CHAPTER 17

*In the Middle Ages, many educated “Natural Philosophers”) took great interest in the world around them…

*They relied on Aristotle for his scientific knowledge.

*However, this Renaissance scientists master in the knowledge of Greek and Latin which made them discover that Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato disagree with Aristotle.

*Made observations and accurate measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that a ship could hold.

*Inventions like the telescope, microscope stimulated scientific activity.

*Francois Viete, French lawyer, was the first to use letters to represent unknown quantities.

*He applied this algebraic method to geometry and laid the invention of trigonometry.

*Simon Stevin, A Flemish engineer, introduced the decimal system.

*John Napier of Scotland,

introduced a table of logarithms.

*This helped to the discovery

of new advances in mathematics.

The Ptolemaic System:

*Using Ptolemy’s ideas, Aristotle and Christianity, philosophers of the Middle Ages constructed a model of the universe.

*Geocentric - the Earth as the center of the universe.

*Nicolas Copernicus, native of Poland, published his famous book “On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres”.*As a mathematician, he thought that his

heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system. *Heliocentric- the sun was at the center of the

Universe, the planets revolved around the sun. *The moon revolved around the Earth.

*The move of the sun around the Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth on its axis and its journey around the sun.

*Jonathan Kepler, a German mathematician, also destroyed the Ptolemaic System*He used detail astronomical data to create

his laws of planetary motion.*Confirmed that the sun was at the center of

the universe*He showed that the planets’ orbit around

the sun were not circular, but rather elliptical (egg-shaped) with the sun toward the end of the ellipse instead of the center.*Kepler’s First Law- contradicted the circular

orbits and crystal like sphere hat were central to the Ptolemaic system.

*First European to make observations using a telescope

*His observations seemed to destroy another aspect of the Ptolemaic system: Planets were seen as pure orbs of light but now appear to be made of material substance just like Earth.

*His observations made Europeans aware of new view of the universe more than previous discoveries.

*Galileo’s Discoveries

*However, the Catholic Church saw him as suspicious and ordered him to abandon his idea that threatened the Church’s entire conception of the universe.

*Most astronomers accepted Copernicus’ idea, but motion in the universe had not been explained.

*Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo’s ideas had not been yet tied together …. Until Isaac Newtown.

*“Greatest Genius of the Scientific Revolution”

*Born in 1642, attended Cambridge University.

*Professor of mathematics, wrote “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”

*In the book, he describes Principia, laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies, and objects in the Earth. *Universal Law of Gravitation – every object in the

universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.

*Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey added to the understanding of human anatomy*Versalius using dissection explored

human organs and the general structure of the human body.

*Harvey showed that the heart was the beginning of circulation.

*Robert Boyle- one of the first to conduct experiments in chemistry.

*Margaret Cavendish- Wrote “Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy”- explained a growing belief in humans though science.

*Maria Winklemann- Made significant contribution to astronomy, including discovery of comets

*Rene Descarte- believed that mind and body were separated. (“I think therefore I am”)

*Called the father of modern rationalism- system of thought is based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge.

*Francois Bacon- created the scientific method.

Applying the scientific method to their physical world, Enlightenment thinkers, or philosophers, reexamined all aspects of life- from government and justice to religion and women’s rights. They created a movement that influenced the entire Western world.

*John Locke- he argued that people were molded by the experiences that come through their senses from the surrounding world. *People are born a blank slate (tabula

rasa)

*Isaac Newton- he believed that the physical world and everything in it was like a giant machine.

*Their role was to change the world

*Each generation became more important than the previous one.

* “Spirit of Laws” was the study of governments

* 3 Basic kinds of gov’t:1. Republics, suitable for small states2. Despotism, appropriate for large

states3. Monarchies, ideal for moderate-sized

states.

* Separation of power : monarch (?), parliamentary (?), courts (?)

*Deism- based on reason and natural law Natural Law- humans are governed by basic inborn laws, human rights, which are separate from laws which are legislated.

*In this view, mechanic (GOD) created the universe.

*In Deism’s view the universe was like a clock. God, the clock-maker, had created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws.

*Famous contribution: the Encyclopedia*Published b/w 1751-1772*Became a weapon against the old

French society*Articles attacked religious superstition

and supported religious toleration.

*Others called for social, legal, and political reforms.*Sold to doctors, clergymen, teachers, and lawyers

*Adam Smith- father of economics

*Laissez- faire- “let the people do as they want”

*In his book, “The Wealth of Nations”- state should not interfere in economic matters

*“Crimes and punishment”- argued that punishments should not be exercised in brutality.

*Opposed to capital punishment

*Jean-Jacques Rousseau- born in Switzerland, worked in France and later moved to Paris.*He did not like the city life, preferred to be alone *“Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality on Mankind”, argued that people adopted laws and government in order to preserve their private property *“The Social Contract”, published in 1762, Rousseau presented his concept of the social contract*Entire society agrees to be governed by its general will. *The general will represents what is the best for the entire community.

*Enlightenment ideas were spread in the salon (gathering)

*These were elegant rooms of the wealthy upper class’s great urban houses.

*These rooms brought writers, artists, philosophers and government officials

*These gatherings helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment.

*Catholics church remained an important center of life.

