all, a warrior peoplewho prided themselves on their heroic deeds in bat-tle. Mycenaean wall murals often show war andhunting scenes, the natural occupations of a warrioraristocracy. Archaeological evidence also indicatesthat the Mycenaean monarchies developed an exten-sive commercial network. Mycenaean pottery hasbeen found throughout the Mediterranean area, inSyria and Egypt to the east and Sicily and southernItaly to the west. But some historians believe that theMycenaeans, led by Mycenae itself, also spread out-ward militarily, conquering Crete and making it partof the Mycenaean world. Some of the Aegean islandsalso fell subject to Mycenaean control.

The most famous of all their supposed militaryadventures has come down to us in the poetry ofHomer. According to Homer, Mycenaean Greeks, led

The ships of the Minoans took them to Egypt as wellas southern Greece in search of goods.

The palace at Knossos, the royal seat of the kings,was an elaborate building that included numerousprivate living rooms for the royal family and work-shops for making decorated vases, ivory figurines,and jewelry. Even bathrooms, with elaborate drains,formed part of the complex. The rooms were deco-rated with brightly colored paintings showing sport-ing events and nature scenes. Storerooms in thepalace held gigantic jars of oil, wine, and grain,items that were paid as taxes to the king.

The centers of Minoan civilization on Crete suffereda sudden and catastrophic collapse around 1450 B.C.Some historians believe that a tidal wave triggered bya powerful volcanic eruption on the island of Thera(THIHR•uh) was responsible for the devastation.Most historians, however, believe that the destructionwas the result of invasion by mainland Greeks knownas the Mycenaeans (MY•suh•NEE•uhnz).

Describing In what ways was theMinoan civilization an advanced civilization?

The First Greek State: MycenaeThe term Mycenaean comes from Mycenae

(my•SEE•nee), a fortified site in Greece that was firstdiscovered by the German archaeologist HeinrichSchliemann. Mycenae was one of a number of centersin a Mycenaean Greek civilization that flourishedbetween 1600 and 1100 B.C.

The Mycenaean Greeks were part of the Indo-European family of peoples who spread into south-ern and western Europe, India, and Iran. One of thesegroups entered Greece from the north around 1900B.C. Over a period of time, this group managed togain control of the Greek mainland and develop acivilization.

Mycenaean civilization, which reached its highpoint between 1400 and 1200 B.C., was made up ofpowerful monarchies. Each resided in a fortifiedpalace center. Like Mycenae, these centers were builton hills and surrounded by gigantic stone walls. Thevarious centers of power probably formed a loosealliance of independent states. While the royal fami-lies lived within the walls of these complexes, thecivilian populations lived in scattered locations out-side the walls. Among the noticeable features of theseMycenaean centers were the tombs where membersof the royal families were buried. Known as tholostombs, they were built into hillsides. An entrywayled into a circular tomb chamber constructed of cut

Reading Check

111CHAPTER 4 Ancient Greece

History through Architecture

Heinrich Schliemann discovered sixtombs at the royal grave circle near thelion gate at Mycenae. How do thesetombs compare to Egyptian tombs?

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territory near the mainland. The Dorians establishedthemselves in southwestern Greece, especially in thePeloponnesus, as well as on some of the southernAegean islands, including Crete.

Other important activities occurred in this DarkAge as well. There was a revival of some trade andsome economic activity besides agriculture. Ironreplaced bronze in the construction of weapons,making them affordable for more people. Farmingtools made of iron helped to reverse the decline infood production.

At some point in the eighth century B.C., theGreeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to givethemselves a new system of writing. By reducing allwords to a combination of twenty-four letters (bothconsonants and vowels), the Greeks made learning toread and write simpler. Near the very end of the DarkAge appeared the work of Homer, one of the trulygreat poets of all time.

Homer The Iliad and the Odyssey were the first greatepic poems of early Greece. An epic poem is a longpoem that tells the deeds of a great hero. The Iliadand the Odyssey were based on stories that had beenpassed from generation to generation.

Homer used stories of the Trojan War to composethe Iliad and the Odyssey. The war is caused by Paris,a prince of Troy. By kidnapping Helen, the wife of theking of the Greek state of Sparta, Paris outrages allthe Greeks. Under the leadership of the Spartanking’s brother, King Agamemnon, the Greeks attackTroy. Ten years later, the Greeks devise a plan to takethe city. They trick the Trojans by building a hugehollow wooden horse. The best Mycenaean soldiershide inside the horse, while the rest board their shipsand pretend to sail away. The joyful Trojans, thinkingthemselves victorious, bring the gift horse into thecity. That night, the Greeks creep out of the horse,slaughter the Trojan men, enslave the women andchildren, and burn the city to the ground. The Iliad is

by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, sacked (plun-dered) the city of Troy on the northwestern coast ofAsia Minor around 1250 B.C. Did this event reallyoccur? Ever since the excavations of Schliemann,begun in 1870, scholars have debated this question.(Schliemann’s discovery of Troy was featured inChapter 1.) Many believe that Homer’s account doeshave a basis in fact.

By the late thirteenth century B.C., MycenaeanGreece was showing signs of serious trouble. Myce-naean states fought one another, and major earth-quakes caused widespread damage. In the twelfthcentury B.C., new waves of Greek-speaking invadersmoved into Greece from the north. By 1100 B.C.,Mycenaean civilization had collapsed.

Explaining How was Mycenaeangovernment organized?

The Greeks in a Dark AgeAfter the collapse of Mycenaean civilization,

Greece entered a difficult period in which the popula-tion declined and food production dropped. Histori-ans call the period from approximately 1100 to 750 B.C.the Dark Age, because few records of what happenedexist. Not until 850 B.C. did farming revive. At thesame time, the basis for a new Greece was forming.

Developments of the Dark Age During the DarkAge, large numbers of Greeks left the mainland andsailed across the Aegean Sea to various islands. Manywent to the western shores of Asia Minor, a strip ofterritory that came to be called Ionia (or IonianGreece), which is in modern-day Turkey.

Two other major groups of Greeks settled in estab-lished parts of Greece. The Aeolian Greeks who were

located in northern and central Greececolonized the large island of

Lesbos and the

Reading Check

112

You can distinguish letters of the Greek alphabet on thisAthenian juror’s token. Which letters look familiar toyou? Which do not look familiar?

History

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Checking for Understanding1. Define epic poem, arete.

2. Identify Minoans, Mycenaeans,Homer.

3. Locate Aegean Sea, Black Sea, Crete,Ionia.

4. Explain why arete was important toGreek culture.

5. List the troubles affecting MycenaeanGreece before its collapse.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Why was the Dark Age of

Greece considered “dark”?

7. Summarizing Information Using achart like the one below, identify thechanges that occurred in Greece duringthe Dark Ages.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the funeral mask shown

above. Looking at this mask, what con-clusions can you draw about how theancient Mycenaeans approacheddeath? Explain your reasoning.

Dark Ages

not so much the story of the war itself, however, as itis the tale of the Greek hero Achilles (uh•KIH•leez)and how the anger of Achilles led to disaster.

The Odyssey recounts the journeys of one of theGreek heroes, Odysseus, after the fall of Troy, and hisultimate return to his wife. The Odyssey has longbeen considered Homer’s other masterpiece. Somescholars believe that it was composed later than the Iliad.

Homer proved to be of great value to later Greeks.He did not so much record history; he created it. TheGreeks looked on the Iliad and the Odyssey as truehistory and as the works of one poet, Homer. Thesemasterpieces gave the Greeks an ideal past with acast of heroes. The epics came to be used as basictexts for the education of generations of Greek males.As one ancient Athenian stated, “My father was anx-ious to see me develop into a good man . . . and as ameans to this end he compelled me to memorize allof Homer.”

The values Homer taught were courage andhonor. A hero strives for excellence, which the Greeks

History through Art

Golden Mask of Agamemnon, c. 1500 B.C.This gold mask was found by Heinrich Schlie-mann at the royal grave circle at Mycenae. Who was Agamemnon and what was his role in Greek history?

called arete (ahr•ah•TEE). Arete is won in a struggleor contest. Through his willingness to fight, the heroprotects his family and friends, preserves his ownhonor and that of his family, and earns his reputa-tion. Homer gave to later generations of Greek malesa model of heroism and honor. For example, in anexciting description of men marching to war, the Iliadtaught students to be proud of their Greek heritageand their heroic ancestors.

Summarizing Why is Homerthought to have created, rather than to have recorded, Greekhistory?

Reading Check

9. Expository Writing What archaeo-logical evidence might supportscholars’ differing views of the col-lapse of Minoan and Mycenaean cul-ture? Explain your opinions in a wellreasoned essay. FCAT LA.B.1.4.2

FCAT You can prepare for the FCAT-assessed standards by completing the correlated item(s) below.PRACTICE

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114

Athenian warrior

Making ComparisonsWhy Learn This Skill?

When making comparisons, you identify the sim-ilarities and differences among two or more ideas,objects, or events.

Learning the SkillFollow these steps to make comparisons:• Find two subjects that can be com-

pared. They should be similarenough to have characteristics thatare common to both. For example, itwould be more appropriate to com-pare a Greek statue to an Egyptianstatue than to an abstract modernpainting.

• Determine which features the subjects have in common that are suitable for comparison.

• Look for similarities and differenceswithin these areas.

• If possible, find information thatexplains the similarities and differences.

Practicing the SkillThe following excerpts from the text

discuss Spartan and Athenian modelsfor raising children. Read both excerpts,then answer the questions that follow.

Passage AIn Sparta, boys were trained to be soldiers. State

officials examined all children at birth and decidedwhether or not they were fit to live. Those who werejudged unfit were left in the open on a mountainsideto die. Boys judged fit were put under control of thestate at age seven. They lived in military-style bar-racks and were subjected to harsh discipline to makethem tough. Their education stressed military train-ing and obedience to authority.

Passage BAthenian children were nurtured by their moth-

ers until the age of seven, when boys of the upperclass were turned over to a male servant known as a pedagogue. The pedagogue accompanied thechild to school and was responsible for teaching hischarge good manners. He could punish the childwith a birch rod to impose discipline.

The purpose of an educationfor upper-class Athenian boyswas to create a well-rounded per-son. A boy had three teachers.One taught reading, writing, andarithmetic; a second taught physi-cal education; and a third taughtmusic. Education ended at eight-een, when an Athenian male for-mally became a citizen.

1 Make a chart with one columnlabeled Sparta and one labeledAthens. List the similarities inhow the two states raised chil-dren, then list the differences.

2 How did the similarities and differences inraising children suit the needs of each city-state?

Applying the Skill

Survey your classmates about an issue in the news.Summarize their opinions and compare the differentresults in a paragraph.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

FCATPRACTICE

Completing the correlated

items below will help you prepare for the FCAT Reading test.

FCAT LA.A.2.2.7

FCAT LA.A.2.2.7

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✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

The Greek City-States

CHAPTER 4 Ancient Greece 115

Preview of Events

Guide to ReadingMain Ideas• The polis or city-state was the central

focus of Greek life.• The search for farmland and the growth

of trade resulted in colonies and thespread of Greek culture and politics.

Key Termspolis, acropolis, agora, hoplite, phalanx,democracy, oligarchy, helot, ephor

People to IdentifyAristotle, Solon, Cleisthenes

Places to Locate Athens, Hellespont, Bosporus, Byzantium,Sparta

Preview Questions1. Who lived in the polis?2. How did Athens and Sparta differ?3. What role did tyrants play in Greek

history?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Complete achart showing the three types of govern-ment used in Greek city-states, andexplain the advantages and disadvantagesof each.

