chapter 14: democracy and reform - lincoln-sudbury ... that unfairly favored the landed aristocracy....

The Civil War begins in the United States.

1861

Reform Act gives vote toBritish middle-class males.

1832

Mexico achieves independence from Spain.

1821

France establishesthe Third Republic.

1875

1880186018401820

14C h a p t e r

1800–1914

Democracyand Reform

> Change Great Britain carries outdemocratic reforms. Section 1

> Movement Immigrants settleCanada, Australia, and NewZealand. Section 2

> Revolution France undergoespolitical upheaval during the 1800s.Section 3

> Change The United States extendsits borders and develops its economy.Section 4

> Nationalism Latin Americannations achieve self-government.Section 5

SThetoryteller

British politician Richard Cobden stood before the House of

Commons in 1845. In a loud voice, he demanded that the middle

and working classes be given more representation in a govern-

ment that unfairly favored the landed aristocracy. Cobden

declared:

“I say without being revolutionary … that the sooner the

power of this country is transferred from the landed ruling class,

which has so misused it, and is placed absolutely … in the hands

of the intelligent middle and industrious classes, the better for

the condition and destinies of this country.”

While Cobden worked for change within the British political

system, people in Europe and Latin America faced fiercer and

often bloody struggles for democratic reform. By the end of the

1800s, democracy had triumphed in many parts of the world.

Why did democratic reform movements develop andflourish in Europe and other parts of the world? How didindependence change the lives of people in Latin America?

Historical Significance

422

Chapter Themes

Chapter 14 Democracy and Reform 423

On an outline map of the world,draw and label all the territories onceheld by Great Britain and the dateswhen they became self-governing, or independent.

Your History Journal

Celebration of the Concorde of May 21, 1848 by Jean Jacques Champin. Musée dela Ville de Paris, Musée Carnavalet, Paris, FranceArt&

History

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Chapter Overview to preview the chapter.

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Political change in Great Britain tookplace gradually and peacefully. TheBritish government moved toward

greater democracy through evolution rather thanrevolution. By the 1800s Great Britain was a limitedconstitutional monarchy. The monarch’s authorityconsisted only of the rights to encourage, to warn,and to be consulted by those who really governedGreat Britain. Actual executive power belonged tothe Cabinet led by the prime minister, whileParliament maintained legislative control.

Although all British people in theory were rep-resented in the House of Commons, the British gov-ernment was not a true democracy in the early1800s. Political power remained with the landedaristocracy, while the middle and working classeshad no voting rights.

Electoral ReformsIn the early 1800s some rural districts were well

represented in the House of Commons, while grow-ing industrial areas had little representation.Factory workers, farm laborers, and the middleclass began to demand that they receive a greaterpolitical voice. The liberal minority party, theWhigs, continually introduced bills to give votingrights to more people and to apportion, or divideand share, electoral districts more fairly. The Whigs’efforts were repeatedly defeated by the Tory party,which opposed such bills.

When the Whigs came to political power in1830, however, their demands could no longer beignored. In 1832 the Whigs forced the king toannounce that he would create as many new lordsas necessary to give the reform bill a majority in theHouse of Lords. To avoid this action, the lords gavein and passed the bill.

> Terms to Defineapportion, disenfranchised, suffragette,home rule

> People to Meetthe Chartists, Queen Victoria, William Gladstone, Benjamin Disraeli, the Fabians, Emmeline Pankhurst, CharlesStewart Parnell

> Places to LocateIreland

Trade unionists and Socialists begin to form the Labour party.

1900 Gladstoneintroduces Irish homerule legislation.

1886 Reform Act extends vote to all male homeowners and renters.

1867 Victoria becomes queen of Great Britain. 1837

1825 1850 1900 1875

When women first lobbied for voting rights,some critics feared that if they won the vote, menwould become women’s servants. Political cartoonsand works of art appeared that showed sour-faced

men caring for babies and wring-ing out dirty laundry, whilewomen happily rode around incarriages or talked excitedlyaround the ballot box. Other oppo-nents claimed that if women wonthe vote, they would spend alltheir time at the polls. One posternicknamed a woman who ran foroffice “Susan Sharp-Tongue, theCelebrated Man Tamer.”

—adapted from On To Victory,Propaganda Plays of the WomanSuffrage Movement, edited byBettina Friedl, 1987

S e c t i o n 1

Reformin Great Britain

Woman suffrage rally

424 Chapter 14 Democracy and Reform

Read to Find Out Main Idea Political change came peace-fully to Great Britain during the 1800s.

SThetoryteller

When an Irish crop failure forced Great Britain toimport much grain, Parliament responded to thepressure and repealed the Corn Law.

Political PartiesOne result of electoral reform was more elabo-

rate organization of political parties. Before 1800both parties—the Tories and the Whigs—represent-ed wealthy landowners. They had no formal orga-nization. They were actually loose groups of politi-cians with common interests. As more middle-classmen gained voting rights, the old parties reorga-nized to win support from the new voters. After1832 the Tory and Whig parties began to changeinto the modern Conservative and Liberal parties.

Support for the Conservative party came large-ly from the aristocracy and members of the old Toryparty. The industrial and commercial classes andmembers of the old Whig party supported theLiberal party. Both parties eventually competed formiddle-class and working-class votes.

Political Leadership This era of political reform took place during

the reign of Queen Victoria. She came to the thronein 1837 at age 18 and reigned for 64 years. Two bril-liant prime ministers—William Gladstone andBenjamin Disraeli—served during Victoria’s reign.Both men offered dynamic leadership for the


In this British cartoon, PrimeMinister Benjamin Disraeli presents

the crown of India to Queen Victoria. What other notedprime minister served during Victoria’s reign?

HistoryVisualizing

The Reform Act of 1832The Reform Act of 1832 lowered the property

qualifications for voting and gave more middle-class males the right to vote. The proportion of vot-ers increased from 1 in 100 to 1 in 32 men. The actalso took representation rights away from areasthat had declined in population. With 143 seatsfreed in the House of Commons, the heavily popu-lated cities finally increased their representation.One observer recalled the moments after the pass-ing of the reform bill:

We shook hands and clapped each otheron the back, and went out laughing, crying … into the lobby. And no soonerwere the outer doors opened than anothershout answered that within the House.All the passages … were thronged bypeople who had waited till four in themorning to know the issue [outcome].

Reform MovementsWhile the Reform Act gave middle-class men

the right to vote, it only frustrated the industrialand farm workers, who remained disenfranchised,or deprived of the right to vote. These disenfran-chised citizens banded together to demand furtherreforms. In a document called A People’s Charter, theChartists, an important reform group of the work-ing class, proposed political changes. The Chartists’demands included voting rights for all adult men,no property qualifications for voting, a secret ballot,salaries for members of Parliament so that the mid-dle and lower classes could take seats, and equalelectoral districts.

The Chartists submitted two petitions toParliament, one with more than a million signa-tures and the other with more than 3 million.Parliament rejected both petitions. After the defeat,the Chartists had little success and their movementfaded by the 1850s. Parliament did, however, even-tually pass many of their reforms.

Another reform movement, the Anti-Corn LawLeague, was supported by the middle class. Theaim of the League was to repeal the Corn Law,which since 1815 had severely limited and taxed theimportation of foreign grain. Wealthy landownersbenefited from the law, as it ensured them a prof-itable hold on the grain market. Middle-class indus-trialists fought the Corn Law because it forced themto pay higher wages to workers to enable them tobuy bread.

The League—the first major political pressuregroup in Great Britain—captured public attentionwith lectures, pamphlets, books, and meetings.

Liberal and Conservative parties. With their helpGreat Britain continued toward democracy.

William GladstoneWilliam Gladstone of the Liberal party served 4

times as prime minister between 1868 and 1894. Hisfirst term, from 1868 to 1874, became known as theGreat Ministry because of his many social reforms.Deeply religious, Gladstone always sought to applymorality to politics.

Gladstone directed reforms in such areas asgovernment administration, education, and elec-tions. A civil service reform of 1870 made appoint-ments to most civil service positions dependent oncompetitive examinations. The Education Act of 1870 divided the country into school districtsmaintained by local control. The Ballot Act of 1872satisfied the old Chartist demand for the secret bal-lot. The Redistribution Act of 1885 created electoraldistricts almost equal in population.

Benjamin DisraeliBenjamin Disraeli of the Conservative party

first gained fame in Great Britain as a novelist andlater as a politician. He served two terms as primeminister—briefly in 1868 and from 1874 to 1880.

Disraeli believed the Conservative party couldsave aristocratic traditions while adopting democ-ratic reforms. He realized that blocking changewould hurt the Conservative party, whose primarysupport came from the upper middle class.

In 1867 Disraeli had introduced a Conservative-backed reform bill. By lowering property qualifica-tions for voters, it extended the vote to all malehomeowners and most men who rented property.The bill increased the electorate by about 1 millionmen, adding to it many working-class voters.

