chapter 10: intelligence. chapter outline 1. what do we mean by intelligence? 2. additional types of...

Chapter 10: Intelligence

Chapter Outline

1. What do we mean by intelligence?2. Additional types of intelligence

3. How do we measure intelligence?4. Is intelligence governed by genetic or

environmental factors?5. Intelligence: What happens in the brain?6. Extremes in intelligence

© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

What Do We Mean by Intelligence?

Intelligence Ability to learn Ability to apply learned material to life and

meet the demands of the environment Metacognition—ability to understand and

control one’s cognitive activity


Is Intelligence General or Specific?

Spearman’s two-factor theory Factor analysis—

statistical method to determine whether two or more items correlate, thus forming a cluster

s factor—specific factor tied to a specific area of functioning

g factor—general factor relating to all clusters


Is Intelligence General or Specific?

Lewis Thurstone Primary mental abilities—do not rely on

general intelligence1. Verbal comprehension 2. Word fluency3. Numerical skill 4. Spatial ability5. Associative memory6. Perceptual speed7. Reasoning


Modern Multifactor Theories of Intelligence

Howard Gardner’s Theory of multiple intelligences—there is no

single, unified intelligence, but instead independent intelligences arising from different portions of the brain Linguistic Logical-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic

Modular model of mental functioning © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

Modern Multifactor Theories

Robert Sternberg Triarchic theory of

intelligence—intelligence is made up of three interacting components Internal—analytical

Most related to traditional IQ tests

External—creative Experiential—practical

Helps us to adapt to our environment


Modern Multifactor Theories

Stephen Ceci Bioecological

model of intelligence—intelligence is a function of the interaction between: Innate potential

abilities Environment Motivation


Additional Forms of Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence Ability to perceive, express, assimilate, and

regulate emotion Possess empathy and emotional control

Social Intelligence Ability to function in social settings

Possess ability to get along well in relationships, school, work


Additional Forms of Intelligence

Wisdom Ability to make sound judgments

Function of practical intelligenceCreativity

Ability to generate valuable, original ideas intrinsic motivation, imagination, game

personalityPersonality Characteristics

Intelligence is the cognitive part of personality


How Do We Measure Intelligence?

Psychometric approach —measure intelligence through psychological testing Mental age—intellectual age at which a person

is functioning Intelligence quotient (IQ)—ratio of mental

age to chronological age multiplied by 100Intelligence test construction and

interpretation Standardization—the use of uniform

procedures to administer and score the test Individual scores are compared with the

sample scores© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

How Do We Measure Intelligence?

Test construction continued Reliability—Consistency in measurement

Test-retest reliability—administer the test more than once

Split-half reliability—divide the items on a single test among two groups

Validity—accuracy of the measurement Content validity—how well a test accurately measures

what it is intended to measure Validity coefficient—correlation between measurement

scores and external criteria. Predictive validity—correlation between scores and

future behaviour


Normal distribution A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most

scores are in the middle with smaller groups of equal size at either end.

Standardization


Measures of Central Tendency

A single value that describes the typical or the central score in the set of scores

Three types of central tendency Mode—the value that occurs most frequently Median—the middle value; the 50th

percentile, where 50% of scores are above and 50% of scores are below

Mean—the average; the sum of all the scores divided by the number of cases; the most commonly used measure of central tendency


History of Intelligence Testing

Galton—theory of psychophysical performance Psychic energy and heightened sensitivity to external

stimuli Developed tests of an individual’s sensory processing,

motor skills, and reaction timeBinet-Simon intelligence test

Developed the first standardized intelligence test Introduced the idea of mental age

Lewis Terman Adapted the Binet-Simon intelligence test for use in the

United States Developed the intelligence quotient (IQ): MA/CA × 100


Eugenics

Terman believed that his IQ test could help determine the “fitness” of individuals to reproduce

Alberta in 1928 and BC in 1933 enacted laws requiring individuals deemed mentally retarded or mentally ill to be sterilized These laws were repealed in 1972

Terman administered his test to newly arrived immigrants to the United States


Wechsler and the WAIS

David Wechsler recognized two problems with the tests: The distinction between mental and chronological age

becomes less informative when testing adults The need for greater fairness when testing people

who do not speak English Developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Compare individual scores to scores obtained over a very large sample of individuals using the normal distribution


Wechsler and the WAIS


How Well Do Intelligence Tests Predict Performance?