750 B.C.The city-state is the centralfocus of Greek life

700 B.C.Hoplites become anew military order

600 B.C.Colonization leads toincreased trade and industry

Advantage Disadvantage

Tyranny

Democracy

Oligarchy

✦800 B.C. ✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C.

Greek villages gradually expanded and became independent city-states. The Greekhistorian Plutarch related how one of these city-states—Sparta—educated its youngboys:

“As soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain compa-nies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, doing theirexercises and taking their play together. Of these, he who showed the most couragewas made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, andunderwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole course oftheir education was one continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience.”

—The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Plutarch, J. Dryden and A. H. Clouth, trans., 1992

It is no surprise that the Spartan city-state became known for its military prowess.

The Polis: Center of Greek LifeBy 750 B.C., the city-state—or what the Greeks called a polis—became the cen-

tral focus of Greek life. Our word politics is derived from the Greek word polis. Ina physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, or even a village, along with its sur-rounding countryside. The town, city, or village served as the center of the poliswhere people could meet for political, social, and religious activities.

The main gathering place in the polis was usually a hill. At the top of the hillwas a fortified area called an acropolis. The acropolis served as a place of refugeduring an attack and sometimes came to be a religious center on which templesand public buildings were built. Below the acropolis was an agora, an open area

Voices from the PastThe followingare the majorSunshine StateStandards coveredin this section.


SS.B.2.4.6:Understand the relation-ships between resourcesand the exploration, colonization, and settlement of differentregions of the world.

SS.B.2.4.3:Understand how the alloca-tion of control of the Earth’ssurface affects interactionsbetween people in differentregions.

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that served as a place where people could assembleand as a market.

City-states varied greatly in size, from a fewsquare miles to a few hundred square miles. Theyalso varied in population. Athens had a populationof more than three hundred thousand by the fifthcentury B.C., but most city-states were much smaller,consisting of only a few hundred to several thou-sand people.

The polis was, above all, a community of peoplewho shared a common identity and common goals.As a community, the polis consisted of citizens withpolitical rights (adult males), citizens with no politi-cal rights (women and children), and noncitizens(slaves and resident aliens).

Citizens of a polis had rights, but these rights werecoupled with responsibilities. The Greek philosopherAristotle argued that a citizen did not belong just tohimself or herself: “We must rather regard every citi-zen as belonging to the state.” However, the loyaltythat citizens had to their city-states had a negativeside. City-states distrusted one another, and the divi-sion of Greece into fiercely patriotic independentunits helped to bring about its ruin.

As the polis developed, so too did a new militarysystem. In earlier times, wars in Greece had been

fought by aristocratic cavalry soldiers—nobles onhorseback. These aristocrats, who were largelandowners, also dominated the political life of theircity-states. By 700 B.C., however, the military systemwas based on hoplites, who were heavily armedinfantry soldiers, or foot soldiers. Each carried around shield, a short sword, and a thrusting spearabout nine feet (2.7 m) long.

Hoplites went into battle as a unit, marchingshoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formationknown as a phalanx. This close formation created awall of shields to protect the hoplites. As long asthey kept their order, it was difficult for enemies toharm them.

Identifying What responsibilities didthe citizens of the polis have?

Greek ColoniesBetween 750 and 550 B.C., large numbers of Greeks

left their homeland to settle in distant lands. A desirefor good farmland and the growth of trade were twoimportant factors in the people’s decisions to move.Each colony became a new polis. This new polis wasusually independent of the polis that had founded it.

Reading Check

116

The Acropolis in Athens is crownedby the Parthenon. How does thisclassic temple express the Atheni-ans’ pride in their city-state?

History

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Across the Mediterranean, new Greek colonieswere established along the coastlines of southernItaly, southern France, eastern Spain, and northernAfrica west of Egypt. At the same time, to the norththe Greeks set up colonies in Thrace, where theysought good farmland to grow grains. The Greeksalso settled along the shores of the Black Sea, settingup cities on the Hellespont and the Bosporus. Themost notable of these cities was Byzantium(buh•ZAN•tee•uhm), the site of what later becameConstantinople (now Istanbul). In establishing thesecolonies, the Greeks spread their culture and politicalideas throughout the Mediterranean.

Colonization also led to increased trade and indus-try. The Greeks on the mainland exported pottery,wine, and olive oil. In return, they received grains andmetals from the west and fish, timber, wheat, metals,and slaves from the Black Sea region.

The expansion of trade and industry created a newgroup of wealthy individuals in many of the Greekcity-states. These men wanted political power, butfound it difficult to gain because of the power of theruling aristocrats.

Explaining What political dilemmawas caused by the expansion of trade and industry?

Reading Check

Tyranny in the City-StatesThe creation of this new group of rich men fos-

tered the rise of tyrants in the seventh and sixth cen-turies B.C. Tyrants were not necessarily oppressive orwicked, as our word tyrant implies. Greek tyrantswere rulers who seized power by force from the aris-tocrats. Support for the tyrants came not only fromthe new rich who had made their money in trade andindustry, but also from poor peasants who were indebt to landholding aristocrats. Both the rich and thepeasants were tired of aristocratic domination oftheir city-states.

The tyrants gained power and kept it by usinghired soldiers. Once in power, they built new mar-ketplaces, temples, and walls. These constructions


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Over a period of 200 years, the Greeks spread acrossEurope and northern Africa, bringing Greek civilization toareas more than 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Greece.

1. Interpreting Maps Analyze the relationship betweenGreek trading routes and Greek colonies.

2. Applying Geography Skills Find a map of the con-temporary world. Name all the modern countries whereGreece had colonies.

Greek Colonies and Trade, 750–550 B.C.

Greece

Greek colonies

Trade route

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SpartaLike other Greek city-states, Sparta was faced with

the need for more land. Instead of sending its peopleout to start new colonies, as some states did, the Spartans con-quered the neighbor-ing Laconians. Later,beginning around 730B.C., the Spartansundertook the con-quest of neighboringMessenia despite itslarger size and population.

After their conquest, the Messenians and Laconi-ans became serfs and were made to work for theSpartans. These captured people were known ashelots, a name derived from a Greek word for “cap-ture.” To ensure control over the conquered helots,the Spartans made a conscious decision to create amilitary state.

Greece

In Sparta, boys were trained to be sol-diers. At birth, each child was examined

by state officials, who decided whether thechild was fit to live. Those who werejudged unfit were left on a mountainsideto die. Boys judged fit were taken fromtheir mothers at the age of seven and putunder control of the state.

These boys lived in military-style bar-racks, where they were subjected to harshdiscipline to make them tough and mean.Their education stressed military trainingand obedience to authority. The Greek his-torian Plutarch described the handling ofyoung Spartans:

“After they were twelve yearsold, they were no longer allowedto wear any undergarments, theyhad one coat to serve them ayear; their bodies were hard anddry, with but little acquaintance of

glorified the city but, more importantly, increased thetyrants’ popularity. Despite their achievements, how-ever, tyrants had fallen out of favor by the end of thesixth century B.C. Greeks believed in the rule of law,and tyranny was an insult to that ideal.

Although tyranny did not last, it played an impor-tant role in Greek history. The rule of the tyrants hadended the rule of the aristocrats in many city-states.The end of tyranny then allowed many new peopleto participate in government. In some Greek city-states, this led to the development of democracy,which is government by the people or rule of themany. Other city-states remained committed to gov-ernment by an oligarchy, rule by the few. The dif-ferences in how Greek city-states were governed canbe understood by examining the two most famousand most powerful Greek city-states, Sparta andAthens.

Evaluating What role did tyrantsplay in the development of Greek forms of government?

Reading Check

MESSENIA

PELOPONNESUS

Ionian Sea

Sparta

LACONIA

In Sparta girls andboys were trained tobe athletes, as is shownby this bronze statue,which was part ofa vase lid.

118

baths; these human indulgences they were allowed only on somefew particular days in the year. They lodgedtogether in little bandsupon beds made of therushes which grew bythe banks of the riverEurotas, which theywere to break off with theirhands with a knife.”

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CONNECTING TO THE PAST1. Summarizing Information Describe a Spartan

upbringing. How does this differ from the childhoodof an American child?

2. Compare and Contrast Compare a well-educatedSpartan boy with a well-educated Athenian and awell-educated American. What are the differences?

3. Writing about History Does your education todayincorporate any Spartan or Athenian ideas? If so,give specific examples.

Basically, the Spartan system worked.Spartan males were known for their tough-ness and their meanness. They were alsoknown as the best soldiers in all of Greece.

Spartan girls received an education simi-lar to that of the boys. Girls, too, under-went physical training, including running,wrestling, and throwing the javelin. Thepurpose was clear: to strengthen the girlsfor their roles as healthy mothers.

Well-to-do Athenian citizens raised theirchildren very differently. Athenian childrenwere nurtured by their mothers until theage of seven. At seven, a boy of the upperclass was turned over to a male servant,known as a pedagogue. The pedagogue,who was usually a slave, accompanied thechild to school. He was also responsiblefor teaching his charge good manners. Hecould punish the child with a birch rod toimpose discipline.

The purpose of an education for upper-class Athenian boys was to create a well-rounded person. To that end, a boy hadthree teachers. One taught him reading,

writing, and arithmetic. Another taughtphysical education, a necessity to achievethe ideal of a sound mind in a soundbody. A third taught him music, which con-sisted of playing the lyre (a stringed instru-ment) and singing. Education ended at 18,when an Athenian male formally became acitizen.

Girls of all classes remained at home, as their mothers did. Their mothers taughtthem how to run a home, which includedhow to spin and weave—activities expectedof a good wife. Only in some wealthy fami-lies did girls learn to read, write, and per-haps play the lyre.

mon elsewhere in Greece. Spartan women wereexpected to exercise and remain fit to bear and raisehealthy children.

Many Spartan women upheld the strict Spartanvalues, expecting their husbands and sons to be bravein war. The story is told of a Spartan woman who, asshe was handing her son his shield, told him to comeback carrying his shield or being carried on it.

Government of Sparta The Spartan governmentwas an oligarchy headed by two kings, who led theSpartan army on its campaigns. A group of five men,known as the ephors (EH•fuhrs), were elected eachyear and were responsible for the education of youthand the conduct of all citizens. A council of elders,composed of the two kings and 28 citizens over theage of 60, decided on the issues that would be pre-sented to an assembly made up of male citizens. Thisassembly did not debate; it only voted on the issues.

To make their new military state secure, the Spar-tans turned their backs on the outside world.

A Military State Between 800 and 600 B.C., the livesof Spartans were rigidly organized and tightly con-trolled (thus, our word spartan, meaning “highly self-disciplined”). Males spent their childhood learningmilitary discipline. Then they enrolled in the armyfor regular military service at age 20. Althoughallowed to marry, they continued to live in the mili-tary barracks until age 30. All meals were eaten inpublic dining halls with fellow soldiers. Meals weresimple; the famous Spartan black broth consisted of apiece of pork boiled in animal blood, salt, and vine-gar. A visitor who ate some of the black broth onceremarked that he now understood why Spartanswere not afraid to die. At 30, Spartan males wereallowed to vote in the assembly (to be discussedlater) and live at home, but they stayed in the armyuntil the age of 60.

While their husbands lived in the barracks, Spar-tan women lived at home. Because of this separation,Spartan women had greater freedom of movementand greater power in the household than was com-

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Foreigners, who might have brought in new ideas,were discouraged from visiting. Except for militaryreasons, Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad,where they might encounter ideas dangerous to thestability of the state. Likewise, Spartan citizens werediscouraged from studying philosophy, literature, orthe arts—subjects that might encourage newthoughts. The art of war was the Spartan ideal. Allother arts were frowned upon.

