Chapter 1

Developing a Sociological Consciousness

The Sociological Perspective

The Development of Sociology

Theoretical Perspectives

Conducting Research

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Developing a

Sociological Consciousness

Sociology: scientific study of social interactions and social organization

Rigorous and systematic

Basic or applied research

Central to world health and science agenda

Powerful scientific tool

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The Sociological Perspective

Look beyond what we take for granted about social lives and examine them in fresh ways

Liebow’s Talley’s Corner (1967/2003)

Downtown Washington, D.C. African-American neighborhood

Differences in viewpoint between low-income and middle-class men

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The Sociological Perspective

Sociological imagination: ability to see private experiences, personal difficulties, and achievements, in part, as reflection of structural arrangements of society and times in which we live

C. Wright Mills

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The Sociological Perspective

Microsociology: detailed study of everyday life of individuals

Macrosociology: large-scale, long-term social processes of organizations, institutions, and broad social patterns

Not independent of each other

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The Development of Sociology

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857)

Founder of sociology

Observation

Experimentation

Comparative historical analysis

Social statics: order, stability, and organization

Social dynamics: Development and social change

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The Development of Sociology

Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876)

How to Observe Manners and Morals (1938)

Compared stratification systems of Europe and U.S.

Showed similarities between Western women and American slaves

Contributions undermined by male domination of field

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The Development of Sociology

Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903)

Compared society to biological organism; depicted it as a system

Social Darwinism

Viewed static societal institutions as organs

Used extensively within England and U.S. to justify unrestrained capitalism

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The Development of Sociology

Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)

Class conflict: society divided between those who own the means of production and those who do not

Dialectical materialism: development depends on clash of contradictions and emergence of more advanced structures

Economic determinist

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The Development of Sociology

Émile Durkheim (1858 – 1916)

Social integration: density of social relationships in a collection of people

The Division of Labor in Society (1893/1964)

Mechanical vs. organic solidarity

Social facts: aspects of life that cannot be explained at the individual level

Material vs. nonmaterial

Suicide (1897/1951)

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The Development of Sociology

Max Weber (1864 – 1920)

Originated bureaucracy, lifestyle, Protestant ethic, charisma

Verstehen: study of human subjectivity

Ideal type: focus on principal characteristics of subject and ignore minor differences

Importance of a “value-free sociology”

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The Development of Sociology

American Sociologists

Ward (1841-1918) and Sumner (1840-1919)

W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

The Philadelphia Negro (1900)

First sociology department: University of Chicago (1893)

Hull House (1889) started by Addams and Starr

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The Development of Sociology

Contemporary Sociology

Critical theory: critical of sociology because it viewed individuals as passive, helpless entities

Focus on nature of culture and mass culture

Feminism: evolving set of theoretical perspectives focused on women’s part in society

Social experience of gender not universal

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The Development of Sociology

Contemporary Sociology (continued)

Postmodernism: distrusts scientific approach

Scientific knowledge as much product of socially determined interests and biases of investigators as it is of facts

Modern image-based age makes structure-based social theories obsolete

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Theoretical Perspectives

Theoretical perspective: provides set of assumptions, interrelated concepts, and statements about how various social phenomena relate to one another

Functionalism

Conflict theory

Symbolic interactionism

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Functionalist Perspective

Society is a system, a set of elements or components that related to one another in a more or less stable fashion through a period of time

To survive, essential functions must be performed by the system’s parts

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Functionalist Perspective (continued)

Pay attention to functions performed by system’s parts, especially organizations, groups, institutions, and cultural elements

Dysfunctions: observed consequences that lessen adaptation or adjustment of system

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Functionalist Perspective (continued)

Manifest functions: consequences intended and recognized by participants in a system

Latent functions: consequences neither intended nor recognized by participants

Most members of a society agree on what is desirable, worthwhile, and moral, and what is undesirable, worthless, and evil

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Functionalist Perspective (continued)

Useful for describing society and identifying structural parts and functions of these parts at points in time

Does not provide entire story

Tends to exaggerate consensus, integration, and stability

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Conflict Perspective

Emphasizes disorder, instability, interests that divide, and social change

Social unity an illusion resting on coercion

Main source of conflict is resource scarcity

Power determines who gains and who loses

State an instrument of oppression by elite

Cross-cutting conflicts provide stability

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Conflict Perspective (continued)

Power: ability to control behavior of others, even against their will

Determines who gains and who loses

Society persists because no one conflict can become so great as to tear society apart

Difficulty dealing with some aspects of consensus, integration, and stability

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Theoretical Perspectives

The Interactionist Perspective

Emphasizes personal, symbolic interaction based on shared meanings

Micro-dimension of social life

Symbol is something that stands for something else, called meaning

Meanings emerge from social interaction

Shared cultural meanings continually emerge and change

Has limitations

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Conducting Research

Theory: general framework that provides an explanation for a specific social phenomenon

Research provides findings that test theories and provide information needed to formulate public policy

Science assumes events or actions result from antecedent causes

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Table 1.1: Major Theoretical

Perspectives in Sociology

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Conducting Research

Scientists look for relationships among variables: something that influences something else

Independent variable: variable that causes an effect

Dependent variable: variable that is affected

Hypothesis: proposition that can then be tested to determine its validity

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Conducting Research

Correlation: exists when change in one variable is associated with change in the other variable

Does not establish causation

Spurious correlation: apparent relationship the two variables that is produced by a third variable that influences the original variables

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Conducting Research

Methods of research

Experiments: researchers work with two groups that are made to be identical in all relevant respects through a process of random assignment

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Conducting Research

Methods of research (continued)

Surveys: typically gathered through interviews or prepared questionnaires

Random sample: researchers select subjects on basis of chance so every individual in a population has same opportunity to be chosen

Stratified random sample: researchers divide population into relevant categories and draw a random sample from each category

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Conducting Research

Methods of research (continued)

Observation primary tool of sociological inquiry when

Part of clear research objective

Undertaken in systematic manner

Carefully recorded

Related to broader body of sociological knowledge and theory

Subjected to checks and controls applied to all scientific evidence

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Conducting Research

Methods of research (continued)

Comparative and historical research

Archival research uses existing records produced or maintained by persons other than the researcher

Feminist research goals

Include women’s lives in social research and reveal diversity in women

Seek results that are of value to women, promote social change, and reduce inequality

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Conducting Research

Steps in the Scientific Method

Scientific method: series of steps that seeks to ensure maximum objectivity in investigating a problem

Selecting researchable problem

Reviewing literature

Formulating hypothesis

Choosing research design

Collecting data

Stating conclusions

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Conducting Research

Research Ethics

American Sociological Association (1989) code of ethics

Sociologists should not misuse their positions as professional social scientists for fraudulent purposes or as a pretext for gathering intelligence for any organization or government

Process of conducting sociological research must not expose respondents to substantial risk of personal harm

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Conducting Research

Research Ethics

Code of ethics (continued)

Sociologists must not coerce or deceive students into serving as research subjects

No sociologists should discriminate in hiring, firing, promotions, salary, treatment, or any other conditions of employment or career development