Stanford-Binet and WAIS Popular intelligence tests High degrees of reliability Predictive of school performance High correlation between scores and number

of years of schooling Some correlation with occupational and

social achievements, income, and health-related behaviours, including better health throughout life, greater independence during old age, and a longer lifespan


Cultural Bias and Stereotypes in Intelligence Testing

Racial groups differ in their average scores on traditional intelligence tests

What explains this finding? Tests are culturally biased

Sample of a culturally unfair question:Caesar is to salad as __________ is to brandy.

a. Churchill b. Napoleon c. Hitler d. Lincoln

Stereotype vulnerability or threat—when people perform poorly as a result of a fear that their performance will conform to a negative stereotype


Progressive Matrices Test

Emphasizes abstract, nonverbal skills

Less culture bias


Is Human Intelligence Increasing?

Flynn effect—rise in average IQ scores over time throughout the world

Intelligence test scores have increased over time, however other standardized test scores have dropped Consider the relationship between the two

types of measures: Why aren’t scores both rising or both

falling? What does this tell us about the measures?


The Flynn Effect


Is Intelligence Governed by Genetic or Environmental Factors?

Genetic factors Heritability coefficient—indicates the

contribution of heredity to a characteristic (+0.50 for intelligence)

Twin studies Higher correlation between identical twins’

intelligence scores (+.86) than fraternal twins (+.60)

Identical twins reared apart show a correlation of +.75

Reaction range—the upper and lower level of intelligence made possible by a child’s genetic nature



Environmental factors Family and home environment

Sibling studies (+.32 adopted, non-biological siblings, raised together, and +.22 biological siblings raised apart)

School influences Both a cause and a result of intelligence

Intelligence is related to success in school

Schooling improves mental abilities


Environmental factors continued Cultural influences—definition of intelligence varies

from culture to culture The expression of intelligence is tied to the survival

needs of a culture

Occupational influences—people of higher intelligence tend to work in more complex jobs, but complex work may itself improve intelligence



Group Differences in IQ Scores

Racial groups differ in their average scores on intelligence tests

High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income

Aboriginal Canadians score, on average, 15 to 20 points lower on intelligence tests than their non-Aboriginal contemporaries Aboriginal students are twice as likely to drop out of high

school Aboriginal children and youth need to work in school

systems that acknowledge and celebrate Aboriginal values and heritage

Public policy aimed at making more equitable resources available throughout society would lead to more similar intelligence test scores across different groups


Variation Within and Between Groups

Environment contributes to variation between the groups

An average variation between groups cannot be applied to individuals within each group


Does Environmental Enrichment Make a Difference?

Head StartHead Start is a government-funded

preschool program that serves children who come from families below the poverty line

Aims to enhance children’s chances for success in school and beyond by boosting their cognitive and social skills


Does Environmental Enrichment Make a Difference?

Does it work?It produces short-term increases in cognitive

skills, but only for impoverished childrenIt increases children’s readiness for school,

enhances emotional intelligence, reduces school dropouts, and decreases later criminality

Better programs:Begin early in life and continueAre intensive (more hours per day and more

days per year)Include programs for maintaining positive

attitudes and behaviours © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

What Happens in the Brain?

Brain size General intelligence is

associated with the number or neurons in the frontal lobes

Brain speed—how fast the brain responds to stimuli EEG tests

Those who perceive the correct image more quickly tend to score higher on intelligence tests

Nerve conduction velocity (NCV)—speed of impulses along nerve fibres and across synapses


Brain glucose activity PET scans show

metabolism of glucose with active areas in different colours than inactive areas The left lateral

prefrontal cortex is activated when performing verbal tasks

Both lateral prefrontal cortexes are activated when performing spatial tasks



Cortical Thickening and Intelligence

The development of intelligence involves a process of synaptic and neural growth and then pruning, particularly in the prefrontal cortex The cortex thickens and thins out again

throughout childhood and adolescence

The processes of growth and pruning unfold over a much longer developmental span in highly intelligent people than they do in less intelligent individuals, perhaps because more complex and sophisticated neural circuits are being constructed


Extremes in Intelligence

Mental retardation—general intellectual functioning that is well below average with poor adaptive behaviour

Mild retardation Usually not recognized until school age Benefit from schooling Linked to environment

Moderate, severe, and profound retardation Diagnosed early in life Largely biological



Down syndrome—the most common of the chromosomal disorders leading to mental retardation Fewer than 1 of every 1,000 live births Rate increases greatly when the mother’s

age is over 35 Extra chromosomal material on the 21st

chromosome Small head, flat face, slanted eyes, high

cheekbones



Giftedness—natural ability, talent, or intelligence The top 1 or 2 percent of a tested

population Evident at a young age Environmental contributors Intrinsically motivated May occur in some areas and not others

Example: academically gifted but not socially gifted


Copyright

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

chapter 10: intelligence. chapter outline 1. what do we mean by intelligence? 2. additional types of...

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