Summarizing How did the restric-tions placed on Spartan males affect their lives?

AthensBy 700 B.C., Athens had become a unified polis on

the peninsula of Attica. Early Athens was ruled by aking. By the seventhcentury B.C., however,Athens had becomean oligarchy underthe control of its aris-tocrats. These aristo-crats owned the bestland and controlledpolitical life. There was an assembly of all the citi-zens, but it had few powers.

Near the end of the seventh century B.C., Athensfaced political turmoil because of serious economicproblems. Many Athenian farmers were sold intoslavery when they were unable to repay their debtsto their aristocratic neighbors. Over and over, therewere cries to cancel the debts and give land to thepoor. Athens seemed on the verge of civil war.

Reading Check

The ruling Athenian aristocrats reacted to this cri-sis in 594 B.C. by giving full power to Solon, a reform-minded aristocrat. Solon canceled all land debts andfreed people who had fallen into slavery for debts.He refused, however, to take land from the rich andgive it to the poor.

Solon’s reforms, though popular, did not solve theproblems of Athens. Aristocrats were still powerful,and poor peasants could not obtain land. Internalstrife finally led to the very thing Solon had hoped toavoid—tyranny.

Pisistratus (pih•SIHS•truh•tuhs), an aristocrat,seized power in 560 B.C. He then aided Atheniantrade as a way of pleasing the merchants. He alsogave aristocrats’ land to the peasants in order to gainthe favor of the poor.

The Athenians rebelled against Pisistratus’s son,who had succeeded him, and ended the tyranny in510 B.C. Two years later, with the backing of the Athe-nian people, Cleisthenes (KLYS•thuh•neez),another reformer, gained the upper hand.

Cleisthenes created a new council of five hundredthat supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury,and proposed the laws that would be voted on by theassembly. The Athenian assembly, composed of malecitizens, was given final authority to pass laws afterfree and open debate. Because the assembly of citi-zens now had the central role in the Athenian politi-cal system, the reforms of Cleisthenes created thefoundations for Athenian democracy.

Explaining How did Cleisthenes create the foundation for democracy in Athens?

Reading Check

120 CHAPTER 4 Ancient Greece

Checking for Understanding1. Define polis, acropolis, agora, hoplite,

phalanx, democracy, oligarchy, helot,ephor.

2. Identify Aristotle, Solon, Cleisthenes.

3. Locate Athens, Hellespont, Bosporus,Byzantium, Sparta.

4. Explain the different political systemsin Athens and Sparta.

5. Summarize why the Greeks left theirhomelands to establish colonies.

Critical Thinking6. Compare and Contrast In what

way(s) is Athenian democracy similarto American democracy? In whatway(s) is it different?

7. Sequencing Information Create acause-and-effect sequence chart ofGreek colonization, trade, and industry.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of the Acrop-

olis on page 116 of your text. Why doyou think the Athenians decided toplace their important buildings on topof a hill?

PELOPONNESUS

ATTICAAthens

AegeanSea

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine thatyou are a 25-year old male living inSparta in 700 B.C. Create a diary inwhich you record your activities forone week. Write one diary page foreach day.

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Guide to Reading

Classical Greece

Preview of Events

Main Ideas• During the Age of Pericles, Athens

became the center of Greek culture.• The creation of an Athenian empire led

to war with Sparta.

Key TermsAge of Pericles, direct democracy,ostracism

People to IdentifyDarius, Xerxes, Pericles

Places to Locate Asia Minor, Delos, Thebes, Macedonia

Preview Questions1. How did Pericles expand the involve-

ment of Athenians in their democracy?2. Why was trade highly important to the

Athenian economy?

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Use a conceptmap like the one below to show the ele-ments that contributed to the ClassicalAge of Greece.

✦500 B.C. ✦450 B.C. ✦425 B.C.✦475 B.C. ✦400 B.C.

500 B.C.Classical Age of Greece flourisheswith Athens at the center

445 B.C.Athenian Empireexpands

480 B.C.Persians burnAthens

405 B.C.Athenian Empire destroyed

Classical Age of Greece

Classical Greece is the name given to the period of Greek history from around 500 B.C.to the conquest of Greece by the Macedonian king Philip II in 338 B.C. This period wasmarked not only by a brilliant culture but also by a disastrous war among the Greeks,the Peloponnesian War, described here by the Greek historian Thucydides:

“The Peloponnesian War not only lasted for a long time, but throughout its coursebrought with it unprecedented suffering for Greece. Never before had so many citiesbeen captured and then devastated, whether by foreign armies or by the Greek pow-ers themselves; never had there been so many exiles; never such loss of life—both inthe actual warfare and in internal revolutions.”

—The History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, R. Warner, trans., 1954

For all their accomplishments, the Greeks were unable to rise above the divisions andrivalries that caused them to fight one another and undermine their own civilization.

The Challenge of PersiaAs the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean, they came in contact with

the Persian Empire to the east. The Ionian Greek cities in western Asia Minor hadalready fallen subject to the Persian Empire by the mid-sixth century B.C.In 499 B.C., an unsuccessful revolt by the Ionian cities—assisted by the Atheniannavy—led the Persian ruler Darius to seek revenge.

In 490 B.C., the Persians landed on the plain of Marathon, only 26 miles (41.8km) from Athens. There, an outnumbered Athenian army attacked and defeatedthe Persians decisively.



SS.B.2.4.3:Understand how the allocation of control of the Earth’s surface affectsinteractions between people in different regions.

SS.B.2.4.1:Understand how social, cul-tural, economic, and environ-mental factors contribute tothe dynamic nature of regions.

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1 Athenian army wins decisivevictory over Persian army.

2 Greek force, led by Spartans, falls to Persian army.

5 Greeks defeat Persians, ending the war.

4 Greek fleet defeats Persian navy.

3 Persians sack and burn Athens.

According to legend, news of Persia’s defeat wasbrought by an Athenian runner named Pheidippideswho raced 26 miles (41.8 km) from Marathon toAthens. With his last breath, he announced, “Victory,we win,” before dropping dead. Today’s marathon isbased on this heroic story.

After Darius died in 486 B.C., Xerxes(ZUHRK•SEEZ) became the new Persian monarch.Xerxes vowed revenge and planned to invadeGreece. In preparation for the attack, the Atheniansbegan rebuilding their navy. By the time the Per-sians invaded in 480 B.C., the Athenians had a fleetof about two hundred vessels.

Xerxes led a massive invasion force into Greece.His forces included about 180,000 troops and thou-sands of warships and supply vessels. The Greekstried to delay the Persians at the pass of Thermopylae(thuhr•MAH•puh•lee), along the main road intocentral Greece. A Greek force of about seven thousand

held off the Persian army for two days. The three hun-dred Spartans in the Greek army were especiallybrave. When told that Persian arrows would darkenthe sky in battle, one Spartan warrior responded,“That is good news. We will fight in the shade!”Unfortunately for the Greeks, a traitor told the Per-sians how to use a mountain path to outflank theGreek force.

The Athenians, now threatened by the onslaughtof the Persian forces, abandoned their city. Near theisland of Salamis, the Greek fleet, though outnum-bered, managed to outmaneuver the Persian fleetand defeat it. A few months later, early in 479 B.C., theGreeks formed the largest Greek army up to that time and defeated the Persian army at Plataea(pluh•TEE•uh), northwest of Athens.

Identifying What did victory overthe Persians cost the Greeks?

Reading Check

Persian Wars, 499–479 B.C.

As the Greeks expanded into the east, they came into con-flict with the Persian Empire.

1. Interpreting Maps Where were the majority of thelarge battles between the Greeks and the Persiansfought, and what is the significance of this?

Greek states

Persian Empire

Revolt by Greek states,499 B.C.

Persian campaign,490 B.C.

Persian campaign,480 B.C.

Major battle

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The Growth of the Athenian Empire

After the defeat of the Persians, Athens took overthe leadership of the Greek world. In 478 B.C., theAthenians formed adefensive allianceagainst the Persianscalled the DelianLeague. Its mainheadquarters was onthe island of Delos.However, its chiefofficials, including the treasurers and commandersof the fleet, were Athenian. Under Athenian leader-ship, the Delian League pursued the attack againstthe Persian Empire, eventually liberating virtuallyall of the Greek states in the Aegean from Persiancontrol. In 454 B.C., the Athenians moved the treas-ury of the league from the island of Delos toAthens. By controlling the Delian League, Athenshad created an empire.

Under Pericles, who was a dominant figure inAthenian politics between 461 and 429 B.C., Athensexpanded its new empire abroad. At the same time,democracy flourished at home. This period of Athe-nian and Greek history, which historians have calledthe Age of Pericles, saw the height of Athenianpower and brilliance.

Describing What was the role of theDelian League in the creation of the Athenian Empire?

The Age of PericlesPericles expanded the involvement

of Athenians in their democracy. By creating a directdemocracy, he enabled every male citizen to play a rolein government.In the Age of Pericles, the Athenians became

deeply attached to their democratic system, whichwas a direct democracy. In a direct democracy, thepeople participate directly in government decisionmaking through mass meetings. In Athens, everymale citizen participated in the governing assemblyand voted on all major issues.

Most residents of Athens, however, were not citi-zens. In the mid-fifth century B.C., the assembly con-sisted of about forty-three thousand male citizensover 18 years old. Meetings of the assembly wereheld every 10 days on a hillside east of the Acropolis.Not all attended, and the number present seldom

Reading Check

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This stone relief from the fourth century B.C. shows Democracycrowning a figure that symbolizes Athens. The panel was placed inthe marketplace for all to see.

reached six thousand. The assembly passed all laws,elected public officials, and made final decisions onwar and foreign policy. Anyone could speak, but usu-ally only respected leaders did so.

However, by making lower-class male citizenseligible for public office and by paying officeholders,Pericles made it possible for poor citizens to take partin public affairs. Pericles believed that Atheniansshould be proud of their democracy.

A large body of city officials ran the governmenton a daily basis. Ten officials known as generals werethe overall directors of policy. The generals could bereelected, making it possible for individual leaders toplay an important political role.

The Athenians also devised the practice ofostracism to protect themselves against overly ambi-tious politicians. Members of the assembly couldwrite on a broken pottery fragment (ostrakon) thename of a person they considered harmful to the city.A person so named by at least six thousand memberswas banned from the city for 10 years.

Under Pericles, Athens became the center of Greekculture. The Persians had destroyed much of the cityduring the Persian Wars, but Pericles set in motion amassive rebuilding program. New temples and stat-ues soon signified the greatness of Athens. Art, archi-tecture, and philosophy flourished. Pericles broadlyboasted that Athens had become the “school ofGreece.”

Explaining Why did Atheniansdevelop and practice ostracism?

Reading Check

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The Great Peloponnesian WarAfter the defeat of the Persians, the Greek world

came to be divided into two major camps: the Athe-nian Empire and Sparta. Athens and Sparta had builttwo very different kinds of societies, and neither statewas able to tolerate the other’s system. Sparta and itsallies feared the growing Athenian Empire, and aseries of disputes finally led to the outbreak of theGreat Peloponnesian War in 431 B.C.

At the beginning of the war, both sides believedthey had winning strategies. The Athenians plannedto remain behind the city’s protective walls and receivesupplies from their colonies and navy. The Spartansand their allies surrounded Athens, hoping that theAthenians would send out their army to fight beyondthe walls. Pericles knew, however, that the Spartanforces could beat the Athenians in open battles. He alsobelieved that Athens was secure behind its walls, sothe Athenians stayed put.