Growth of Democracy The British government changed in the last

quarter of the 1800s. As steps were taken towarddemocracy, the working class, women, and IrishCatholics began to influence political life.

Rise of LaborPolitical reforms inspired many groups to fight

for increased rights. Labor unions had been steadilygrowing and gaining political strength since themid-1700s. By the time of Gladstone’s GreatMinistry, unions had become a way of life amongthe working classes. Laborers from nearly everytrade organized into unions, which achieved greatgains by staging strikes and demonstrations.

At the same time that labor unions were grow-ing stronger, socialism was also gaining followers.In 1884 a group of middle-class intellectuals formedthe Fabian Society with the aim of peacefully andgradually preparing the way for a Socialist govern-ment. Through education, its members promotedsocial justice such as improved conditions forworkers. Unlike unions, the Fabians favored par-liamentary action over strikes and demonstrations.

In 1900 trade unionists and Socialists laid thefoundation for a new political party—the Labourparty—to speak for the working class. Labour partysupporters backed the reform-minded Liberal gov-ernment elected in 1906. Together the Liberal andLabour members of Parliament promoted govern-ment reform to improve workers’ lives. Between1906 and 1914, new legislation provided the work-ing classes with old-age pensions, a minimumwage, unemployment assistance, and health andunemployment insurance.

A Constitutional CrisisTo finance these measures, the Liberal govern-

ment called for higher taxes in the budget of 1909.The largely Conservative House of Lords vehementlyopposed the proposed taxation, because it directlythreatened the wealth of the aristocracy.

The contest ended when the 1911 ParliamentAct narrowed the powers of the House of Lords byremoving money bills from their control. This actionsymbolized the aristocracy’s political decline.

Women Demand Greater RightsWomen also sought to benefit from Great

Britain’s move toward more representative democ-racy. British women, mostly from the middle class,spoke out for political and social equality in themid-1800s. In the 1850s women’s rights activistsfought to win property rights for married women.The Married Women’s Property Acts of 1870 and1882 gave women increased legal control over afamily’s earnings and property.

Achieving women’s voting rights came moreslowly. Although women had gained the right tovote in local elections in 1869, they still could notvote on a national level. In 1903 Emmeline


Student Web Activity 14

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site atworldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Student Web Activities for an activityrelating to Queen Victoria.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter14/webact.html

Pankhurst and her two daughters, Christabel andSylvia, founded the Women’s Social and PoliticalUnion (WSPU). They led a voting rights campaignon behalf of all British women and became knownas suffragettes. The WSPU attracted attention to itscause through street demonstrations and hungerstrikes. The violence cost the movement much sup-port. Nevertheless, the movement grew. In 1918Parliament finally granted women over 30—alongwith all men—the right to vote. Ten years later, itgave the vote to all women over 21.

Ireland Like others in the British Isles, Irish Catholics

sought greater participation in government. Theirultimate goal, however, was to govern themselves.For centuries, English and Scottish Protestants whohad settled in Ireland enjoyed almost total politicaland economic control. They owned much land,which they rented at high prices to Irish Catholicpeasants, who were prohibited from purchasing it.Most Irish people lived in poverty. Ireland was pre-dominantly Catholic, and a law requiring Catholicsto pay taxes to the Anglican Church of Ireland onlyintensified anti-British feeling.

In 1801 Parliament had passed the Act ofUnion, joining Ireland and Great Britain. This unionentitled Ireland to representation in Parliament, butit was not until 1829 that Catholics in the BritishIsles won the right to vote and hold office. Althoughthese acts increased their rights, most Irish peoplestill demanded to rule themselves.

Irish hatred of British rule heightened when adisastrous potato famine known as the “GreatHunger” hit the country in the 1840s. Because peas-ants were forced to export the grain they grew inorder to pay their high rents, they came to rely onthe potato as their main source of food. In 1845 a

deadly fungus destroyed much of the potato crop,and the British government sent inadequate aid. Infour years, at least one million Irish died of starva-tion and disease. Millions more emigrated to theUnited States, Canada, and Australia.

Various groups fought for Irish rights. CharlesStewart Parnell led Irish nationalists seeking adebate on home rule, or self-government, inParliament. Liberal Prime Minister Gladstone triedto pass legislation granting Irish home rule, but themeasure was defeated. In 1914 Parliament finallypassed a home rule bill, but it never went intoeffect. Irish Protestants threatened to fight Britishtroops if Parliament enforced it.


Irish activists seeking home rule riotin Belfast in 1872. What minority group

controlled most of the land in Ireland for centuries?

HistoryVisualizing

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show how GreatBritain changed politically inthe 1800s.

Recall2. Define apportion, disenfran-

chised, suffragette, home rule.3. Identify the Chartists,

Anti-Corn Law League, QueenVictoria, William Gladstone,Benjamin Disraeli, the Fabians,Emmeline Pankhurst, CharlesStewart Parnell.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

Imagine that you are an IrishCatholic farmworker in Irelandin the 1800s. Express your feel-ings and attitudes aboutBritish rule.

Understanding Themes5. Change What might have

happened if Parliament hadopposed democratic reform?

Political Change in

Great Britain

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

As Great Britain moved towardgreater democracy, the BritishEmpire reached its height. With its

colonies making up one-fourth of the world’s landand people, Great Britain became the richest andmost powerful country in the world. Politicalchanges also took place in the empire, especially interritories largely inhabited by British settlers.Colonies such as Canada, Australia, and NewZealand sought self-government.

CanadaBy the mid-1800s, Canada consisted of a num-

ber of British colonies dependent on the Britishgovernment. The colonial population was ethnical-ly divided. One part was French, another immi-grant British, and a third part descendants of theLoyalists—Americans loyal to Great Britain duringthe American Revolution. Most Britons andLoyalists lived in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,and near the Great Lakes. The French were concen-trated in the Saint Lawrence River valley.

In 1763, as a prize for their victory in the Frenchand Indian War, the British gained control of Quebec,which included most of French Canada. From thattime, the French in Quebec firmly resisted Britishcolonial rule. The predominantly Catholic Frenchpopulation were irritated by the influx of Britishimmigrants, English-speaking and Protestant, thatbegan about 1760.

To solve the growing English and French prob-lem, the British government passed theConstitutional Act of 1791. This law dividedQuebec into two colonies: Lower Canada andUpper Canada. Lower Canada remained French-speaking, but Upper Canada became English. Eachcolony had an assembly whose laws were subject toveto by a governor appointed by the British gov-ernment. This arrangement worked until politicaldifferences brought rebellion in each colony.

> Terms to Definedominion

> People to Meetthe Loyalists, Lord Durham, John A. Macdonald, the Aborigines, the Maori

> Places to LocateCanada, Australia, New Zealand

Treaty of Waitangi guarantees Maori rights inNew Zealand.

1840 British NorthAmerica Act forms the Dominion of Canada.

1867 Canadian PacificRailway links eastern and western parts of Canada.

1885 Australiabecomes a dominionin the British Empire.

1901

1850 1900 1875 1925

On the long sea voyage to Australia, first-class passengers could go anywhere on board;other passengers, traveling more cheaply, weremore restricted. Seamen were most restricted ofall, and after three months on board, got their

revenge for staying below-deck in curious ways.Sometimes the crew wouldprotest their rights by toss-ing a pig or sheep downamong the cabins at night,to invade the passengers’space and keep themawake. One emigrantwrote in her diary: “Fromevery quarter of the cabinyou could hear the ‘Ma,Ma’ during the greaterpart of the night.”

—adapted from Sailing toAustralia, Andrew Hassam,1994

S e c t i o n 2

The Dominions

Immigrant motherand children


Read to Find Out Main Idea New societies emerged inCanada, Australia, and New Zealand.

SThetoryteller

By the late 1830s the French began to feelthreatened by the growing English-speaking minor-ity. Meanwhile, the British-Loyalist community wasdivided by disagreements between the conservativeupper-class leadership and a group of liberalreformers who wanted a share in government. In1837 unrest triggered rebellions in both colonies.

Canadian Self-GovernmentUprisings in both Upper Canada and Lower

Canada convinced the British that they had a seri-ous problem in North America. In 1838 the BritishParliament ordered Lord Durham to Canada toinvestigate. In a report to Parliament, Durhamurged granting virtual self-government to Canada.Durham insisted that the real authority should bean elected assembly, not a British-appointed gover-nor-general or the British government in London.With acceptance of the Durham report by theBritish Parliament, self-government developed inCanada. This pattern was later adopted by otherterritories of the British Empire.

In 1867 the British Parliament passed theBritish North America Act. This law establishedCanada as a dominion, or a self-governing territo-ry owing allegiance to the British king or queen.The British North America Act joined UpperCanada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), NovaScotia, and New Brunswick in a confederationcalled the Dominion of Canada. This act became thebasis of the modern nation of Canada. In that sameyear, Canadian voters elected their first parliament.The first Canadian prime minister was John A.Macdonald, a Scottish-born lawyer.

