Chapter 20

2

Globalization International responses to

devastation caused by Krakatoa eruption in 1883 and the 2010 earthquake in Haiti show growth of globalization

Globalization not always positive How should U.S. respond to public

concern over problems of globalization?

3

Figure 20.1

A Two-Dimensional Framework of International Ideologies

4

Making Foreign Policy: The Constitutional

Context Foreign policy a nation’s general

plan to defend and advance national interests

Constitution gives Congress four responsibilities in foreign affairs and the courts one

Despite no direct responsibility listed in Constitution, president dominant actor in foreign policy

5

Constitutional Bases of Presidential Authority in

Foreign Policy

Article II of Constitution defines presidential powers: Commander in chief of military Power to make treaties Appoints U.S. ambassadors and

heads of executive departments Receives (or refuses to receive)

ambassadors from other countries

6

The President and Foreign Policy

Over time, presidents have used constitutional provisions, statues, Supreme Court decisions, and precedents of action to become leading actor in foreign policy

However, Congress plays strong supporting role

7

Constitutional Bases of Congressional Authority in

Foreign Policy

Declare war Raise revenue and

dispense funds Call out state

militias to repel invasions

Regulate commerce with foreign nations

Support, maintain, govern, and regulate the army and navy

Define and punish piracy and offenses against the laws of nations

Legislate

8

Congress empowered to:

Congress and Foreign Policy

While most salient power, Congress has declared war only five times

Legislative power used to design programs or provide funding (or not)

Senate must approve treaties and presidential appointments involved in foreign policy

9

The Senate and Major Treaties

Senate rarely rejects a treaty Defeated only 21 of thousands

considered One major defeat – rejected U.S.

membership in League of Nations Most recent defeat: rejection of

Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1999

10

Skirting the Senate Through Executive

Agreements Presidents can make pacts with other

heads of countries with executive agreements Must conform to Constitution, laws of

Congress, and existing treaties Until 1972, texts not reported to

Congress May involve minor bureaucratic business

or issues unlikely to win Senate approval

11

The North American Free Trade Agreement

NAFTA negotiated as executive agreement by President George H.W. Bush President Clinton gained majority support

for passage in both House and Senate President George W. Bush signed

Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) in 2004 Implemented via presidential

proclamation in 2006

12

After NAFTA, CAFTA

13

Constitutional Roots of Statutory Powers in

Foreign Policy Congress passed laws allowing

president leeway in several areas Discretionary funds Transfer authority Disposal of excess government

stocks and equipment

14

Military Policy Presidents, acting as commander in

chief of armed forces, have committed American troops in undeclared wars

Congress passed War Powers Resolution in 1973 as response to military action in Viet Nam Framework used to gain Congressional

approval for actions in Afghanistan and Iraq

15

Ambassadorial Appointments

Senate must confirm President’s ambassadorial appointments

May use confirmation hearings to prod presidents for different appointees

Presidents can bypass approval process via recess appointments

16

Making Foreign Policy: Organization and Cast

First executive department (1789) was Department of Foreign Affairs Renamed State Department

Congress passed National Security Act after WWII and created Department of Defense National Security Council Central Intelligence Agency

17

The Department of State

Helps formulate U.S. foreign policy Executes and monitors U.S. foreign

policy throughout world Secretary of State highest-ranking

person in president’s cabinet Actual power depends on presidential

approach to foreign policy President Obama appointed Hillary

Clinton, his campaign rival, as Secretary of State

18

The Department of State

Headed by presidential appointees; permanent employees selected through civil service merit system Employees staff and service embassies

and consulates Critics claim department lacks

initiative and creativity Lacks strong domestic constituency,

a drawback in a pluralist system

19

A Prison? No, the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad

20

The Department of Defense

Congress replaced War Department and Department of the Navy with the Department of Defense in 1947 Wanted unity and coordination among

armed forces Secretary of Defense a civilian

Power depends on both the individual’s and president’s vision of the job

Supervises civilian secretaries of each military branch, who then oversee military leaders