In the second year of the war, a plague broke outin overly crowded Athens, killing more than a thirdof the people. Pericles himself died the followingyear (429 B.C.). Despite these severe losses, the Athe-

nians fought on in a struggle that lasted for aboutanother 25 years. ; (See page 991 to read excerpts fromThucydides’ Plague in Athens in the Primary Sources Library.)

A crushing blow came in 405 B.C., when the Athenian fleet was destroyed at Aegospotami(EE•guh•SPAH•tuh•MEE) on the Hellespont. Withinthe next year, Athens surrendered. Its walls were torndown, the navy disbanded, and the Athenian Empiredestroyed. The great war was finally over.

The Great Peloponnesian War weakened the majorGreek states and ruined any possibility of coopera-tion among them. During the next 66 years, Sparta,Athens, and Thebes (a new Greek power) struggledto dominate Greek affairs. In continuing their pettywars, the Greeks ignored the growing power ofMacedonia to their north. This oversight would costthem their freedom.

Explaining How did the Great Pelo-ponnesian War weaken the Greek states?

Daily Life in Classical AthensIn the fifth century B.C., Athens had the largest

population of the Greek city-states. Before the plague

Reading Check


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Aegospotami 405 B.C.

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Corinth

Peloponnesian War, 431–404 B.C.

The Peloponnesian War pit-ted the Greek states againstone another, reducing possi-bilities for unity.

1. Interpreting MapsAnalyze the pattern ofalliances. What geo-graphical factors affectedthe ways in which thestates are allied?

2. Applying GeographySkills From a geo-graphic standpoint,which side, Sparta orAthens, had an advan-tage in the war? Explainyour answer.

Sparta and allies

Athens and allies

Neutral states

Spartan victory

Athenian victory

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in 430 B.C., there were about 150,000 citizens living inAthens. About 43,000 of them were adult males withpolitical power. Foreigners living in Athens, whonumbered about 35,000, received the protection ofthe laws. They were also subject to some of theresponsibilities of citizens—namely, military serviceand the funding of festivals. The remaining socialgroup, the slaves, numbered around 100,000.

Slavery was common in the ancient world. Mostpeople in Athens—except the very poor—owned atleast one slave. The very wealthy might own largenumbers. Those who did usually employed them inindustry. Most often, slaves in Athens worked in thefields or in the home as cooks and maids. Someslaves were owned by the state and worked on pub-lic construction projects.

The Athenian Economy The Athenian economy waslargely based on farming and trade. Athenians grewgrains, vegetables, and fruit for local use. Grapes andolive trees were cultivated for wine and olive oil, whichwere used locally and also exported. The Atheniansraised sheep and goats for wool and milk products.

Because of the number of people and the lack offertile land, Athens had to import from 50 to 80 per-cent of its grain, a basic item in the Athenian diet.This meant that trade was highly important to theAthenian economy. The building of a port at nearbyPiraievs (PEE•reh•EFS) helped Athens become theleading trade center in the fifth-century Greek world.

The Family and the Role of Women The familywas an important institution in ancient Athens. Itwas composed of a husband, wife, and children,although other dependent relatives and slaves werealso regarded as part of the family. The family’s pri-mary social function was to produce new citizens.

Women were citizens who could take part in mostreligious festivals, but they were otherwise excludedfrom public life. They could not own propertybeyond personal items. They always had a maleguardian: if unmarried, a father; if married, a hus-band; if widowed, a son or male relative.

An Athenian woman was expected to be a goodwife. Her chief obligation was to bear children, espe-cially male children who would preserve the familyline. She was also expected to take care of her familyand her house. She either did the housework herselfor supervised the slaves who did the actual work.

Women were strictly controlled. Because theymarried at the age of 14 or 15, they were taught theirresponsibilities early. Although many managed tolearn to read and play musical instruments, theywere not provided any formal education.

Women were expected to remain at home, out ofsight, unless attending funerals or festivals. If theyleft the house, they had to have a companion.

Examining What kinds of work didslaves perform in classical Athens?

Reading Check

Foreigners Slaves

Citizens

Checking for Understanding1. Define Age of Pericles, direct democ-

racy, ostracism.

2. Identify Darius, Xerxes, Delian League,Pericles, Great Peloponnesian War.

3. Locate Asia Minor, Delos, Thebes,Macedonia.

4. Describe the system of direct democ-racy in Athens.

5. Identify which Greek states struggledfor power after the Great Pelopon-nesian War. What area to the northgrew in power and threatened thefreedom of the Greeks?

Critical Thinking6. Analyze What is meant by the phrase

“The Age of Pericles”?

7. Organizing Information Create a piediagram to show the ratio of citizens,foreigners, and slaves in classicalAthens.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the bust of Thucydides shown

on page 121 of your text. What does thissculpture tell you about the Greek viewof the human individual? Compare thisbust to artistic representations of peoplein earlier chapters of your text. What differences and similarities do you see?

9. Descriptive Writing Write threeshort journal entries about a particu-lar day or event. Write one entryfrom the perspective of an Athenianmale citizen, one as a female citizen,and one as a slave, contrasting theirdaily lives. FCAT LA.B.1.4.2


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126126

An Athenian Husband ExplainsHis Wife’s Duties

IN FIFTH-CENTURY ATHENS, A WOMAN’S PLACEwas in the home. She had two major responsibili-ties: the bearing and raising of children and thecare of the household. In his dialogue on estatemanagement, the Greek writer Xenophon relatesthe advice of an Athenian gentleman on how totrain a wife.

“[A man addresses his new wife.] For it seems tome, dear, that the gods have coupled together maleand female, as they are called, chiefly in order thatthey may form a perfect partnership in mutual serv-ice. For, in the first place, that the various species ofliving creatures may not fail, they are joined in wed-lock for the production of children. Secondly, off-spring to support them in old age is provided by thisunion, to human beings, at any rate. Thirdly, humanbeings live not in the open air, like beasts, but obvi-ously need shelter. Nevertheless, those who meanto win stores to fill the covered place, have need of someone to work at the open-air occupations;ploughing, sowing, planting and grazing are all suchopen-air employments; and these supply the need-ful food. . . . For he made the man’s body and mindmore capable of enduring cold and heat, and jour-neys and campaigns; and therefore imposed on him the outdoor tasks. To the woman, since he hadmade her body less capable of such endurance, Itake it that the gods have assigned the indoor tasks.And knowing that he had created in the woman andhad imposed on her the nourishment of the infants,he meted out to her a larger portion of affection fornew-born babes than to the man. . . .

Your duty will be to remain indoors and send outthose servants whose work is outside, and supervisethose who are to work indoors, and to receive theincomings, and distribute so much of them as mustbe spent, and watch over so much as is to be keptin store, and take care that the sum laid by for a

year be not spent in a month. And when wool isbrought to you, you must see that cloaks are madefor those that want them. You must see too that thedry corn is in good condition for making food. Oneof the duties that fall to you, however, will perhapsseem rather thankless: you will have to see that anyservant who is ill is cared for.”

—Xenophon, Memorabilia and Oeconomicus

Vases are an excellent source of information abouteveryday life in Greece.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Over what areas of life did an Athenian wife haveauthority?

2. Do you think the husband respected his wife? Why orwhy not?

3. How are the roles of men and women in America now different from their roles in ancient Greece? In what ways have these roles remained the same over the centuries?

FCAT LA.A.2.4.2

FCAT Answering question 2 below will help you prepare for the FCAT Reading test.PRACTICE

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CHAPTER # Chapter Title 127

776 B.C.The first OlympicFestival is held

c. 550 B.C.Pythagoras developsgeometrical theories

399 B.C.Socrates placed on trial

The Culture of Classical Greece

Preview of Events✦800 B.C. ✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C.

Main Ideas• Greek philosophers were concerned with

the development of critical or rationalthought about the nature of the universe.

• Greeks believed that ritualized religionwas necessary for the well-being of the state.

Key Termsritual, oracle, tragedy, philosophy,Socratic method

People to Identify Aeschylus, Sophocles, Pythagoras,Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Thucydides

Places to LocateDelphi, Gulf of Corinth

Preview Questions1. In what ways was religion closely con-

nected to Greek life?2. How did defeat in the Peloponnesian

War change the Athenians?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Create a chartlike the one below showing the majorGreek contributions to Western civiliza-tion.


Guide to Reading

c. 387 B.C.Plato founds Academy in Athens

Major GreekContributions

Classical Greece, especially Athens under Pericles’ rule, witnessed a period ofremarkable intellectual and cultural growth that became the main source of Westernculture. Aristotle often wrote about the importance of intellectual life:

“The activity of the mind is not only the highest . . . but also the most continuous:we are able to study continuously more easily than to perform any kind of action. . . .It follows that the activity of our intelligence constitutes the complete happiness ofman. In other words, a life guided by intelligence is the best and most pleasant forman, inasmuch as intelligence, above all else, is man. Consequently, this kind of life isthe happiest.”

—Western Civilization, Margaret King, 2000

The philosopher Aristotle, with Socrates and Plato, established the foundations ofWestern philosophy.

Greek ReligionReligion affected every aspect of Greek life. Greeks considered religion neces-

sary to the well-being of the state. Temples dedicated to gods and goddesses werethe major buildings in Greek cities.

Homer described the gods worshiped in the Greek religion. Twelve chief godsand goddesses were thought to live on Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in



SS.B.2.4.1:Understand how social,cultural, economic, andenvironmental factors contribute to the dynamicnature of regions.

SS.A.1.4.1:Understand how ideas andbeliefs, decisions, and chanceevents have been used in the process of writing andinterpreting history.

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The Greeks also had a great desire to learn the willof the gods. To do so, they made use of the oracle, asacred shrine where a god or goddess revealed thefuture through a priest or priestess. The most famouswas the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, located on the sideof Mount Parnassusoverlooking the Gulfof Corinth. At Delphi,a priestess, thought tobe inspired by Apollo,listened to questions.Her responses werethen interpreted bypriests and given in verse form to the persons askingthe questions. Representatives of states and individu-als traveled to Delphi to consult the oracle of Apollo.

The responses provided by the priests and priest-esses were often puzzling and could be interpreted in more than one way. For example, Croesus(KREE•suhs), king of Lydia and known for hisincredible wealth, sent messengers to the oracle atDelphi asking “whether he shall go to war with thePersians.” The oracle replied that if Croesus attacked

Rulers and GodsAll of the world’s earliest civilizations believed that

there was a close connection between rulers and gods.In Egypt, pharaohs were considered gods whose rolewas to maintain the order and harmony of the universein their own kingdoms. In Mesopotamia, India, andChina, rulers were thought to rule with divine assis-tance. Kings were often seen as rulers who derived theirpower from the gods and who were the agents or rep-resentatives of the gods. Many Romans certainlybelieved that their success in creating an empire was avisible sign of divine favor. As one Roman stated, “Wehave overcome all the nations of the world, because wehave realized that the world is directed and governedby the gods.”

The rulers’ supposed connection to the divine alsocaused them to seek divine aid in the affairs of theworld. This led to the art of divination—an organizedmethod to figure out the intentions of the gods. InMesopotamian and Roman society, divination took the

form of examining the livers ofsacrificed animals or the flightsof birds to determine the willof the gods. The Chinese usedoracle bones to receive advicefrom the gods. The Greeks con-sulted oracles.

Underlying all of these practiceswas a belief in a supernatural uni-verse—a world in which divine forceswere in charge and human well-beingdepended on those divine forces. Itwas not until the scientific revolution of the 1600s thatmany people began to believe in a natural world thatwas not governed by spiritual forces.