Expanding Canadian TerritoryAt first the Dominion of Canada consisted of

four provinces in the southeast, extending from theGreat Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. Then, in 1869 thedominion acquired the Northwest Territory, whichextended west across vast prairies and forestlandsand north to the Arctic wilderness. Most of this areawas populated by Native Americans and Europeanand American fur traders. Following sporadic vio-lence between traders and Native Americans, theCanadian government set up and sent westward aspecial law-keeping force known as the NorthwestMounted Police. The police largely won the respectand loyalty of the Native Americans before thearrival of large numbers of Canadian settlers.

Canada further expanded its territory duringthe late 1800s. From the eastern part of theNorthwest Territory, the province of Manitoba wasformed in 1870. In 1871 British Columbia, a sepa-rate British colony on the Pacific coast, became aprovince. In 1873 tiny Prince Edward Island nearthe Atlantic Ocean joined Canada. To link the east-ern provinces with the western provinces, theCanadian Pacific Railway was completed in 1885.This made possible the development of theCanadian prairies. In 1905 the prairie provinces ofSaskatchewan and Alberta were added to thedominion.

Australia and New ZealandOn the other side of the world—in the south and

southwest Pacific—the British colonies of Australiaand New Zealand also sought self-government.


Quebec City, foundedin 1608, is Canada’s

oldest city. Located on the St.Lawrence River, Quebec City was amajor lumber and ship-building centerduring the 1800s. What three groupscontributed to the founding of Canada?

HistoryVisualizing

AustraliaInitially, Great Britain established Australia as a

prisoners’ colony to relieve overcrowded British jails.By 1860, after a gold rush lured new immigrants, thepopulation reached 1 million, and the practice oftransporting prisoners to Australia was abolished.

In settling, Europeans came into contact withthe Aborigines, the original people of Australia.Many settlers treated the Aborigines badly, occu-pied their land, and killed them. Large numbers ofAborigines died from European diseases.

The increase in European settlement called fora better administration. By the late 1800s Australiawas made up of six colonies—New South Wales,Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia,and South Australia. In 1901 Parliament madeAustralia a dominion that included the coloniesplus a region known as the Northern Territory.

New ZealandThe first Europeans to settle in New Zealand

were from James Cook’s expedition in 1770.Hunters from Great Britain and the United Statesset up whaling stations during the 1790s. NewZealand also attracted timber traders.

Foreigners brought many problems to the origi-nal inhabitants, known as the Maori. Firearms, forexample, increased warfare among the Maori tribes.Foreigners also brought diseases to which the Maorihad no immunity, causing an almost 50 percentreduction in the Maori population in 20 years.

In an effort to provide law for the Maori andthe settlers, British naval officers and Maori chiefsconcluded the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. The treatyprotected Maori rights while the Maori gave theBritish sovereignty over New Zealand. In 1840 thefirst permanent British settlements were founded atWellington and Wanganui, based on wool exportsto British markets.

As with Australia, New Zealand’s British pop-ulation was small until the discovery of gold. Thegold discovery also brought conflict between thenewcomers and the Maori.

Prospectors unsuccessful in finding gold inNew Zealand remained to farm. To gain more land,they violated those Maori land rights guaranteedby the treaty with the British. During the MaoriWars in the mid-1800s, the New Zealand govern-ment sided with the newcomers and seized someMaori land for public use.

New Zealand received a constitution from GreatBritain in 1852 and became largely self-governing.In the 1890s, the New Zealand government carriedout extensive social reforms, such as pensions forthe elderly and protection of workers’ rights. Atthis time Great Britain had not yet introduced manyof these reforms. In 1907 New Zealand finallybecame a dominion within the British Empire.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to explain how and when newsocieties emerged in Canada,Australia, and New Zealand.

Recall2. Define dominion.3. Identify the Loyalists, Lord

Durham, John A. Macdonald,British North America Act,Northwest Mounted Police,the Aborigines, the Maori,Treaty of Waitangi.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information The

Canadians at first wanted to

call their confederation “theKingdom of Canada.” TheBritish government suggestedthe term dominion to avoidoffending the United States.Why might that have offendedAmericans?

Understanding Themes5. Movement What was the

original purpose for Britishsettlement of Australia?

Australian LanguageAustralian English has itsown unique words: some

come from the Aboriginal languages; others fromthe experiences of European settlers in the out-back—the dry, open Australian interior. “WaltzingMatilda,” Australia’s best-known song, capturesthe flavor of Australian speech in this region:

“Once a jolly swagman [hobo] camped by a billabong [waterhole]

Under the shade of a coolibah tree,And he sang as he watched and waited till

his billy [milkpail] boiledWho’ll come a-waltzing Matilda [tramp the

roads carrying a blanket roll] with me?”


Canada Australia New Zealand


The Congress of Vienna sought to reduceFrance’s might and restore traditionalmonarchs to their thrones. Although

the European balance of power was restored,Congress delegates found their plans for monarchyfrustrated as liberal and nationalist ideas spreadamong the peoples of Europe. The clash betweenold and new ideologies, or systems of thought andbelief, sparked revolutions throughout Europefrom the 1820s to the 1840s.

Revolt in FranceBecause of its revolutionary traditions, France

was the center point of these upheavals. In 1815 theCongress of Vienna restored the Bourbon monarchyunder Louis XVIII. Many French republicansaccepted Louis because he was willing to rule as aconstitutional monarch.

After Louis’s death in 1824, his brother and successor Charles X set out to restore absolutemonarchy—with help from the ultraroyalists—nobles favoring a return to the old order. WhenCharles tried to repay nobles for lands lost duringthe revolution, liberals in the legislative assemblyopposed him. The king then dissolved the assemblyand held new elections; but voters only electedmore liberals to reject Charles’s policies. Finally theking issued the July Ordinances, measuresdesigned to dissolve the assembly, end press free-dom, and restrict voting rights.

On July 27, 1830, angry Parisian workers andstudents rose up against the king. By July 29, afterLes Trois Glorieuses (three glorious days) they forced

The Dreyfusaffair divides Frenchsociety.

1890s Revolution overthrowsBourbon dynasty. 1830 Voters elect

Louis-Napoleonpresident.

1848 Revolutionariesestablish Commune of Paris.

1870

1800 19001850

> Terms to Defineultraroyalist, coup d’état, plebiscite

> People to MeetCharles X, Louis Philippe, Louis-Napoleon, General Georges Boulanger,Alfred Dreyfus

> Places to LocateParis

Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (EmperorNapoleon III) had grand ideas for the governmentof France—including a grand role for himself. Ofcourse, he would not revive the excesses of royaltythat France had groaned under before. Still,Frenchmen could not help but notice that hisplans for the new constitution of France includedthe following ideas: “The executive power vests inthe Emperor alone. The Emperor is the supreme

head of the state; he com-mands the national forcesboth on land and sea;declares war, makestreaties of peace, of alliance, and of commerce….”

—adapted from The Politicaland Historical Works of LouisNapoleon Bonaparte, Volume1, 1852

S e c t i o n 3

Political Strugglesin France

Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte

Read to Find Out Main Idea France underwent seriouschanges in government during the 1800s.

SThetoryteller

Charles X to give up his right as monarch and abdicate the throne. The fallen king fled to GreatBritain.

The “Citizen-King” After the chaos had subsided, revolutionary

leaders set up a new constitutional monarchy thatdid not have close ties to the old aristocracy. LouisPhilippe, a cousin of Charles, accepted the throne.Because he dressed and behaved like a middle-classperson, Louis Philippe became known as the“Citizen-King” and won the support of the grow-ing middle class.

From 1830 to 1848, however, many French peo-ple became discontented with Louis Philippe’s gov-ernment. At heart, the “Citizen-King” favored thewealthy, and many working-class citizens began todemand political reforms, especially voting rights.

Louis Philippe refused their demands. Whenthey appealed to Prime Minister François Guizot(gee•ZOH), he too refused. Frustrated, leadersorganized political banquets, where they called foran extended vote and Guizot’s resignation.

The Revolution of 1848In 1848 Guizot canceled a banquet, fearing a

demonstration. This order, however, came too late.On February 22, crowds flooded the streets, singing“The Marseillaise” and shouting protests againstGuizot. Louis Philippe called in troops, but the sol-diers sympathized with the rebels and joined them.Over the next days, at least 52 civilians were killedor wounded. The disturbances forced LouisPhilippe to abdicate and flee to Great Britain. TheRevolution of 1848 ended with the rebels proclaim-ing France a republic.

Inspired by events in France, revolutionaries inother European countries also fought for greaterpolitical rights. Political discontent in Austria, Italy,and Prussia was particularly significant. In theseareas, however, the political status quo was more orless maintained despite the uprisings.