All work together to recommend policy positions 21

The National Security Council

Group of advisors who help president to coordinate details of domestic, foreign, and military affairs related to national security Role played varies with each president

Statutory members: president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense Staff headed by president’s National

Security Advisor, retired Marine Corps General James L. Jones

22

Intelligence Community Effective foreign policy requires

accurate information, or “intelligence” Sixteen agencies in executive branch

make up Intelligence Community Most prominent Central Intelligence

Agency (CIA) and National Security Agency (NSA)

Vast majority of budget controlled by DOD Office of the Director of National

Intelligence charged with coordinating operations of all sixteen agencies

23

Agencies of Intelligence

24

Report from 9/11 Commission

Many believe 9/11 attacks due to failure of intelligence

9/11 Commission report proposed sweeping reorganization of intelligence agencies and responsibilities

In response, Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004

25

Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act

of 2004 Amended 1947 National Security Act Restructured intelligence community Created Office of Director of National

Intelligence (DNI) Took over duties of director of central

intelligence Critics warned DNI lacked sufficient

budget or clout to succeed

26

The Central Intelligence Agency

Created after WWII to gather intelligence about actions and intentions of foreign powers

Also empowered to “perform other functions and duties” related to national security

Current activities both overt and covert Since 9/11, considerable controversy

over CIA’s covert intelligence operations

Current leader is Leon Panetta27

Revealing the CIA’s “Family Jewels”

28

The National Security Agency

Created in 1952; highly secret operations More employees and larger budget than

CIA Uses supercomputers, satellites, and

other high-tech equipment for foreign electronic surveillance SIGINT, or SIGnals INTelligence

Current head is Lt. General Keith Alexander

29

Other Parts of the Foreign Policy Bureaucracy

Many government agencies provide input in foreign policy decisions

For some, foreign affairs chief concern The Agency for International

Development Others charged with domestic policy

oversight have foreign policy concerns Department of Agriculture Department of Commerce Department of Energy

30

Other Parts of the Foreign Policy Bureaucracy

Foreign policy-making machinery extremely complex

Many other agencies and organizations involved, including private businesses and state and local governments

As social and economic issues become more global, even more will be involved

31

A Review of U.S. Foreign Policy

A president’s ideology affects his interpretation of international events Generally more internationalist than

Congress President and Congress must

work together to develop foreign policy

32

Emerging from Isolationism

Monroe Doctrine of 1823, or isolationism, defined U.S. foreign policy in 19th century

Later in century, U.S. increasingly involved in Latin America and Pacific

WWI first meaningful participation in European politics

After failure of Senate to ratify League of Nations treaty, isolationism resumed

33

The Same in Any Language

34

Emerging from Isolationism

U.S. emerged from WWII a superpower National security interests now worldwide

Soviet Union, initially an ally, now a rival Soviet expansion in Europe a threat to

freedom and order American foreign policy experts feared

more conflicts in Europe if Soviet expansion and Communism unchecked

35

Cold War and Containment

The Cold War designed to frustrate Soviet plans for expansion

Policy of containment resulted in high defense expenditures

U.S. also pushed for free trade, fixed currency rate exchange rates, and view of U.S. as “banker of the world”

Marshall Plan designed to rebuild Europe

36

Cold War and Containment

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) established in 1949 for mutual defense

United Nations not successful forum for U.S. Cold War policies

U.S. policy of nuclear deterrence led to a mutual assured destruction (MAD) situation

Both U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in nation building by supporting developing nations

37

Vietnam and the Challenge

to Cold War Concerns Soviets supported several “wars of

national liberation,” including in Vietnam

U.S. moved to strengthen nonCommunist institutions in South Vietnam to prevent Soviet takeover Troops entered conflict in mid-1960s American public disagreed strongly

about Vietnam policies U.S. pulled out of Vietnam in 1973

38

Emerging from the Cold War

President Nixon and Henry Kissinger developed Nixon Doctrine to guide U.S. interventions A policy of détente with other nations Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT

1) one result President Carter’s philosophies and

focus very different More open, except for peace

negotiations between Egypt and Israel More of a focus on human rights

39

The End of the Cold War

President Reagan refocused U.S. attention on Soviet Union in 1981 Policy of peace through strength

included increased defense spending Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in

Soviet Union in 1985 Changes resulted in treaty outlawing

intermediate-range nuclear forces with U.S.