*Many Protestant church declined due to new religious movements and the greater knowledge for the religion

*New religion in England: Methodist.

*Created by John Wesley

*He preached to the people in open fields, halls, public places….

*Many converted to this religion

*Wesley gave the lower and middle classes in England a sense of purpose and community

*Methodists stressed the importance of hard work and spiritual contentment rather than demands for political equality

*New type of monarchy, enlightened absolutism:

*Rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers.

*Did European rulers followed the advice of philosophers and become enlightened?

*3 examples: Prussia, Austria, Russia

*Prussia, the leading state of the German Empire.*Two kings: Frederick William I and Frederick II,

made Prussia a major European power. *Frederick William concern was the army he

increased, it had the fourth-largest army after France, Russia, and Austria.*Frederick II, or Frederick the Great, was one of

the best educated and most cultured monarch of the time.*He invited Voltaire to live at his court for some

yrs.

*He also enlarged the army

*he followed enlightenment reforms, abolished torture except in treason and murder cases.

*He granted limited freedom of speech and press, and different religions.

*But, he kept serfdom (peasants didn’t have rights) and rigid social structure.

*By the 18 century Austrian Empire became one of the largest European states.

*It was composed by different countries, languages, religions, and cultures.

*Maria Theresa, inherited the throne in 1740, worked to centralized the empire.

*Her son, Joseph II, believed in the need to sweep away anything standing in the path of reason: “I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of the Empire”

*He abolished serfdom and eliminated the death penalty.

*Established equality and enacted religious toleration.

*His reforms failed because he alienated the nobles by freeing the serf.

*Even the serf were unhappy because they didn’t understand the drastic changes.

*Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, ruled Russia from 1762-1796.

*She was intelligent and was familiar with the enlightened reforms

*Her reforms to favored the nobility and this led to worst reforms for the Russian peasants and eventually to a rebellion.

*She expanded serfdom to new parts of the empire

*She expanded Russia to the west and gained 50% of Poland’s territory

*Also, expanded to the Black Sea by defeating the Turks.

*These rulers were concern with balance of power.

*This concept proposed that states should have equal power, in order to prevent any on dominating each other.

*They created large army for expansion and protection

*In 1740, a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the Austrian throne.

*Frederick II of Prussia invaded Austria.

*He didn’t recognized Maria Theresa as Queen.

*As the war began, she allied with Britain

*The war was fought in 3 areas: Prussia seized Silesia while France occupied the Austrian Netherlands.

*In Asia, France took a part of India (today Chennai) from the British

*In US, the British captured the French fortress of Louisborg.

*Two rival created:

- France v. Britain/ Prussia v. Austria

*Europe witnessed the clash of two major alliance: the British and Prussians against the Austrians, Russians, and French.

*The Great War of Empire: struggle b/w France and England.

*Fought in India and America (US)

*The British won because they were persistent.

*The French administer Louisiana and Canada

*British: 13 colonies

*Fought at the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Ohio River

*Treaty of Paris finished the war.

Architecture and Art:

-Balthazar Neumann- greatest architect of the time.

- Church of 14 Saints in southern Germany

- Residence, the palace of the prince-bishop of Wurzburg.

*New style, Rocco, emphasized grace, charm, and gentle action.

*This made the use of delicate designed colored in gold and graceful curves

*Antoine Watteu- men and ladies reveal the meaning of upper class.

*This is part of the ceiling

of the bishop’s residence

at Wurzburg.

*His painting are in many

Churches and palaces.

*Bach- organist, composer and director. Greatest work Mass in B Minor

*Handel- German, religious music. Greatest work Messiah

*Haydn- “The Creation” and “The Seasons”

*Mozart- ‘The marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni” and “The Magic Flute”

*Henry Fielding- wrote novels about people without morals who survived by their intelligence.

*“The history of Tom Jones”…etc

*The United Kingdom of Great Britain came to existence in 1707, when the government of England and Scotland were united.

*These monarch chose ministers, who were responsible to the Crown

*They set policy and guided Parliament

*They levy taxes, and pass the budget

*In 1714 a new dynasty – The Hanoverians- was established when the last Stuart ruler, Queen Anne, died without an heir.

*The crown was offered to nearest relatives, Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover.

*George I, the first king did not speak English, neither the first nor the second George knew English of the British Parliament

*So, their chief ministers were allowed to deal with Parliament.

*Robert Walpole, served as head of cabinet (later Prime minister)

*After the 7 Yrs’ War, British leaders wanted to get new revenue from the colonies.

*These revenues would then be pay for the expenses of maintaining an army to defend the colonies.

*Stamp act (1765)- required certain printed materials, such as legal documents and newspapers, to carry a stamp.

*Opposition emerged

*First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in September 1774- members urged colonist to go to war against Britain.

*Second Continental Congress- organized an army and George Washington as its commander in chief.

*They also approved the Declaration of independence by Thomas Jefferson

*Foreign countries helped the defeat of the British in America.

*The French supplied arms and money to the rebels.

*After the British defeat, the French granted recognition to the U.S.

*At Yorktown, the war came to an end in 1781.

*The Treaty of Paris, recognized America as independent. It also granted the US control of the western territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River.

*Created a feudal

system, in which the

national and state

government shared

power.

*Check and Balance

*First 10 amendment

to the U.S Constitution