The Second EmpireWhen the political turmoil in France had final-

ly subsided, the revolutionary leaders proclaimedthe Second Republic of France and set out to createa new constitution. The French constitution fea-tured many democratic reforms, including a leg-islative branch called the National Assembly, theelection of a president, and an extension of votingrights to all adult men. Nine million men eagerlyset off to the polls to elect a new National Assemblyin the spring of 1848. Only briefly, however, wouldthe French enjoy the freedoms brought by theSecond Republic.

The Rise of Louis-NapoleonIn presidential elections held in December

1848, French voters gave Louis-NapoleonBonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, anoverwhelming victory. Louis-Napoleon’s populari-ty came more from his name than from his politicalskills. The name “Napoleon” reminded the Frenchpeople of the greatness their nation had onceenjoyed under Napoleon I.

Although Louis-Napoleon presented himself asa democratic reformer, the president hoped to usehis popularity to make himself an emperor. Toguarantee victory, Louis-Napoleon worked to win


The Revolution of1848 that began in

France triggered revolts throughoutEurope. What happened to the SecondRepublic within four years of its constitution?

HistoryVisualizing

the support of powerful groups in France—thearmy, the Church, the middle class, and the peas-ants. For example, in 1849 he won the confidence ofFrench Catholics by ordering French troops to helpthe pope suppress an attempt by Italian nationaliststo set up a republic in Rome. He also gave theChurch more control over French education.

This support for the Catholics, however, createdan uproar in Paris. Demonstrators opposing sup-port for the pope filled the streets. Alarmed by themob action, the National Assembly restricted peo-ple’s rights in order to keep law and order. They alsorevoked voting rights for about a third of the voters.

Louis-Napoleon used this uproar to his advan-tage by convincing the French people that therepublic was a failure. Deciding to take control ofthe French government, Louis-Napoleon directed acoup d’état, or a quick seizure of power, onDecember 2, 1851. He dissolved the NationalAssembly and arrested many of his opponents.With shrewd planning, he won popular support byreestablishing voting rights for all French men.

Louis-Napoleon then called for a plebiscite, ornational vote, asking the people to give him thepower to create a new French constitution. The peo-ple enthusiastically gave him their support. NowLouis-Napoleon had complete legislative and exec-utive control, and the people appeared happy withthe order and stability he provided. In a secondplebiscite, a large percentage of the peopleapproved the transformation of the French republicinto a hereditary empire. In 1852 Louis-Napoleonbecame Napoleon III, Emperor of France.

Although Napoleon III restricted the press andlimited civil liberties, he had a successful economicprogram. During the 1850s French industrialgrowth doubled and foreign trade tripled. Francebuilt new railroads and roads, including Paris’sfamous wide boulevards.

The Crimean War In 1854 Napoleon III led France into the

Crimean War. The war pitted France and GreatBritain against Russia and arose from the intereststhat all three countries had in the Ottoman Empire.The immediate cause of the conflict was a disputebetween France and Russia over which of them hadthe right to protect Christians in the empire or thosevisiting the Holy Land. In this dispute the Ottomanemperor sided with France.

Angered by the decision, Russia’s Czar Nicholas Iin July 1853 seized Ottoman territory in the Balkans.This Russian invasion upset both Great Britain andFrance, who wanted to protect their trade andfinancial interests in the Middle East. After the

Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in October1853, Great Britain, France, and the tiny Italiankingdom of Sardinia eventually joined the conflict.

In the fall of 1854, French and British armiesinvaded the Russian-ruled Crimean Peninsula onthe north shore of the Black Sea. At first, little fight-ing occurred as the armies battled cold, violentstorms, and disease. By war’s end, disease wouldcause more deaths on both sides than war injuries.Among British forces, however, a nurse, FlorenceNightingale, improved hospital care and savedmany lives. In the fall of 1855, French and Britishforces finally defeated the Russians, who lackedsupplies, reinforcements, and railroads. The 1856Treaty of Paris ending the war made Russia returnsome of the Ottoman territory it had seized andbanned warships and forts around the Black Sea.

End of the Empire In 1870 conflict with Prussia ended Napoleon III’s

empire. Alarmed by Prussia’s growing power,Napoleon made his most costly error in judgment: hedeclared war on the Prussians on July 19, 1870.

Few French or foreign observers anticipated thequick and relatively easy defeat of France in theFranco-Prussian War. The French armies were slowto mobilize, and German forces crossed into Francewith little armed resistance. The Prussians defeatedthe French in just over six weeks. On September 2,after winning a decisive victory at Sedan, thePrussians took Napoleon III as prisoner.


The Siege of Paris by Ernest Meissonier.The Louvre, Paris, France What impact did

the Franco-Prussian conflict of 1870–1871 have on Franceand the government of Napoleon III?

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When the news of the emperor’s capturereached Paris on September 4, crowds filled thestreets and forced the collapse of the SecondEmpire. The people of Paris endured a Prussiansiege for four months before a truce was signed.

Making Peace With PrussiaThe French people elected a new National

Assembly, dominated by royalists, to make peacewith Prussia. The Assembly surrendered theprovinces of Alsace and Lorraine and agreed to pay5 billion francs—the equivalent of 1 billion dol-lars—to Prussia. Prussian forces further humiliatedFrance by staging a victory march through Paris.The people of Paris, strong republicans who want-ed a renewal of the war with Prussia instead ofpeace, were angered by the peace terms. They sankinto despair after their loss.

In March the National Assembly set aboutrestoring order in France, particularly in Paris. Theprovisional government inspired an angry outcrywhen it demanded that Parisians pay the rents andthe debts that had been suspended during the siege. At the same time, the Assembly stoppedpayments to the National Guard, which manyParisian workers had joined during the Prussian

siege. These drastic measures led to unrest and toan uprising in Paris.

The Commune of ParisDuring the revolt, the workers established a

Socialist government known as the Commune ofParis. The leaders of the Commune refused to rec-ognize the National Assembly and called for theconversion of France into a decentralized federa-tion of independent cities. The Commune declaredwar on the propertied classes and the Church. Itadvocated an end to government support for reli-gion, the adoption of a new revolutionary calendar,and the introduction of a 10-hour workday.

In a bitter civil war, the National Assembly tookthe offensive and reasserted its control over Paris.Armies pushed past the Commune’s barricadesthroughout the strife-ridden city. In defiance, thesupporters of the Commune burned public build-ings, including the Tuileries Palace and the CityHall. During the “Bloody Week” in May 1871, theAssembly’s powerful military forces arrested near-ly 40,000 people and killed more than 20,000. Thehorror of rebellion set back the political and socialadvances made by workers and caused distrustbetween France’s middle and working classes.


The Development of Photography

For centuries scientists tried to recordlasting images, but it was not until 1826 that

the world’s first camera was made.Its inventor, the Frenchman JosephNiépce, produced a blurry imageof a farmyard by coating a metalplate with a light-sensitive chemi-cal. In 1837 Louis Daguerre per-fected Niépce’s methods and fixedan image on silver-coated copper.Daguerreotypes, as these imageswere called, produced detailed pictures.

Photography progressedrapidly throughout the 1800s.

Some photographers took portraits ofwealthy families. Others risked their lives

photographing the horrors of war. Graduallyscientific and technical discoveries made cam-eras more efficient and easier to operate. In1888 George Eastman developed the small,lightweight, and relatively inexpensive boxcamera. Mass-produced, the box camera putphotography into the hands of millions.

Today, a picture can be taken simply byaiming the camera and pressing a button. Insophistication, cameras range from simplefixed-focus models to ones that have manylenses and built-in features.

Early Camera

Discuss how photography helpedpeople record their lives in the 1800s.In what ways does photography affectevents today? Consider the power ofthe media.

The Third Republic After the fall of the Commune, the dispirited

French again tried to rebuild their government.This proved to be a difficult task, as royalists andrepublicans alike fought bitterly over the form thegovernment should take.

Finally, in 1875 a new constitution made Franceonce again a republic. The Third Republic’s con-stitution provided for a two-house legislature. The two houses elected a president, who served for four years and who had little real power. Every official actrequired the full support of both houses of the legisla-ture to be signed into law. A cabinet of ministers wasresponsible for government policy, and the post ofpremier was created to handle all executive business.

Threats to the RepublicAlthough France had finally established itself

as a republic, the new government was particularlyvulnerable to attack. One of its greatest threatscame from General Georges Boulanger (BOO•lahn•ZHAY), who was a popular war hero.Boulanger won great support from royalists andothers who opposed the republic. In 1889 his sup-porters urged him to overthrow the Third Republicwith a coup d’état. When the government orderedhim arrested for treason, Boulanger fled the coun-try to Belgium. Without the direction of its popularleader, the Boulanger movement collapsed.

A second threat to the republic in the early1890s centered around the construction of a canalthrough Panama. The canal would provide Francewith a waterway connecting the Atlantic andPacific Oceans.

When the Panama Company collapsed and the Panama project failed, thousands of Frenchstockholders lost all of the money they had invest-ed. Charges of dishonesty and poor managerialpractices erupted. The scandal spread as members

of both houses were accused of accepting bribes toget more funding for the troubled project. ThePanama scandal partly benefited France’s growingSocialist movement. In 1893 nearly 50 Socialistswon seats in the national legislature.