Why were rulers of early civilizations considered tohave divine powers? How did this affect their sys-tems of government?

Greece. Among the twelve were Zeus, the chief godand father of the gods; Athena, goddess of wisdomand crafts; Apollo, god of the sun and poetry; Ares,god of war; Aphrodite, goddess of love; and Poseidon,brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes.

Greek religion did not have a body of doctrine, nordid it focus on morality. The spirits of most people,regardless of what they had done in life, went to agloomy underworld ruled by the god Hades.Because the Greeks wanted the gods to look favor-ably upon their activities, rituals became important.Rituals are ceremonies or rites. Greek religious ritu-als involved prayers often combined with gifts to thegods based on the principle “I give so that you [thegods] will give [in return].”

Festivals also developed as a way to honor thegods and goddesses. Certain festivals were held atspecial locations, such as those dedicated to the wor-ship of Zeus at Olympia or to Apollo at Delphi.Numerous events took place in honor of the gods atthe great festivals, including athletic games to whichall Greeks were invited. The first such games wereheld at the Olympic festival in 776 B.C.

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PELOPONNESUS

Olympia Corinth

Delphi

Gulf of Corinth

Mt. Parnassus

� An Athenianking consults the oracle at Delphi.

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the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire.Overjoyed to hear these words, Croesus made war onthe Persians but was crushed by his enemy. A mightyempire—that of Croesus—was destroyed!

Describing In what ways did theGreeks honor their gods and goddesses?

Greek DramaDrama as we know it in Western culture was cre-

ated by the Greeks. Plays were presented in outdoortheaters as part of religious festivals. The first Greekdramas were tragedies, which were presented in atrilogy (a set of three plays) built around a commontheme. The only complete trilogy we possess today,called the Oresteia, was composed by Aeschylus. Thisset of three plays relates the fate of Agamemnon, ahero in the Trojan War, and his family after his returnfrom the war. In the plays, evil acts are shown tobreed evil acts and suffering. In the end, however,reason triumphs over the forces of evil.

Another great Athenian playwright was Sopho-cles, whose most famous play was Oedipus Rex. Inthis play, the oracle of Apollo foretells how Oedipuswill kill his own father and marry his mother. Despiteall attempts to prevent this, Oedipus does committhese tragic acts.

Reading Check

A third outstanding Athenian dramatist, Euripi-des, tried to create more realistic characters. His plotsbecame more complex and showed a greater interestin real-life situations. Euripides was controversial.He questioned traditional values. He portrayed waras brutal and barbaric and expressed deep compas-sion for the women and children who suffered as aresult of it.

Greek tragedies dealt with universal themes stillrelevant today. They examined such problems as thenature of good and evil, the rights of the individual,the nature of divine forces, and the nature of humanbeings. In the world of the Greek tragedies, strivingto do the best thing may not always lead to success,but the attempt is a worthy endeavor. Greek pride inaccomplishment and independence was real. As thechorus chanted in Sophocles’ Antigone, “Is there any-thing more wonderful on earth, our marvelousplanet, than the miracle of man?”

Greek comedy developed later than tragedy. It wasused to criticize both politicians and intellectuals.Comedy tried to make a point, intending to bothentertain and provoke a reaction. The plays of Aris-tophanes are good examples.

Identifying Name three Greektragedies that examine universal themes.

Reading Check


Greeks often attended outdoor per-formances of plays in amphitheaters. Howdoes this amphitheater differ from mod-ern theaters?

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The Olympic Games of the Greeks

The Olympic games were the greatestof all the ancient Greek sports festivals.

They were held at Olympia every fouryears beginning in 776 B.C. to honor Zeus,father of the gods.

At first, the Olympic games consistedonly of footraces. Later, wrestling, box-ing, javelin and discus throwing, longjumping, and chariot racing were added.Competitions were always betweenindividuals, not groups. Only young mentook part until contests for boys wereadded by 632 B.C. Beginning in 472 B.C.,the games were held over a five-dayperiod.

In the Olympic games, each event hadonly one winner. His prize was simply awreath made of olive leaves, consideredsacred to Zeus. However, the Greekslooked on winning athletes as great heroesand often rewarded them in other ways.The people of a city in Sicily welcomedhome the winner of the 200-meter racewith a parade of 300 chariots pulled bywhite horses. Some communitiesrewarded their winners with money andfree rents for life.

The long-held belief that athletes in theOlympic games were amateurs is simplynot true. City-states supported both ath-letes and their trainers. This practice freedthem to train for long periods of time in

Greek PhilosophyPhilosophy refers to an organized system of

thought. The term comes from a Greek word thatmeans “love of wisdom.” Early Greek philosopherswere concerned with the development of critical orrational thought about the nature of the universe.

Many early Greek philosophers tried to explainthe universe on the basis of unifying principles. Inthe sixth century B.C., for example, Pythagoras,familiar to geometry students for his Pythagoreantheorem, taught that the essence of the universecould be found in music and numbers. In the fifthand fourth centuries B.C., Socrates, Plato, and Aristo-tle raised basic questions that have been debated fortwo thousand years.

Sophists The Sophists were a group of travelingteachers in ancient Greece who rejected speculationsuch as that of Pythagoras as foolish. They arguedthat it was simply beyond the reach of the humanmind to understand the universe. It was more impor-tant for individuals to improve themselves.

The Sophists sold their services as professionalteachers to the young men of Greece, especially those

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of Athens. The Sophists stressed the importance ofrhetoric (the art of persuasive speaking in winningdebates and swaying an audience). This skill wasespecially valuable in democratic Athens.

To the Sophists, there was no absolute right orwrong. What was right for one individual might bewrong for another. True wisdom consisted of beingable to perceive and pursue one’s own good. Becauseof these ideas, many people viewed the Sophists asharmful to society and especially dangerous to thevalues of young people.

Socrates One of the critics of the Sophists wasSocrates, a sculptor whose true love was philosophy.Because Socrates left no writings, we know about himonly what we have learned from the writings of hispupils, such as Plato. Socrates taught many pupils,but he accepted no pay. He believed that the goal ofeducation was only to improve the individual.

Socrates used a teaching method that is stillknown by his name. The Socratic method of teachinguses a question-and-answer format to lead pupils tosee things for themselves by using their own reason.Socrates believed that all real knowledge is alreadypresent within each person. Only critical examina-tion is needed to call it forth. This is the real task of

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the hope that they would bring back victo-ries—and glory—to their communities.Larger city-states even bribed winners fromother city-states to move to their commu-nities and compete for them in the nextgames.

Olympic games could be dangerous.Wrestlers, for example, were allowed togouge eyes and even pick up their com-petitors and bring them down head firstonto a hard surface. Boxers wrapped theirhands and forearms with heavy leatherthongs, making their blows damaging.Some athletes were killed during thegames.

The Greek Olympic games came to anend in A.D. 393, when a Christian Romanemperor banned them as pagan exercises.Fifteen hundred years later, the gameswere revived through the efforts of a

French baron,Pierre de Cou-bertin, who wasinspired by theideals of theancient Greeks. In1896, the firstmodern Olympicgames were heldin Athens, Greece.

Discobolos, a famous Greekstatue, pays tribute toathletes and the Greek ideals of sound mind andsound body.

CONNECTING TO THE PAST1. Explaining Why were winning athletes so enthusi-

astically rewarded by their communities?

2. Writing about History How were the GreekOlympics influenced by governments and politics?

philosophy, because, as Socrates said, “The unexam-ined life is not worth living.” This belief in the indi-vidual’s ability to reason was an importantcontribution of the Greeks.

Socrates questioned authority, and this soon ledhim into trouble. Athens had had a tradition of freethought and inquiry, but defeat in the Pelopon-nesian War changed the Athenians. They no longertrusted open debate. Socrates was accused and con-victed of corrupting the youth of Athens by teach-ing them to question and think for themselves. AnAthenian jury sentenced him to die by drinkinghemlock, a poison.

Plato One of Socrates’ students was Plato, consid-ered by many the greatest philosopher of Westerncivilization. Unlike his teacher Socrates, who did notwrite down his thoughts, Plato wrote a great deal. Hewas fascinated with the question of reality. How dowe know what is real?

According to Plato, a higher world of eternal,unchanging Forms has always existed. These idealForms make up reality and only a trained mind—thegoal of philosophy—can become aware of or under-stand these Forms. To Plato, the objects that we per-ceive with our senses (trees, for example) are simply

reflections of the ideal Forms (treeness). They (thetrees) are but shadows. Reality is found in the Form(treeness) itself.

Plato explained his ideas about government in awork entitled The Republic. Based on his experience inAthens, Plato had come to distrust the workings ofdemocracy. To him, individuals could not achieve agood life unless they lived in a just and rational state.

Plato’s search for the just state led him to constructan ideal state in which people were divided intothree basic groups. At the top was an upper class ofphilosopher-kings: “Unless either philosophersbecome kings in their countries or those who are nowcalled kings and rulers come to be sufficientlyinspired with a genuine desire for wisdom; unless,that is to say, political power and philosophy meettogether . . . there can be no rest from troubles . . . forstates, nor for all mankind.”

The second group in Plato’s ideal state were war-riors who protected society. The third group con-tained all the rest, the masses, people driven not bywisdom or courage but by desire. They would be theproducers of society—artisans, tradespeople, andfarmers. Contrary to Greek custom, Plato alsobelieved that men and women should have the sameeducation and equal access to all positions.

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“I tell you that virtue does not come from money, but that money comes from virtue, as does every other good of man, public and private.”—The Apology of Socrates, Plato

Socrates

Aristotle Plato established a school in Athensknown as the Academy. One of his pupils, who stud-ied at the Academy for 20 years, was Aristotle. Aris-totle did not accept Plato’s theory of ideal forms. Hethought that by examining individual objects (trees),we could perceive their form (treeness). However, hedid not believe that these forms existed in a separate,higher world of reality beyond material things.Rather, he thought of forms as a part of things them-selves. (In other words, we know what treeness is byexamining trees.)

Aristotle’s interests, then, lay in analyzing andclassifying things based on observation and investi-gation. His interests were wide ranging. He wroteabout many subjects, including ethics, logic, politics,poetry, astronomy, geology, biology, and physics.Until the seventeenth century, science in the Westernworld remained largely based on Aristotle’s ideas.

Like Plato, Aristotle wanted an effective form ofgovernment that would rationally direct humanaffairs. Unlike Plato, he did not seek an ideal state buttried to find the best form of government by analyzingexisting governments. For his Politics, Aristotle lookedat the constitutions of 158 states and found three goodforms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and con-stitutional government. He favored constitutionalgovernment as the best form for most people.

Contrasting How did Aristotle’s ideaof government differ from Plato’s?

The Writing of HistoryHistory as we know it—as a systematic analysis of

past events—was created in the Western world by

Reading Check

the Greeks. Herodotus (hih•RAH•duh•tuhs) wasthe author of History of the Persian Wars, a work com-monly regarded as the first real history in Westerncivilization. The central theme of this work is the con-flict between the Greeks and the Persians, whichHerodotus viewed as a struggle between Greek free-dom and Persian despotism.

Herodotus traveled widely and questioned manypeople as a means of obtaining his information. Hewas a master storyteller.

Many historians today consider Thucydides(thoo•SIH•duh•DEEZ) the greatest historian of theancient world. Thucydides was an Athenian generalwho fought in the Great Peloponnesian War. A defeatin battle led the Athenian assembly to send him intoexile. This gave him the opportunity to write his His-tory of the Peloponnesian War.