Fall of Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized end of Cold War

40

Foreign Policy Without the Cold War

Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait threatened U.S. ally and oil supply President George H.W. Bush put

together coalition to counterattack in 1991

President Clinton replaced policy of containment with policy of enlargement and engagement Criticized by some because no clear

guidelines for application41

The Hot War on Terrorism

Like President Clinton, President George W. Bush had no foreign policy experience September 11 attacks transformed his

presidency After successes in Afghanistan, developed

doctrine of preemptive action and attacked Iraq, toppling Saddam Hussein

When no weapons of mass destruction found, public support plummeted

42

Iraq and Afghanistan President Obama saw Iraq as

“war of choice” and Afghanistan “war of necessity” Designed exit strategy for Iraq and

increased troops in Afghanistan In surprising move, awarded Nobel

Peace Prize in 2009 for efforts in promoting international cooperation

43

Figure 20.2

A Tale of Two Wars

44

Who Will Do the “Right Thing” in World Affairs?

2008 and 2009

45

From Foreign Policy to Global Policy

After Cold War, U.S. moved to more global policy due to globalization of issues Inevitably requires global

action/cooperation Most prominent global organization

United Nations U.S. concerns often differ from other

Security Council members Because of sovereignty concerns, U.S.

does not always follow decisions of multinational bodies

46

Global Policy Issue Areas

Nations today much more interdependent Many issues cross borders, blending

domestic and international concerns Conservatives fear if responses to issues

require decision making to be subject to international organizations, U.S. sovereignty threatened How do you define sovereignty in today’s

world?47

Investment and Trade After WWII, U.S. dominated world

economy Economic policy decisions useful

tactically in Cold War Budget deficits in 1980s partially

financed by selling U.S. treasury obligations to foreign investors Soaring dollar resulted in shift in balance

of trade; some investors less interested 1990s saw new foreign investors

48

Investment and Trade Many concerned about U.S.

dependence on foreign investors Some countries have huge sovereign

wealth funds Investments made more for political

reasons than economic reasons Today, U.S. no longer dominates world

economy China now second largest economy

U.S. dependence on oil imports economic problem

49

Growing Dependence on Foreign Oil

50

Foreign Trade As foreign trade became more

important to U.S., policy responses needed

Several options available: Free trade Fair trade Managed trade Protectionism

51

Foreign Trade Free trade – market without

restrictions Principle of comparative advantage

Fair trade – international agreements to outlaw unfair business practices World Trade Organization founded 1995

Managed trade – government interventions to produce policy results

Protectionism – barriers to free trade imposed

52

Human Rights, Poverty, and Foreign Aid

Western democracies willing to wage war to protect human rights

Relationship between U.S. human rights policy goals and economic policy goals often problematic

Some big emerging markets (BEMs) have questionable human rights records

53

Human Rights, Poverty, and Foreign Aid

U.S. pursues policy objectives through Favorable trade terms Development aid Debt forgiveness Loans with favorable credit terms Donation of U.S. goods to developing

nations Foreign aid easy target for budget cuts Obama to review participation in

International Criminal Court54

Figure 20.3

Foreign Aid to Developing Countries

55

The Environment Environmental issues challenge for

foreign policy makers Biodiversity Climate change/global warming

Another example of freedom vs. order

U.S. not a party to Biodiversity Treaty or Kyoto Protocol President Obama signed Copenhagen

agreement in 200956

Summit Meeting

57

How Nations Rate on the Environment

http://www.epi.yale.edu/home

58

The Public and Global Policy

Foreign policy making historically does not fit majoritarian model Public opinion usually only affects policy on

issues related to national security Most important effect on foreign policy

from business organizations and their leaders More a pluralist model of policy making Some decisions opposite that of public

opinion59