The Dreyfus AffairThe 1890s saw the Third Republic’s greatest cri-

sis—the Dreyfus affair. In 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, aFrench army officer, was convicted by a militarycourt of selling military secrets to the Germans andsentenced to a life term on Devil’s Island, a prisoncolony off the coast of French Guiana in SouthAmerica. The French army was, at the time, influ-enced by anti-Semitic views, and its suspicion hadfallen on Dreyfus, who was Jewish.

Dreyfus, however, protested his innocence andit soon became known that another officer was thereal traitor and that the official evidence used inDreyfus’s trial had been forged. In an article,“J’accuse (I Accuse)”, the novelist Émile Zola took astrong stand in support of Dreyfus. In 1899 a newtrial was ordered, but the military court, unable toadmit error, found Dreyfus guilty once again. Thistime, Dreyfus won a presidential pardon, and acivilian court later declared him innocent.

While it lasted, the Dreyfus affair deeply dividedFrance. Republicans, Socialists, and anti-Catholicsunited to defend Dreyfus and to discredit the military.Wanting to uphold the army’s honor, royalists, nation-alists, and many Catholics joined anti-Semites—thosehostile to Jews—in regarding Dreyfus as guilty.

The Dreyfus affair proved that republican gov-ernment could survive in France. Its immediateeffect was to bring to power radical republicans andSocialists, who carried out changes such as the sep-aration of church and state in 1905.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to identify French governmen-tal changes of the 1800s.

Recall2. Define ultraroyalist,

coup d’état, plebiscite.3. Identify Charles X, Louis

Philippe, Louis-Napoleon,Commune of Paris, General Georges Boulanger,Alfred Dreyfus.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information Why

was the government of theThird Republic especially vul-nerable to political opposition?

Understanding Themes5. Revolution What sparked

revolutions in France in 1830and 1848? How did these revo-lutions impact Europe?

French Governmental Changesof the 1800s


While many political upheavals shookEurope during the 1800s, the UnitedStates grew in size, wealth, and

power. The vast area of forests and plains west ofthe original colonies lured American settlers by thethousands, and no European powers with colonialinterests blocked their westward drive. The con-flicts between European countries during the earlyyears of the nation had created opportunities forthe United States to acquire more territory.

The Young Nation GrowsThe United States gained its biggest territorial

prize as a result of Napoleon I’s desire to conquerhis most hated enemy, Great Britain. In 1803Napoleon was preparing to go to war against GreatBritain and needed money to finance it. Desperatefor money, Napoleon offered to sell the French-owned Louisiana territory to the United States.With a quick stroke of the pen and a payment of $15million, President Thomas Jefferson acquired theLouisiana Purchase—all the land between theMississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Thearea eventually formed 13 states.

The United States also gained land as a result ofSpain’s internal conflicts. Weakened by politicaland financial problems, Spain ceded, or gave up,Florida in 1819.

Later acquisitions of new land from othernations proved to be not so easy or peaceful. In1845 the Republic of Texas was annexed to theUnited States. By 1846 this territorial gain resultedin a conflict between the United States and Mexicothat escalated into war. The United States defeatedthe Mexicans in 1848, and in the resulting treatyMexico gave up a vast area that later formed all of California, Utah, and Nevada and parts of

> Terms to Definesectionalism, secede, ratify

> People to MeetThomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Susan B. Anthony, Woodrow Wilson

> Places to LocateLouisiana Purchase, Gadsden Purchase

The United States gains the Louisiana Purchase.

1803 Immigrantsarrive in the United States from easternand southern Europe.

c. 1890s War beginsbetween the UnitedStates and Mexico.

1846 The Civil War ends. 1865

1800 19001850

During the Civil War when Confederatecasualties returned in large numbers from thefront, buildings quickly became makeshift hospitals.Miss Sally Tomkins was one of the most tirelessworkers among the many brave women whoserved in the overcrowded places of mercy. As a“soldier without a gun,” she received a commis-sion in the Confederate Army as well as a com-mendation—the only such commission everissued to a woman, and a unique “first” for anyAmerican army. In a note to the War Department,she said: “I accepted the commission … but wouldnot allow my name to be placed on the payroll ofthe army.”

—adapted from A Pictorial History ofthe Confederacy, LamontBuchanan, 1951

S e c t i o n 4

Expansion ofthe United States

Civil War nurse and patient

Read to Find Out Main Idea The United States grew insize, wealth, and power during the 1800s.

SThetoryteller

You can see the fatigue in the faces of thesepioneers, moving West in Conestoga wag-ons. Prairie stretched behind them, moun-tains ahead—and an unbearable distance to

go. From the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 to thesettlement of the West two centuries later, Americansexplored, moved, and endured unspeakable hardships.Their journeys stretched their endurance, as they bat-tled hunger, Native Americans, and the difficulties ofthe terrain itself. The West was dry: Wood shrank;wheels fell off wagons; and the hooves of oxen split.“Dust is two or three inches in depth and as fine asflour,” one pioneer wrote. “We cannot see the wagons

next to us….” Settled into new homes, the pioneers’hardships did not end. Families lived through winters so harsh that cows, sheathed in ice, had to be broughtinside. Summers brought plagues of grasshoppers and prairie fires. And always there was isolation and loneliness.

By 1860 the United States stretched from theAtlantic to the Pacific. But expansion brought prob-lems for the nation as well as benefits. The territorywon in the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) shift-ed the issue of slavery into the political mainstreamwith such force that it took the Civil War to resolvethe conflict between North and South. �

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Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming, and New Mexico.This large acquisition of territory added a sizableHispanic population to the United States.

Farther north, the United States argued withGreat Britain over the borders of the OregonCountry. In a treaty with Great Britain, the UnitedStates gained part of this area. Oregon, Washington,and Idaho, as well as parts of Wyoming andMontana, were later created from this territory.

By the mid-1800s, only one step remained in thecountry’s move across the continent. In 1853 JamesGadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico, gaveMexico $10 million for 45,000 square miles (116,550sq. km) of land in southern New Mexico andArizona, south of the Rio Grande.

With the Gadsden Purchase, the United Statesfinally stretched from “sea to shining sea.” This west-ward expansion brought new opportunities to settlers,who forged communities and built states in the newlands. The expansion also brought suffering—loss ofland, culture, and often life—to Native Americanswho had inhabited lands in the West for centuries.

Rise of the United States As Americans moved westward, democratic

rights in the United States expanded. When thenation was first founded, the right to vote and holdpublic office was generally restricted to white maleproperty owners.

The people of the West sought to extend thesevoting rights. All of the new states adopted consti-tutions that granted the right to vote to all men.These new states gradually gained power inCongress, and, over time, their liberal policies influ-enced the country. By 1856 every state had grantedall white men the vote.

An Expanding EconomyMany factors contributed to the rapid growth

of the American economy. The IndustrialRevolution, which began in Great Britain, spread to

of theof the

The Civil WarThere had always been economic and cultural

differences between the North and the South. In1861 these differences led to the American CivilWar, or the War Between the States.

Union naval forces took New Orleans in May 1862.In the Civil War, both North and South sufferedheavy losses, but the North’s industrial strength gaveit an advantage over the agricultural South.

Antislavery feeling in theNorth was stimulated byHarriet Beecher Stowe’sUncle Tom’s Cabin, a novelportraying slavery at itsworst. The book sold300,000 copies in 1852, itsfirst year of publication.

438

the United States. Busy commercial regions filledwith factories and heavily populated cities charac-terized the North. Irish, German, and Scandinavianimmigrants joined the Northern workforce, settlingin cities and farmlands. Northern workers receivedpay for their labor, as well as the right to leave theirjobs for better ones. This system of work was calledfree labor.

In contrast, the South became the chief produc-er of raw cotton for the booming British textileindustry. The South’s economy remained primarilyagricultural and depended on the labor of enslavedAfrican Americans. Most white Southerners, eventhose who held no enslaved people, believed inslave labor. As the United States expanded, it wasclear that the different economic interests of the tworegions would cause conflict.

A Nation DividedThe differences in their economies led the two

regions, the North and the South, to take widely different positions on many political and economic

issues. The result was sectionalism, the devotion tothe political and economic interest of a region or asection of the country. The most divisive issue, how-ever, was slave labor. The South wanted to expandslavery into the territories gained during theMexican War. The North wanted these new westernareas to remain territories employing free labor.

By 1860 the United States consisted of 18 freestates and 15 slave states. In the presidential elec-tion of 1860, proslavery and antislavery forces viedfor power. When Abraham Lincoln won the presi-dency, the South feared he would abolish slavery.