Unlike Herodotus, Thucydides was not concernedwith divine forces or gods as causal factors in history.He saw war and politics in purely human terms, asthe activities of human beings. He examined thecauses and the course of the Peloponnesian Warclearly and fairly, placing much emphasis on theaccuracy of his facts. As he stated, “And with regardto my factual reporting of the events of the war I havemade it a principle not to write down the first storythat came my way, and not even to be guided by myown general impressions; either I was present myselfat the events which I have described or else I heard ofthem from eye-witnesses whose reports I havechecked with as much thoroughness as possible.”Thucydides also provided remarkable insight into thehuman condition. He believed that the study of his-tory is of great value in understanding the present.

Contrasting How did Thucydides’view of history differ from Herodotus’s view?

The Classical Ideals of Greek ArtThe arts of the Western world have been largely

dominated by the standards set by the Greeks of theclassical period. Classical Greek art was concernedwith expressing eternal ideals. The subject matter ofthis art was the human being, presented as an objectof great beauty. The classic style, based on the idealsof reason, moderation, balance, and harmony in allthings, was meant to civilize the emotions.

In architecture, the most important form was thetemple dedicated to a god or goddess. At the centerof Greek temples were walled rooms that housedboth the statues of deities and treasuries in whichgifts to the gods and goddesses were safeguarded.

Reading Check

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to Athena but also to the glory of Athensand the Athenians. The Parthenon showsthe principles of classical architecture: thesearch for calmness, clarity, and freedomfrom unnecessary detail.

Greek sculpture also developed a clas-sical style. Lifelike statues of the malenude, the favorite subject of Greek sculp-tors, showed relaxed attitudes. Their faces

were self-assured, their bodies flexible and smoothmuscled.

Greek sculptors did not seek to achieve realism,however, but rather a standard of ideal beauty. Poly-clitus (PAH•lih•KLY•tuhs), a fifth-century sculptor,wrote down systematic rules for proportions that heillustrated in a work known as the Doryphoros. Histheory maintained that the use of ideal proportions,based on mathematical ratios found in nature, couldproduce an ideal human form.

Identifying What was the mostimportant architectural form in ancient Greece?

Reading Check


Bodies of KnowledgeExplored by the Greeks

9. Descriptive Writing Describe andevaluate the roles of oracles, priest-esses, and priests in Greek religion.You may want to research theseroles in your school library. Afterwriting your descriptions of the roles,make comparisons to the roles ofreligious leaders in your community.

Checking for Understanding1. Define ritual, oracle, tragedy, philoso-

phy, Socratic method.

2. Identify Aeschylus, Sophocles,Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,Thucydides.

3. Locate Delphi, Gulf of Corinth.

4. Describe the themes found in Greek tragedies. Identify one of the dramasdiscussed in the text, name the play-wright who wrote it, and describe thethemes it contains.

5. List the three basic groups of people inPlato’s ideal state.

Critical Thinking6. Summarize How does Plato’s theory of

ideal forms differ from Aristotle’s the-ory of forms? Which view makes moresense to you? Why?

7. Organizing Information Make a webdiagram that shows what bodies ofknowledge the Greeks explored.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of the

Erechtheum shown above and identifythe building’s defining architecturalcharacteristics. In what types of modernbuildings would you find examples ofclassical architecture?

These central rooms were surrounded by a screen ofcolumns that made Greek temples open structuresrather than closed ones. The columns were originallymade of wood. In the fifth century B.C., marble beganto be used.

Some of the finest examples of Greek classicalarchitecture were built in Athens in the fifth centuryB.C. The most famous building, regarded as the great-est example of the classical Greek temple, was theParthenon. It was built between 447 and 432 B.C.Dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens,the Parthenon was an expression of Athenian pridein their city-state. Indeed, it was dedicated not only


The Erechtheum near the Parthenon has figures ofmaidens in place of conventional columns. This type ofornamental support is called a caryatid. Why might thearchitect have decided to use female figures?

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Greeks in antiquity considered theIliad to be a historical account of theirpast. Alexander the Great, for exam-ple, traced his mother’s family back tothe hero Achilles. We know today thatthe poem is not a true story of a warin Greece’s late Bronze Age (about1600 to 1100 B.C.). For one thing, the Iliad was not written during thisperiod. It is the result of more than500 years of oral tradition, handeddown by generations of professionalpoets. Credit for the final masterpiecewent to someone the Greeks called“divine Homer,” but they knew noth-ing more about this person than hissupposed name—and neither do we.

Still, myths often spring from akernel of historical truth, and in the

IIn Homer’s epic poem the Iliad, the rich and

powerful city-state of Mycenae headed a united

Greek attack against “windy Ilion”—the wealthy

city of Troy—to avenge the kidnapping of “lovely-

haired Helen,” wife of Sparta’s king Menelaus. For

centuries, the fabled treasures of these legendary

cities were thought to exist—like the Trojan War

itself—in imagination only. But modern archaeol-

ogy suggests there may be more than myth to

Homer’s classic tale.

late nineteenth century, the TrojanWar’s mythic rival cities entered thereal world of history. Between 1870and 1890 German businessman andamateur archaeologist HeinrichSchliemann carried out archaeologi-cal digs that put Troy and Mycenaeon the map. Since then, archaeolo-gists and scholars have uncoverednumerous details suggesting thatHomer’s Iliad records many aspects ofthe Greek Bronze Age (known to his-torians as the Mycenaean Age, for thecity that dominated the period). Thegiant walls of Mycenae and its fabu-lous treasure, for example, and thegeography around Troy itself innorthwestern Turkey, all supportdescriptions you can find in the

poem’s stirring rhythms.Descendants of Greek-speaking

peoples who appeared on the Greekmainland around 1900 B.C., theMycenaeans eventually developedsocieties that revolved around a cen-tral palace. In addition to Mycenaeitself, Schliemann and later archaeolo-gists have discovered major Myce-naean centers whose names appear inthe Iliad: “sacred” Pylos, Tiryns “ofthe huge walls,” and “thirsty” Argos,to list only a few of them. Researchershave also discovered hundreds of settlements and tombs—all with ashared culture.

The historical Mycenae dominatedthe plain of Argos, a wealthy region that controlled much of the trade

Myth to the MoRe Than

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across the Aegean Sea. The city’s mas-sive walls enclosed a large administra-tive complex of royal courts, houses,sanctuaries, and storerooms. Itsfamous grave circle, unearthed bySchliemann in 1876, revealed richtreasures suggesting that as early as thesixteenth century B.C. the Mycenaeanruling class possessed a treasure troveof silver, gold, and ivory.

From archaeological digs at bothMycenae and Troy came signs thatHomer’s Iliad told of real things in the ancient world. Among the itemsfound at Mycenae, for example, was asmall gold ring. Carved on its face is a miniature battle scene showing aman protecting his entire body behinda huge shield, the kind that Homerdescribes the Greek hero Ajax holdingin front of him “like a wall.” The Iliad’sheroes were known across the sea inAsia as well. Tomb art found in Turkeyand dating from the fourth century

B.C. depicts a scene from the Trojansiege (opposite page).

Troy’s location at the mouth of theDardanelles, the strait that Homercalled the Hellespont, gave it com-mand of the water route into centralAsia. From this vantage point, thehistorical Trojans traded skillfullythroughout central Asia. Whatremains of Troy’s walls still overlooks a plain crossed by willow-lined riversmentioned in the Iliad.

Heinrich Schliemann’s excavationof Troy was crude and impatient. Hesank trenches straight to bedrock,believing Homer’s “windy Ilion”would lie at the bottom, thus destroy-

S P E C I A L R E P O RT

N

S

EW

TROY

MYCENAE

A e g e a n

S e a

Hellespont(Dardanelles)

B l a c kS e a

I o n i a nS e a

Sea ofMarmara

Gulf of Corinth

Delphi

Argos

SpartaPylos

Tiryns

Olympia AthensPiraievs

MarathonThebesChaeronea

Knossos

Miletus

Thera

Pergamum

Possible route ofGreek fleet

C Y C L A D E S

CRETE

Lesbos

Samos

Tenedos

Delos

Mt. Olympus

Mt. Parnassas

PELOPONNESUS

THRACE

G R E E C E

IONIAATTICA

A S I A M I N O R

AREAENLARGED

M e d i t e r r a ne a n S e a

Black Sea

MycenaeSyracuse

Troy A S I A

E U R O P E

A F R I C A

MYCENAE

LionGate

Grave circleCult center

Citadel

1 A scene etched in stone on a fourthcentury B.C. tomb found in Turkey sug-gests the Iliad’s tragic final battle,between Hector of Troy and Achilles,hero of the Greeks.

2 Prosperous Mycenae traded through-out the Aegean. The reconstructionabove shows the city’s fortress in thelate thirteenth century B.C., at the peakof its power. Some 250 miles (402 km)away, its rival Troy commanded thestrait called the Dardanelles (Homer’sHellespont), a key link to the Black Sea.Today Troy’s ruins lie 3 miles (4.8 km)inland, but in the late Bronze Age, thecity sat on the edge of a bay thatopened directly onto the Hellespont.

2

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TROY

Lower town

Wooden palisadeTrench

Scaean Gate

Citadel

ART BY WILLIAM COOKSOURCE ON TROY TROY PROJECT

ing several layers of history. Today aninternational team of archaeologistsdirected by Manfred Korfmann ofGermany’s Tubingen University isreexcavating the entire site—nine levels ranging from 3000 B.C. to theRoman city of New Ilium in the earlysixth century A.D. The sixth and sev-enth levels straddle the years 1250 to1150 B.C., the era of Homer’s war.

Whether or not the Greeks actually launched an invasion orentered Troy by means of the famousTrojan horse ruse (opposite page),evidence shows that the two peopleswere in trading contact. Mycenaeanpottery found at Troy dates back to1500 B.C.

Some 1,300 feet (396 m) beyondthe citadel first uncovered by Schlie-mann, Korfmann’s team of archaeolo-gists has made a most exciting find.They uncovered an extensive trench8 feet (2.4 m) deep and 10 feet (3 m)wide encircling an entire lower town

of wooden houses. The reconfiguredcity (reconstruction above)—whichincreases the known area of the sixth level of Troy by as much as 50acres (20.25 ha)— is almost ten timesas large as the citadel and held a pop-ulation of at least 6,000. This findingmakes Troy an opponent more equal to the mighty Mycenae thanSchliemann’s hilltop fortress.

Farther afield, in a nearby sandcove, lies evidence to support specula-

tion that the Trojans took advantageof their commanding position at thiscrossroads of trade between Europeand Asia. Because of prevailing north-easterly winds, shallow-keeled BronzeAge merchant ships would have beenforced to wait at Troy for a favorablebreeze before proceeding north of theDardanelles to the Black Sea.

Korfmann’s team has located buri-als in the cove that reflect differentcultural influences, suggesting that

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the crews of stranded vessels may have died while waiting for the windto change. Korfmann says later textsconfirm that “occupants of the regionexacted tolls from incoming vessels.”If Troy grew rich with this practice, itwould have made bitter enemies ofmerchants like the Mycenaeans.

S P E C I A L R E P O RT

1. Was there a Trojan War? If so, whatwas its likely cause?

2. What is significant about the strait called the Dardanelles?

INTERPRETING THE PAST

Indeed, some historians speculatethat conflict over trade routes, ratherthan Helen’s legendary beauty, mayhave sparked the Trojan War. AsKorfmann sees it, “It is possible thatTroy experienced several commercialskirmishes, if not one Trojan War.”