To protest the election, South Carolina decidedto secede, or withdraw, from the Union. OtherSouthern states followed suit. By February 8, 1861,seven states had joined to form their own nation,the Confederate States of America. In Washington,D.C., Congress worked on a compromise, but to noavail. When Lincoln was sworn in as President inMarch, he declared that “no state, upon its ownmere motion, can lawfully get out of the Union.” By April the divided nation was at war. The Civil

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. What major issue helped spark conflictbetween the North and the South?

2. Why was the Civil War unique in American history?

439

Union and Confederate caps reveal thewar’s colors: blue for the North (shown

right), and gray for the South (shownleft). More Americans died in

the Civil War than in anyother conflict in

American history.

War, pitting North against South and lasting from1861 to 1865, was one of the bloodiest struggles ofthe 1800s.

Although the North had 22 million people and the South only 9 million, of which nearly a third were enslaved, Southern forces won manyearly victories under skilled military leaders suchas Robert E. Lee. Later, however, the North threwthe full weight of its massive resources against the South.

After four years of war that claimed the lives ofmore than 600,000 Americans, the Northern forcesdefeated the Confederate forces. After the war,Congress passed three amendments to the Constitu-tion of the United States. These amendments abolished slavery and gave formerly enslaved

African Americans citizenship and equal protectionunder the law, as well as the right to vote. The nationset about to rebuild itself.

A New SocietyAfter the Civil War, the growth of industries

and cities in the United States continued with newvigor. Across the country textile mills, lumberyards,mines, and factories increased their output. In 1900 oil fields provided about 130 times more oilthan they had in 1860, ironworks 10 times moreiron, and steelworks almost 60 times more steel.The “captains of industry” who developed andinvested in these thriving industries amassed greatfortunes and gained widespread admiration.


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Territorial Expansion of the United States

The United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean by 1848. Territory was added by purchase, conquest, and treaty. Region From what four European nations did the United States acquire most of its territory?

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Adams-OnísTreaty 1819

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Boundary establishedby part of Adams-OnísTreaty with Spain 1819

ImmigrationAs industry grew, so did the nation’s popula-

tion. Between 1870 and 1900, the number of Amer-icans doubled from approximately 38 million to 76million. Immigrants contributed significantly tothis growth. Before the Civil War, most immigrantshad come from northern Europe, mainly the BritishIsles, Germany, and Scandinavia. The Irish potatofamine of the 1840s brought nearly 1 million Irishpeople to the United States. The failed German rev-olution of 1848 had prompted many disappointedliberals and intellectuals to leave their homeland.

After the Civil War, immigration from northernEurope decreased, while immigration from south-ern and eastern Europe increased. By 1900, immi-grants from Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungarymade up more than three-fourths of the UnitedStates’s foreign-born population. Most of theseimmigrants headed for urban areas to work.

Along the West coast by the late 1800s, com-munities of Asian immigrants thrived. Chineseimmigrants first came to California in the late 1840sto find gold and stayed to work in the mines andbuild railroads. By 1900, immigrants from Japanhad also arrived. Anti-Asian feelings, however, ledto legal limits or bans on further Asian immigra-tion. Asian Americans also faced widespread dis-crimination, which lasted well into the 1900s.

Women’s RightsAs women gained economic opportunities, they

also demanded political equality. A women’s rightsmovement had flourished in the 1850s under leaderssuch as Lucretia Mott and Sojourner Truth. Duringthe late 1800s, women known as suffragists foughthard for women’s right to vote. Forming organiza-tions such as the National Woman SuffrageAssociation (NWSA), suffragists such as ElizabethCady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony wrote books,

testified before state legislatures, and spoke at publicmeetings to urge votes for women.

Slowly women achieved the right to vote at thestate level, beginning with Wyoming, Colorado,and Utah. By 1918 women had gained full suffragein many Western states, Michigan, Illinois, andNew York. Finally, because of their contributions inWorld War I, politicians could not ignore women’sdemands. In September 1918 President WoodrowWilson asked Congress to pass a constitutionalamendment guaranteeing the vote to all UnitedStates citizens 21 years of age and older regardlessof their sex. In 1920 the states acted to ratify, orapprove, the Nineteenth Amendment.



below to identify ways in whichthe United States’s geographychanged in the 1800s.

Recall2. Define sectionalism, secede,

ratify. 3. Identify Thomas Jefferson,

Louisiana Purchase, AbrahamLincoln, the Civil War, Susan B. Anthony, Woodrow Wilson.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information How

did the Industrial Revolution inthe North contribute to theoutbreak of the Civil War?

Understanding Themes5. Change How and why did

the United States economychange in the late 1800s?

During the late 1800s and early1900s, suffragists pushed for an

amendment to the Constitution granting women theright to vote. By 1918, in which states could women vote?

HistoryVisualizing

U. S. Geographical Changes in 1800s


For 300 years Spain and Portugal heldcolonies in the Americas without facingserious threats to their rule. In the early

1800s, however, the situation changed. Inspired bythe American and French Revolutions, LatinAmericans sought an end to colonial rule andjoined independence movements.

Ruling the ColoniesLike other European nations, Spain and

Portugal regarded their Latin American colonieswith a mercantilist view—the idea that coloniesexisted chiefly to increase the home countries’wealth. Mexico, Peru, and Brazil contained largedeposits of gold and silver as well as forests thatyielded valuable exotic woods such as mahoganyand ebony.

Farming provided another major source ofcolonial income. Spanish and Portuguese monarchsgranted huge tracts of fertile land to explorers andnobles for the growing of cash crops, such as corn,sugar, and cocoa. The landowners then forced theNative Americans to work the farms. When theydied from forced labor and diseases that theEuropeans had introduced to the Americas, theSpanish and the Portuguese imported large num-bers of enslaved Africans.

The Catholic Church also played a critical rolein the colonial economies, strengthening Spanishand Portuguese rule in Latin America. Both theSpaniards and the Portuguese brought the Catholicreligion with them to the Americas. Priests andmonks converted the Native Americans whoworked on the farms to Catholicism and taughtthem loyalty to the Crown.

The colonial governments and the clergyworked very closely together. Clergymen held high

> Terms to Definepeninsulares, creoles, mestizos

> People to MeetFrançois Toussaint-Louverture, Miguel Hidalgo, Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Pedro I

> Places to LocateHaiti, Mexico, Central America,Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil

Portugal recognizesBrazil‘s independence.

1825 Haiti proclaims its independence. 1804 Simón Bolívar defeats

Spaniards at the Battle of Boyacá. 1819

1800 18401820

Simón Bolívar sent a joyous letter to a fellowgeneral on January 8, 1822, displaying his beliefin a unified America. He wrote, “America’s great-est day has not yet dawned. We have indeed drivenout our oppressors, smashed the tablets of their

tyrannical laws, and establishedlegitimate institutions; but we haveyet to lay the foundation … that willmake of this part of the world anation of republics.” Bolívar wasconfident that this unified Americawould impress Europe: “Who shalloppose an America united in heart,subject to one law, and guided by thetorch of liberty?”

—adapted from Selected Writings ofBolívar, compiled by Vicente Lecunaand edited by Harold A. Bierck, Jr.,1951

S e c t i o n 5

Latin AmericanIndependence

Simón Bolívar


Read to Find Out Main Idea The countries of Latin Amer-ica won independence in a variety of ways.

SThetoryteller

government offices. The government, in turn, sup-ported the Church. By 1800 the Catholic Churchcontrolled almost half the wealth of Latin America.

Over the years, colonists became increasinglyunhappy with colonial rule. They resented thetrade restrictions and high taxes Spain and Portugalimposed upon them. Most of all, they resented therigid colonial social structure.

A Rigid Social OrderSocial classes based on privilege divided

colonial Latin America. Colonial leaders, calledpeninsulares, were born in Spain or Portugal andstood at the top level of the social order. Appointedby the Spanish and Portuguese governments, thepeninsulares held all important military and politicalpositions. Below them were the colonial-born whitearistocrats, called creoles. Although they controlledmost of the land and business in the colonies, thecreoles were regarded as second-class citizens bythe peninsulares. The creoles envied the privilegedleadership positions that were held exclusively bythe peninsulares.

At the bottom of the colonial social pyramidwere the majority of Latin Americans. Some wereNative Americans. Others were of African orAfrican and European ancestry. The largest of thisgroup, however, were mestizos (meh•STEE•zohz),Latin Americans of mixed Native American andEuropean ancestry. Spurned by the ruling whiteclasses, these Latin Americans faced social andracial barriers in colonial society. They worked asservants for peninsulares and creoles, and asunskilled laborers and carpenters. Some worked asplantation overseers and farmhands.

Growing DiscontentIn the 1800s Latin Americans began to chal-

lenge the rigid social order and its controls withrevolts throughout Latin America. The creolesplayed the largest leadership roles in these con-flicts. Wealthy and well educated, many were wellversed in the liberal political philosophies of theEnlightenment, but their colonial birth preventedthem from holding the highest government posi-tions. The creoles were eager to take control of LatinAmerican affairs.

Uprising in HaitiAlthough the Spanish and Portuguese colonies

were ripe for revolt, the first successful uprising inthe Latin American colonies took place in the Frenchcolony of Haiti (Saint Domingue), on the island of

Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. Huge plantationsof sugar, cotton, and coffee spread across the moun-tains and valleys of the lush tropical land. Franceand many other countries depended on the tinycolony for their supply of sugar and coffee.

The plantations were owned by French plantersand worked by the colony’s enslaved African pop-ulation. More than 500,000 of the 560,000 people liv-ing in Haiti in the late 1700s were enslaved or hadbeen. The few French planters who controlled theFrench colony often went to severe and brutalextremes to control the African majority.

Unrest erupted in the early 1790s whenenslaved Africans led by a formerly enslaved mannamed François Toussaint-Louverture (TOO•SANLOO•vuhr•TYUR) revolted, setting fire to planta-tion homes and fields of sugarcane. One observerdescribed the horrifying scene:

Picture to yourself the whole horizon awall of fire, from which continually rosethick vortices [whirling columns] ofsmoke, whose huge black volumes couldbe likened only to those frightful storm-clouds … for nearly three weeks we could


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Many nations in Latin America gained their independence from European rule in the early 1800s.

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barely distinguish between day and night,for so long as the rebels found anything to feed the flames, they never ceased toburn.…

In 1802 Napoleon sent forces to take control ofthe colony. Captured by French officers, Toussaint-Louverture was imprisoned in France, where hedied in 1803. Then a wave of yellow fever aided therevolutionaries. The epidemic swept across thecolony, killing thousands of French soldiers. Therebel army defeated the French, and in 1804 Haitiproclaimed its independence.

Mexico Struggles for Freedom One of the earliest uprisings against Spanish

rule occurred in Mexico, which at that time waspart of New Spain. In 1810 a Catholic priest namedMiguel Hidalgo led the fight against the Spanishgovernment in Mexico. Hidalgo cared deeply for

the poverty-stricken Native Americans and mesti-zos in his parish of Dolores. In addition to politicalfreedom, he also wanted to end slavery and toimprove living conditions for Mexico’s poor. ToHidalgo, revolt was the only way to bring change toMexico.

On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo gave a stirringaddress that became known as ”el Grito de Dolores“—the cry of Dolores. In the speech, he called onMexicans to fight for ”Independence and Liberty.“Hidalgo then led Native Americans and mestizoson a freedom march to Mexico City that eventuallyturned into an armed movement. In spite of earlyadvances, Hidalgo and his forces faced mountingopposition from the Spaniards and their Mexicancreole allies. In 1811 the well-trained Spanish armyfinally overwhelmed the rebels, and Hidalgo wascaptured and executed.

Another priest, José María Morelos, tookcharge of the revolution after Hidalgo died.Morelos captured a large portion of southernMexico. In 1813 he called a conference that declaredMexico‘s independence from Spain. Morelos‘sforces fought the Spaniards but were defeated in1815. Like Hidalgo, Morelos was executed.

Despite many battles, Mexico did not gain fullindependence until 1821. That year, a liberal revoltin Spain threatened to overthrow the monarchy andestablish a constitution. This reform frightenedwealthy Mexican creoles, who feared such a changemight infringe on their own privileges. To makesure this did not happen, they declared indepen-dence from Spain in 1821.

Ironically, their leader was Agustín de Iturbide(EE•TUR•BEE•thay), the army officer who hadcrushed Morelos’s movement. Iturbide made him-self emperor in 1822, but opposition to his oppres-sive rule developed. The Mexican people soondeposed Iturbide and declared their country arepublic in 1823.

When Mexico became a republic, the CentralAmerican provinces in New Spain declared theirindependence. In Guatemala, representatives estab-lished the United Provinces of Central America. Inthe 1830s leaders divided the region into the coun-tries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,Honduras, and Nicaragua.

Spanish South AmericaCreoles in the Spanish colonies of South

America gained an opportunity for independencein 1808 when Napoleon seized control of theSpanish government. The refusal of the Spanish


Father Miguel Hidalgo, a fresco by JoséClemente Orozco, 1937. Governor’s

Mansion, Guadalajara, Mexico What two groups madeup the rebel force that Hidalgo led against the Spanish army?

Art&History

American colonists to acknowledge Napoleon’sgovernment resulted in revolts throughout theempire. In addition, Spain’s fight against France,together with the colonies’ isolation from theirhome country, left the Spanish weak and vulnera-ble to attack. Three outstanding leaders—SimónBolívar, José de San Martín, and BernardoO’Higgins—led South American colonies in theirfight against Spanish rule.

Simón Bolívar, a creole from Venezuela, ledmany colonies to independence. Bolívar believed inequality and saw liberty as “the only object worth aman’s life.” Bolívar had witnessed the reforms ofthe French Revolution. Called “the Liberator,”Bolívar devoted his life to freedom for LatinAmericans.

In 1810 Bolívar started a revolt against theSpaniards in Caracas. After nearly 9 years of fighting,Bolívar crushed Spain’s power in northern SouthAmerica at the Battle of Boyacá in 1819. During thenext 20 years, Bolívar and his forces won freedomfor the present-day countries of Venezuela,Colombia, Panama, Bolivia, and Ecuador.

While Bolívar fought in Venezuela, anotherrevolutionary leader, José de San Martín ofArgentina, led Latin American armies over theAndes Mountains and into Chile. In Chile, SanMartín joined Bernardo O’Higgins. Together, theirforces successfully achieved independence forChile in 1818. San Martín then set off to free Peru in1820. Within a year he captured Lima and declaredPeru independent.

In July 1822 San Martín and Bolívar met in theEcuadorian port of Guayaquil (GWY•uh•KEEL) todiscuss the future of Latin America. Though theyshared a common goal, they could not agree onstrategy and policy. San Martín finally decided towithdraw from the revolt and allowed Bolívar totake command. By 1826 Bolívar and his armies hadliberated all of South America.

Brazil Gains IndependenceBrazil achieved its independence without the

bloodshed that accompanied the liberation ofSpanish America. In 1808 Napoleon’s French armyhad invaded Portugal, causing the Portugueseroyal family to flee to Brazil.

King João transferred his monarchy to Brazil,declaring Rio de Janeiro capital of the PortugueseEmpire. João immediately introduced governmen-tal reforms in Brazil. He reinstated more favorabletrade laws by opening Brazil’s ports to the world.João also worked to make the agriculture and

mining industries more profitable. Soon bothindustry and commerce were flourishing.

The liberal ruler brought Brazilians increasingopportunities by funding public education, includ-ing military academies, an art school, and medicalschools. With these reforms Brazil moved quicklytoward independence, and in 1815 João madeBrazil a self-governing kingdom within thePortuguese Empire.

King João came to love the semitropical land of mountains and endless forests; he chose toremain there after Napoleon was defeated in 1815.In 1820, however, liberals took over the Portuguesegovernment. Determined to save his throne, hereturned to Portugal. He left Brazil in the hands ofhis 23-year-old son, Dom Pedro.

The new Portuguese government fought tomake Brazil a colonial possession again. Leadersended free trade and many of the other advantagesBrazil had enjoyed under João’s monarchy. Theyalso demanded that Dom Pedro abandon his ruleand immediately return to Portugal. Supported byhis father, Dom Pedro declared that he wouldremain in Brazil. Dom Pedro defied Portugueseleaders by calling a constitutional convention andanswered their angry response with a cry of“Independence or death!”

In September 1822 Brazil won full independencefrom Portugal. Three months later Dom Pedro was


Greece

Greeks Fight forGreeks Fight forIndependenceIndependence

Greece, 1821Greece’s struggle for independence from the Ottoman Turks began in 1821 when Greek fighters gained control of the Peloponnesus and many islands in the Aegean Sea. But in 1825, a combined army of Turks and Egyptians regained these regions. France, Great Britain, and Russia came to Greece’s aid in 1827 and defeated the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Navarino. By 1829 both the Turks and the Egyptians left Greece, and Greece became independent that year.

AROUND THE

crowned Emperor Pedro I of Brazil. With Pedro ruling the empire under a constitution, Brazilbecame the only independent country in SouthAmerica to freely choose a constitutional monarchyas its form of government.

Meanwhile, João maintained his support of hisbeloved Brazil by refusing to allow the Portuguesegovernment to send new military forces to fight therebels. Great Britain also pressured Portugal to endits battle. In 1825 Portugal finally recognizedBrazil’s independence.

Challenges to GrowthBy the mid-1820s most Latin American coun-

tries had won their independence. Their next taskwas to achieve national unity and a stable govern-ment. These goals, however, were difficult to reach.Simón Bolívar, who had dreamed of uniting all ofnorthern South America into one large and power-ful state, became so disappointed and disillusionedthat he wrote, “Those who have toiled for liberty inSouth America have plowed the sea.”