5

4

3 Stone walls believed to be thecitadel of Troy were first unearthed inthe 1870s. Troy holds the remains of atleast nine settlements spanning 3,500years. In the early 1990s, archaeolo-gists discovered several wooden pal-isades and a 10-foot (3-m) trenchencircling a lower town (reconstruction).Earlier only the hilltop citadel wasknown.

4 The Tumulus of Ajax is one of morethan 40 mounds on the plain of Troysaid to honor fallen heroes of the Trojan War.

5 A seventh-century B.C. amphora fromMykonos shows the earliest knowndepiction of the wooden horse that bore“death and doom for the Trojans.”

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359 B.C.Philip II turns Macedonia into thechief power of the Greek world

338 B.C.Macedonia crushes the Greeks

Guide to Reading

Alexander and the Hellenistic Kingdoms

Preview of Events

323 B.C.Alexander dies at theage of thirty-two

✦360 B.C. ✦350 B.C. ✦340 B.C. ✦330 B.C. ✦320 B.C.

Under the leadership of Alexander the Great, Macedonians and Greeks united toinvade and conquer the Persian Empire. The ancient historian Diodorus of Sicily gavethis account of Alexander’s destruction of the Persian palace at Persepolis:

“While they [Alexander’s victorious forces] were feasting and the drinking was faradvanced, as they began to be drunken a madness took possession of the minds of theintoxicated guests. At this point one of the women present, Thaïs by name and Athenianby origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he . . .set fire to the palaces, and permitted women’s hands in a minute to extinguish thefamed accomplishments of the Persians. . . . Promptly many torches were gathered. . . .Thaïs was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the othersall did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed.”

—Library of History, Diodorus Siculus, C. H. Oldfather, trans., 1967

In the conquered lands, Greeks and non-Greeks formed a new society in what isknown as the Hellenistic Era.

The Threat of MacedoniaThe Greeks viewed their northern neighbors, the Macedonians, as barbarians.

The Macedonians were rural people organized in groups, not city-states. By theend of the fifth century B.C., however, Macedonia emerged as a powerful kingdom.

Voices from the Past

Classical Ageof Greece Hellenistic Era

330 B.C.Alexander the Great takes possession of the Persian Empire

Main Ideas• Under Alexander, Macedonians and

Greeks conquered the Persian Empire.• Hellenistic cities became centers for the

spread of Greek culture.

Key TermsHellenistic Era, Epicureanism, Stoicism

People to Identify Philip II, Alexander the Great, Eratosthenes, Euclid, Archimedes

Places to Locate Macedonia, Alexandria, Pergamum

Preview Questions1. What event brought to an end the

freedom of Greek city-states?2. In what ways has Alexander’s legacy

affected history?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use a Venn dia-gram like the one shown below to com-pare and contrast the characteristics of theClassical and Hellenistic periods.

The followingare the majorSunshine StateStandards coveredin this section.


SS.B.1.4.4:Understand how cultural and technological characteristics can link ordivide regions.

SS.B.2.4.1:Understand how social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors contribute to the dynamicnature of regions.


FCAT LA.A.2.2.7

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and remains today, one of the most important cities inboth Egypt and the Mediterranean world. It was alsothe first of a series of cities named after him.

In 331 B.C., Alexander turned east and fought thedecisive battle with the Persians at Gaugamela, notfar from Babylon. After this victory, Alexander tookpossession of the rest of the Persian Empire. How-ever, he was not content.

Over the next three years, Alexander moved eastand northeast, as far as modern Pakistan. In 326 B.C.he crossed the Indus River and entered India, wherehe experienced a number of difficult campaigns.Weary of fighting year after year, his soldiers refusedto go farther.

Alexander agreed to return home. He led his troopsacross the desert, through what is now southern Iran.A blazing sun and lack ofwater led to thousands ofdeaths. At one point, whena group of Alexander’s sol-diers found a little water,they scooped it up in a hel-met and gave it to him.Then, according to oneancient Greek historian,Alexander, “in full view ofhis troops, poured thewater on the ground. Soextraordinary was the effect


Alexander the Great356–323 B.C.Macedonian king

It was said that when Alexanderwas born: “there was a flash of light-ning, thunder resounded, the earthtrembled, and the whole worldshook.” Apt words for the man whobecame a great conqueror. Alexan-der received his formal education from the Greekphilosopher Aristotle, who served as his tutor. Unlikemany of the Greeks, however, Alexander held a globalview. He considered Persians and other non-Greeks tobe the equals of Greeks. He envisioned a world in whichmixed cultures would live together—under his control,of course. To this end, he encouraged his generals tomarry Persian princesses, and he married two himself.

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 4–Student Web Activity to learn more aboutAlexander the Great andhis conquests.

wh.glencoe.com

In 359 B.C., Philip II came to the throne. He built apowerful army and turned Macedonia into the chiefpower of the Greek world. Philip was soon drawninto Greek affairs. A great admirer of Greek culture,he longed to unite all of Greece under Macedonia.

Fearing Philip, the Athenians allied with a numberof other Greek states and fought the Macedonians atthe Battle of Chaeronea (KEHR•uh•NEE•uh), nearThebes, in 338 B.C. The Macedonian army crushedthe Greeks.

Philip quickly gained control of all Greece, bring-ing an end to the freedom of the Greek city-states. Heinsisted that the Greek states form a league and thencooperate with him in a war against Persia. BeforePhilip could undertake his invasion of Asia, however,he was assassinated, leaving the task to his sonAlexander.

Identifying What was Philip II’s planfor the conquered Greeks and their city-states?

Alexander the GreatAs a result of Alexander’s con-

quests, Greek language, art, architecture, and literaturespread throughout Southwest Asia. Today we continueto admire and to imitate Greek art and architecture.Alexander the Great was only 20 when he became

king of Macedonia. Philip had carefully prepared hisson for kingship. By taking Alexander along withhim on military campaigns, Philip taught Alexanderthe basics of military leadership. After his father’sdeath, Alexander moved quickly to fulfill his father’sdream—the invasion of the Persian Empire. He wasmotivated by the desire for glory and empire but alsoby the desire to avenge the Persian burning of Athensin 480 B.C.

Alexander’s Conquests Alexander was taking achance in attacking the Persian Empire. Althoughweakened, it was still a strong state in the spring of334 B.C. when Alexander entered Asia Minor with anarmy of some thirty-seven thousand men, bothMacedonians and Greeks. The cavalry, which wouldplay an important role as a striking force, numberedabout five thousand.

By the next year, Alexander had freed the IonianGreek cities of western Asia Minor from the Persiansand defeated a large Persian army at Issus. He thenturned south. By the winter of 332 B.C., Syria, Pales-tine, and Egypt were under his control. He builtAlexandria as the Greek capital of Egypt. It became,

Reading Check

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of this action that the water wasted by Alexander wasas good as a drink for every man in the army.”

Alexander returned to Babylon, where he plannedmore campaigns. However, in June 323 B.C., exhaustedfrom wounds, fever, and too much alcohol, he died atthe age of 32.

The Legacy of Alexander What explains Alexan-der’s extraordinary military success? No doubt, hewas a great military leader—a master of strategyand tactics, fighting in every kind of terrain and fac-ing every kind of opponent. Alexander was a braveand even reckless fighter who was quite willing tolead his men into battle and risk his own life. Hisexample inspired his men to follow him intounknown lands and difficult situations. Alexandersought to imitate Achilles, the warrior-hero ofHomer’s Iliad, who was an ideal still important inGreek culture. Alexander kept a copy of the Iliad—and a dagger—under his pillow.

Alexander’s military skill created an enormouslegacy. He had extended Greek and Macedonian ruleover a vast area. This brought large quantities of goldand silver to Greece and Macedonia, stimulatingtheir economies.

Alexander’s successors tried to imitate him, usingforce and claims of divine rule to create militarymonarchies. Although mainland Greeks remainedcommitted to the ideals of the city-state, the creationof the monarchies became part of Alexander’s politi-cal legacy.

Alexander also left a cultural legacy. Due to hisconquests, Greek language, architecture, literature,and art spread throughout Southwest Asia and theNear East. The cultural influences did not, however,flow in only one direction. The Greeks also absorbedaspects of Eastern culture.

Identifying What were the differentaspects of Alexander’s legacy?

Reading Check


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CyprusP E R S I A

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Granicus334 B.C.

Alexandria

MiletusSparta

AthensThebes

Tyre

Gaugamela331 B.C.

Issus333 B.C.

BabylonPersepolis

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Empire of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C.

Modern-dayborders

Extent of empire

Alexander's routesof conquest

Major battle

Alexander the Great established his empire over three conti-nents. The smaller map on the right outlines the present-day equivalent of Alexander’s empire.

1. Interpreting Maps Did physical boundaries appear tohave limited Alexander’s conquests?

2. Applying Geography Skills Compare the inset mapto the large map. What modern states correspond toAlexander’s empire?

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The Hellenistic KingdomsAlexander created a new age, the Hellenistic Era.

The word Hellenistic is derived from a Greek wordmeaning “to imitate Greeks.” It is an appropriateway, then, to describe an age that saw the expansionof the Greek language and ideas to the non-Greekworld of Southwest Asia and beyond.

The united empire that Alexander created by hisconquests fell apart soon after his death as the mostimportant Macedonian generals engaged in a strug-gle for power. By 300 B.C., any hope of unity wasdead. Eventually, four Hellenistic kingdoms emergedas the successors to Alexander: Macedonia, Syria inthe east, the kingdom of Pergamum in western AsiaMinor, and Egypt. All were eventually conquered bythe Romans.

Alexander the Great had planned to fuse Macedo-nians, Greeks, and Persians in his new empire byusing Persians as officials and encouraging his sol-diers to marry native women. The Hellenistic mon-archs who succeeded him, however, relied only onGreeks and Macedonians to form the new rulingclass. Even those easterners who did advance toimportant government posts had learned Greek, forall government business was transacted in Greek.The Greek ruling class was determined to maintainits privileged position.

In his conquests, Alexander had created a series ofnew cities and military settlements. Hellenistic kingsdid likewise. These new population centers varied insize from military settlements of only a few hundredmen to cities with thousands of people. Alexandria,which Alexander had founded in Egypt, was thelargest city in the Mediterranean region by the firstcentury B.C.

Hellenistic rulers encouraged a massive spread ofGreek colonists to Southwest Asia. Greeks (and

After Alexander’s death, the Greek world separated intofour emerging kingdoms.

1. Interpreting Maps Which kingdom appears to havehad the most extensive territory?

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Hellenistic World, 241 B.C.

Modern Alexandria is the mainport of Egypt and its secondlargest city. It has been aprominent cultural andeconomic metropolis forthousands of years.

Egyptian kingdom

Greek leagues underMacedonian control

Macedonian kingdom

Pergamum kingdomSyrian kingdom

Macedonians) provided not only new recruits for thearmy but also a pool of civilian administrators andworkers. Architects, engineers, dramatists, and actorswere all in demand in the new Greek cities. TheGreek cities of the Hellenistic Era became the chiefagents in the spread of Greek culture in SouthwestAsia—as far, in fact, as modern Afghanistan andIndia.

Identifying Which four kingdomsemerged following Alexander’s death?

Reading Check

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Hellenistic CultureThe Hellenistic Era was a period of considerable

cultural accomplishment in many areas, especiallyscience and philosophy. These achievementsoccurred throughout the Hellenistic world. Certaincenters, however—especially the great Hellenisticcity of Alexandria—stood out. Alexandria becamehome to poets, writers, philosophers, and scien-tists—scholars of all kinds.

The library in Alexandria became the largest inancient times, with more than five hundred thousandscrolls. The library encouraged the careful study ofliterature and language. There was also a museumthat provided a favorable atmosphere for scholarlyresearch.

Pergamum, the most important city in Asia Minor,also became a leading cultural center. As a result,Pergamum also attracted both scholars and artists.The library at Pergamum was second only to Alexan-dria’s library.

Architecture and Sculpture The founding of newcities and the rebuilding of old ones presented many

opportunities forGreek architectsand sculptors.Hellenistic kingswere very will-ing to spendtheir money to

beautify the cities withintheir states. The build-ings characteristic of the Greek homeland—baths, theaters, and tem-ples—lined the streetsof these cities.

Both Hellenistic kingsand rich citizens patron-ized sculptors. Thou-sands of statues wereerected in towns and

cities all over the Hellenistic world. Hellenistic sculp-tors maintained the technical skill of the classicalperiod, but they moved away from the idealism ofearlier classicism to a more emotional and realisticart. This is especially evident in the numerous statuesof old women and little children.

Literature The Hellenistic Age produced an enor-mous quantity of literature. Writing talent was heldin high esteem, especially by Hellenistic leaders whospent large amounts of money subsidizing writers.Unfortunately very little of this literature hassurvived.

Appolonius of Rhodes wrote the epic poem calledArgonautica, which tells the story of Jason and hissearch for the Golden Fleece. Theocritus wrote shortpoems that expressed a love of nature and an appre-ciation of nature’s beauty. Unlike Appolonius, The-ocritus believed that it was best not to attempt epicpoems, for which Homer had established a standardthat could not be matched according to many Greekscholars.

Athens remained the center of Greek theatre. Anew type of comedy developed that sought only toentertain and amuse and avoided political commen-tary. Menander was perhaps the most successful ofthese new playwrights.

Science The Hellenistic Age witnessed considerableadvances in the sciences. Astronomy and mathemat-ics were two areas of progress.

One astronomer—Aristarchus (AR•uh•STAHR•kuhs) of Samos—developed the theory that the sun isat the center of the universe while the Earth rotatesaround the sun in a circular orbit. The prevailingview, in contrast, held that Earth was at the center ofthe universe. The new theory was not widelyaccepted. Most scholars continued to believe in theEarth-centered universe.

Another astronomer—Eratosthenes (EHR•uh•TAHS•thuh•NEEZ)—determined that Earth wasround and calculated Earth’s circumference at 24,675miles (39,702 km), an estimate that was within 185miles (298 km) of the actual figure. The mathematicianEuclid wrote the Elements, a textbook on plane geom-etry. This work has been used up to modern times.

By far the most famous of the scientists of the Hel-lenistic period was Archimedes (AHR•kuh•MEE•deez) of Syracuse. Archimedes was especially impor-tant because of his work on the geometry of spheresand cylinders, as well as for establishing the value ofthe mathematical constant pi.


Winged Victory was carved from a solidblock of marble in the second century B.C.The folds in her garment look almost likereal cloth. How does this statue differfrom classical Greek sculpture?

History

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Archimedes was also apractical inventor. He mayhave devised the Archimedes’screw, a machine used topump water out of mines andto lift irrigation water. Duringthe Roman siege of his nativecity of Syracuse, he built anumber of devices to repel theattackers.

Archimedes’ achievementsinspired a number of stories. Supposedly, he discov-ered specific gravity by observing the water he dis-placed in his bath. He then became so excited by hisrealization that he jumped out of the water and ranhome naked, shouting, “Eureka!” (“I have found it!”)He is said to have emphasized the importance oflevers by proclaiming to the king of Syracuse, “Giveme a lever and a place to stand on and I will move theearth.” The king was so impressed that he encour-aged Archimedes to lower his sights and build defen-sive weapons instead.

Philosophy Athens remained the chief center forphilosophy in the Hellenistic world. After the time ofAlexander the Great, the home of Socrates, Plato, andAristotle continued to attract the most famousphilosophers from the Greek world, who chose toestablish their schools there. New systems ofthought—Epicureanism and Stoicism—strengthenedAthens’ reputation as a philosophical center.

Epicurus, the founder of a philosophy that came tobe known as Epicureanism, established a school in

Athens near the end of the fourth century B.C. Epicu-rus believed that human beings were free to followself-interest as a basic motivating force. Happinesswas the goal of life. The means to achieve happinesswas the pursuit of pleasure, the only true good.

Epicurus did not speak of the pursuit of pleasurein a physical sense (which is what our word epicureanhas come to mean). Instead, pleasure was freedomfrom emotional turmoil and worry. To achieve this,people had to free themselves from public activity.However, they were not to give up all social life. ToEpicurus, a life could only be complete when it wascentered on the ideal of friendship.

Another school of thought was Stoicism. Itbecame the most popular philosophy of the Hellenis-tic world and later flourished in the Roman Empireas well. Stoicism was the product of a teacher namedZeno. Zeno came to Athens and began to teach in abuilding known as the Painted Portico (the Stoa Poik-ile—hence, the word Stoicism).

Like Epicureanism, Stoicism was concerned withhow people find happiness. However, the Stoicsapproached the problem differently. To them, happi-ness could be found only when people gained innerpeace by living in harmony with the will of God.They could bear whatever life offered (hence, ourword stoic).

Unlike Epicureans, Stoics did not believe in theneed to separate themselves from the world and pol-itics. Public service was regarded as noble. The realStoic was a good citizen.

Contrasting What were the majordifferences between Epicureanism and Stoicism?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define Hellenistic Era, Epicureanism,

Stoicism.

2. Identify Philip II, Alexander the Great,Eratosthenes, Euclid, Archimedes.

3. Locate Macedonia, Alexandria, Pergamum.

4. Describe the defining characteristics ofthe Hellenistic period.

5. List the three most famous scientists ofthe Hellenistic Age and describe theircontributions.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Why is Alexander called

“Great”? Do you think the title is justified? Why or why not?

7. Organizing Information Use a clusterdiagram to show Alexander’s goals forhis empire.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of Alexan-

dria, Egypt, shown on page 141 of yourtext. What do you notice that you mightnot have expected about the city? Whatdoes the city’s location tell you aboutthe importance of ports to Alexander’screation of an empire?

Alexander’sGoals

Archimedes

9. Persuasive Writing Choose an Epicurean or Stoic perspective andargue whether an individual shouldparticipate in government and civicaffairs. FCAT LA.B.1.4.2


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Although each Greek civilization had unique problems, all four faced common challenges.

144

Using Key Terms1. Some Greek city-states were committed to government by

the many, called , while others ruled by ,which means rule by the few.

2. The upper fortified part of a city, the , was a place ofrefuge during an attack.

3. were a heavily armed military order of infantrymenor foot soldiers.

4. Marching shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formationwas known as a .

5. Athenians devised the practice of to protect them-selves against overly ambitious politicians.

6. In order to know the will of the gods, the Greeks consultedan , a sacred shrine dedicated to a god or goddess.

7. According to the Greek philosophy of , humans arefree to follow self-interest as a basic motivating force.

8. Greek citizens assembled in an open area called an that also served as a market.

9. The term comes from the Greek word that means“love of wisdom.”

10. Greek were presented as a set of three plays.

11. The of teaching uses a question-and-answer formatto lead pupils to understand ideas for themselves.

Environmenta. locationb. factors

Movementa. originb. trade

Regionalisma. governmentb. values, interests,

beliefs

Conflicta. with other Greeksb. with foreign

invaders

a. Creteb. tidal waves

a. unknownb. sea trading empire

a. kingb. sports, nature

a. invaded byMycenaeans

a. Peloponnesusb. earthquakes

a. Indo-Europeanb. pottery

a. monarchies forminga loose alliance ofindependent states

b. heroic deeds

a. conquered Minoansb. fell to Greek-speaking

invaders

a. Peloponnesusb. farming

a. Greek-speaking invadersb. trade discouraged

a. military state, oligarchyb. discipline, military arts

a. conquered other Greeks,fought Athenians

b. fought Persians, Macedonians

a. Atticab. lack of fertile land

a. Greek-speaking invadersb. pottery

a. oligarchy, directdemocracy

b. philosophy, art,theatre, architecture

a. fought Spartansb. fought Persians,

Macedonians

Minoans Mycenaeans Spartans Athenians

Reviewing Key Facts12. Culture What was the basic textbook for the education of

Greek males?

13. Citizenship What were the rights and responsibilities ofAthenian citizens?

14. Economics What types of goods were exchanged betweenthe Greek city-states and their colonies?

15. Government Why was Sparta a military state?

16. History What is significant about the Age of Pericles?

17. Society How were Greek women kept under strict control?

18. History How did Philip prepare Alexander for kingship?

19. History What is the meaning of the term Hellenistic?

20. Culture Who were the philosophers of classical Greece?

21. Science and Technology What contributions didPythagorus, Eratosthenes, and Archimedes make to science?

Critical Thinking22. Analyzing How did the formation of the Delian League give

proof to the saying that strength lies in unity?

23. Understanding Cause and Effect The Peloponnesian Warweakened the Greek states, yet later, Greek culture wasspread farther than ever. How did this happen?

FCAT SC.E.1.4.1


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Greek Colonies, 750–550 B.C.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 4–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

The Great Peloponnesian War from 431 B.C. to 405 B.C.immediately resulted in

F the Age of Pericles.

G the Hellenistic Era.

H the weakening of the Athenian city-state.

J a rise of literature and history.

Test-Taking Tip: The key word immediately indicates thatthe correct answer is a direct result of the Great Pelopon-nesian War. Although many of the events stated in theanswer choices happened around this time, you want theanswer that happened directly after the Great Pelopon-nesian War.


StandardizedTest Practice

Greece

Greek colonies

Writing About History24. Expository Writing Some classicists translate Sophocles’

work on Oedipus as “Oedipus Tyrannus” or “Oedipus theTyrant.” Using what you know about Greek history, explainwhy some people might want to talk about Oedipus as atyrant rather than a king.

Analyzing SourcesRead the following excerpt from Pericles’ Funeral Oration:

“Our Constitution is called a democracy because the power is in the hands not of a minority but of thewhole people. When it is a question of settling privatedisputes, everyone is equal before the law. Just as ourpolitical life is free and open, so is our day-to-day life inour relations with each other. . . . Here each individualis interested not only in his own affairs but in the affairsof the state as well.”

25. How does Pericles define a democracy?

26. According to Pericles, what is the relationship between theindividual and the state in a democracy?

27. What is the historical significance of this speech in Pericles’own day and now?

Applying Technology Skills28. Creating a Multimedia Presentation Using the Internet

and traditional print sources, conduct further research onGreek architecture, especially the design and building oftemples. Then, design and construct a small three-dimensional temple, using the type of column you feel is best suited to your building. To which Greek god or god-dess will your temple be dedicated? Share your project withthe class.

Making Decisions29. Pretend you are Pericles in Athens facing the possibility of a

Spartan assault. Why are you and Sparta at war? Are thereany alternatives to battle? Might you choose to negotiatewith Sparta? Keep in mind the reasons for Spartan antago-nism and the great costs a battle inflicts.

Analyzing Maps and ChartsDirections: Study the map above to answer the following questions.

30. Analyze the location of the Greek colonies. What generalizations can you make about their locations?

31. What is the maximum distance that a Greek citizen would have to travel to reach the sea?

32. How important was a navy to the Athenian Empire?

FCAT LA.B.1.4.2

FCAT MA.B.1.4.3

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chapter 4: ancient greece, 1900-133 b.c. · ancient greece 1900Ð133 b.c. ... compare and contrast...

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