Common ProblemsIn trying to build stable and prosperous

nations, Latin Americans faced a number of chal-lenges. One obstacle was the geography of Centraland South America. High mountains and thick jun-gles made transportation and communication diffi-cult, hindering trade and economic growth. Vastareas of fertile land remained undeveloped.Population centers, separated by physical barriers,became rivals instead of allies.

Other problems were part of Latin America’scolonial heritage. Spanish and Portuguese rule hadgiven the Latin Americans little practice in govern-ing themselves. Instead, they were used to authori-tarian government, which was not responsible tothe people and demanded obedience from them.

In the colonial system, political power was inthe hands of the executive branch of government.The judicial branch was weak and limited, and thelegislative branch was practically nonexistent.Latin Americans had strong, well-educated leaders, but they had no experience in the legisla-tive process. Simón Bolívar complained that thecolonial system had kept his people in a state of“permanent childhood” with regard to knowledgeof running a government.

Independence did not bring about muchchange in social conditions in Latin America.Catholicism remained the official religion, andChurch and government continued to be closelytied. The new countries also continued to maintaina separation between upper and lower classes. Thedominant group was now the creoles instead of thepeninsulares. Creoles owned the best land and con-trolled business and government. Their privilegedposition was resented, especially by the mestizos.

Continuing Political ConflictsSoon after independence, political conflicts

increased. Liberals called for separation of Churchand state, the breakup of large estates, higher taxeson land, public social services, and civilian controlof the government. Most of the liberals were mesti-zos, intellectuals, or merchants who wanted freetrade. Opposed to this group were the creoles, mostof whom were rich landowners, church leaders,and military officers. These conservatives favoredstrong central government and a powerful Churchand army.

The decades that followed the wars for inde-pendence saw an ongoing struggle for economicstrength and social justice. Although many SouthAmerican governments were republics in appear-ance, many actually were military dictatorships.Today, there still remains in many Latin Americancountries a vast gap between the ruling rich and theunderprivileged poor.



below to describe ways inwhich Latin American coun-tries won independence.

Recall2. Define peninsulares, creoles,

mestizos.3. Identify François Toussaint-

Louverture, Miguel Hidalgo,Simón Bolívar, José de SanMartín, Pedro I.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons How

did the independence move-

ment in Mexico differ fromthe independence movementin Brazil?

Understanding Themes5. Nationalism Did the coming

of independence fromEuropean rule bring social andpolitical advances to manyLatin American countries?Why or why not?

How Latin AmericanCountries WonIndependence

➔ ➔

➔

➔



On most maps, land area is drawn in pro-portion to actual surface area. On somemaps, however, a small country may

appear large, and a large country may looksmall. Even the shapes of the countries may lookdifferent. Why do these maps seem so distorted?

Learning the SkillMaps that distort country size and shape are

called cartograms. In a cartogram, country sizereflects some value other than a land area, suchas population or gross national product. Forexample, on a conventional map Canadaappears much larger than India. In a cartogramshowing world population, however, Indiawould appear larger than Canada because it hasa much larger population. The cartogram is atool for making visual comparisons. At a glance,you can see how each country or region com-pares with another in a particular value.

To use a cartogram, first read the title andkey to identify what value the cartogram illus-trates. Then examine the cartogram to see whichcountries or regions appear. Find the largest andsmallest countries. Compare the cartogram witha conventional land-area map to determine thedegree of distortion of particular countries.Finally, draw conclusions about the topic.

Practicing the SkillStudy the cartogram shown at the top right

and answer these questions. 1. What is the subject of the cartogram?2. Which country appears largest on the car-

togram? Which appears smallest?3. Compare the cartogram to the map of

Europe found in the Atlas. Which countriesare most distorted in size compared to aland-area map?

4. What accounts for these distortions?

Applying the SkillAt the library, find statistics that compare

some value for different states or countries. Forexample, you might compare the number offarms in each state, or annual oil consumption ofcountries in North America.

Convert these statistics into a simple car-togram. Determine the relative size of eachcountry or state according to the chosen value. Ifthe United States consumes five times more oilthan does Mexico, then the United States shouldappear five times larger.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 449.

Reading a Cartogram

Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Washington D.C.

IRELANDGERMANY

ITALY

POLAND

RUSSIA(including

Baltic States)

53,02492,427

52,003

35,598

11,073

European Immigration to the U.S. 1890

Social StudiesSocial Studies

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a time line like the one below to

identify key events in the struggle for Irishrights.

2. Citizenship List the groups in Great Britain thatgained the right to vote under the Reform Act of 1832. What groups were still excluded fromvoting?

3. Government Explain why many French peoplecame to oppose the constitutional monarchy ofLouis Philippe. How did this opposition affectLouis Philippe’s rule?

4. History Explain why France went to war in1870. What was the result of the conflict?

5. Geography Identify three land acquisitions thatsignificantly expanded the territorial borders ofthe United States in the 1800s.

6. Government Name three leaders who helpedwin freedom for Latin American countries.

Critical Thinking1. Apply Compare the movement toward demo-

cratic reform in Great Britain with similar move-ments in France under Louis Philippe. Howwere they alike? How did they differ?

2. Synthesize How did expansion and the CivilWar affect the growth of democracy and civilrights in the United States?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence.Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. creoles g. peninsularesb. disenfranchised h. sectionalismc. dominion i. ultraroyalists d. home rule j. suffragettese. seceded k. plebiscitef. ratify l. mestizos

1. A self-governing country other than GreatBritain that recognizes the British monarch as itshead of state is called a _____________.

2. ________ are Latin Americans of mixed NativeAmerican and European ancestry.

3. Women in Great Britain who led a voting rightscampaign for women became known as_______________.

4. In 1851 Louis-Napoleon called for a _______, ornational vote, asking the French people to givehim support to create a new constitution.

5. While the Reform Act of 1832 gave middle-classmen the right to vote, agricultural laborers, facto-ry workers, and women remained _____________.


Write a short report on a politicalissue in one of Great Britain’s formerterritories, such as Hong Kong’s returnto Chinese rule in 1997, or the movementfor an independent Quebec.

Using Your History Journal

CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT

18001914

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Modern EraWeb site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Using a ComputerizedCard Catalog Use thecomputerized card catalog inyour school or local library to locate sourcesabout Latin American countries. Research cur-rent information about a country from thatregion. Organize your research into a fact sheet.Include headings such as history, culture, reli-gion, demographics, economics, and govern-ment. Provide a map of your country illustrat-ing features such as mountain ranges, bodies ofwater, natural resources and major cities.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=005&CHAPTER=14&TITLE=Democracy+and+Reform

3. Evaluate How did conflict in Europe in the1800s contribute to the development of theUnited States?

Geography in History1. Movement Refer to the map below. Which

European nation lost the most emigrants in thisperiod?

2. Movement To which nation did most Europeansmigrate during this period?

3. Human/Environment Interaction What causedmany Irish people to migrate to the UnitedStates in the 1840s?

4. Region What circumstances in Europe causedmillions of people to migrate during this period?

5. Nationalism How did the American Revolu-tion affect Latin America in the early 1800s?

1. British and American women fought to winthe right to vote. What rights do womenseek today? Are their methods today similarto or different from past methods?

2. After slavery was abolished in the UnitedStates, African Americans and other groupsstill had to struggle for equality. What edu-cational and employment opportunities dosome Americans seek today?

3. The Irish were granted home rule in 1914,but it never went into effect. How does thisrelate to the politics in Ireland today?

Skill PracticeStudy the cartogram below and then answer thesequestions.

1. What is the subject of the cartogram?2. Which country appears largest on the car-

togram? Which appears smallest?3. Compare the cartogram to a world map or

globe. Which countries are most distorted insize compared to a land-area map?

4. What accounts for these distortions?


Understanding Themes1. Change From your reading, would you say that

the method of gradual reform was the best waythat the British could have taken to change theirgovernment and society in the 1800s?

2. Movement How did British settlement of thedominions affect the original inhabitants?

3. Revolution Why do you think revolutions areoften followed by governments led by dictators?

4. Change How did immigration affect the economic growth of the United States?

UNITEDKINGDOM

CANADA

CUBAMEXICO

BRAZIL

FRANCE

GERMANY

248146

6

25

46

42

(Value of exports in millions of dollars)

Value of U.S. Merchandise Exports 1870

NORWAY(mostly to U.S.)*

GERMANY(5 million to U.S.)

FRANCE(1.5 million toNorth Africa)

SPAIN(mostly to

South America)*

ITALY (2 million to

U.S., 1901-1910)

IRELAND(4.1 million

to U.S.)

GREAT BRITAIN (12.7 million to U.S., Canada,and colonies)

SWEDEN(500,000 to U.S.)

*Figures not available

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Baltic

Sea

Mediterranean Sea

North Sea

European Emigration 1821–1910

CHAPTER 14 ASSESSMENT

chapter 14: democracy and reform - lincoln-sudbury ... that unfairly favored the landed aristocracy....

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