changes in soil organic carbon stock as an effect of land ... · changes in soil organic carbon...

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 5, No 2, 2014

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4402

Received on August 2014 Published on September 2014 372

Changes in soil organic carbon stock as an effect of land use system in

Gondia district of Maharashtra Sarika D. Patil1, Sen. T.K2, Chatterji. S2, Sarkar. D3, Handore. R.M4

1- Ph.D. Scholar, NBSS and LUP (ICAR), Amrawati Road, Nagpur-440033

2- Principal Scientist, NBSS and LUP (ICAR), Amrawati Road, Nagpur-440033

3- Ex. Director, NBSS and LUP (ICAR), Amrawati Road, Nagpur-440033

4- Managing Director, Sahyadri Biotech, Nashik, Botany Department, Pune University, Pune

[email protected]

doi: 10.6088/ijes.2014050100032

ABSTRACT

Gondia district of Maharashtra has 35.05 % of its area covered with forest. Considerable

forest area has been brought under paddy cultivation in the district over time and hence it

provides scope for assessing soil carbon stock in forest land and forest to paddy converted

land use systems. The present study was aimed to assess the impact of land use and soil

management practices on soil properties and consequently on soil quality. The Transects

selected were Goregaon, Aamgaon and Salekasa and land uses included Forest, Paddy more

than 10 years, Paddy more than 50 years and paddy more than 100 years of cultivation.

Replicated soil samples were collected from profiles of four land-use types in all transects.

The major production related constraints of the soils developed in mixed alluvium were

acidity and inadequacy of nutrient stock. Forest soils were considered as “Control” and used

as reference (base level) for the comparative study on C-stock and C-sequestration potentials.

Recently converted forestland to paddy (i.e. land under paddy for >10 years) has resulted in

highest loss in soil organic carbon (SOC) followed by soils growing paddy for more than 50

and 100 years. Estimated soil carbon stock at 0-30 cm depth varied between 13.5 to 50.2

tonns/ha in Gondia forest, 8.2 to 9.5 tonns/ha in 10 years paddy cultivated area, 12.3 to 12.6

tonns/ha in 50 years paddy cultivated area and 11.6 to 13.3 tonns/ha in 100 years paddy

cultivated area which is being lowest in 10 year paddy cultivated area and highest in forest.

Key words: Carbon stock, Land use systems, Forest, Paddy

1. Introduction

Many studies in India (Gupta and Rao 1994, Bhattcharyya et al. 2000, Bhadwal and Singh

2002, Chandran et al. 2009, Kaul et al. 2010, Pathak et al. 2011) and elsewhere (Guo and

Gifford 2002, Lal 2002, Shrestha et al. 2004, Awasthi et al. 2005,) have reported that

conversion of forest land into arable land with the aim of expanding cultivated land has

caused land degradation and often result in accelerating soil erosion (Warkentin 1995),

nutrient depletion (Gong et al. 2006), soil organic matter (SOM) reduction (Mulugeta et al.

2005b) and soil quality degradation (Solomon et al. 2000). Deforestation results in historical

significant loss of both soil organic carbon (SOC) and inorganic carbon (SIC) worldwide

(Lal, 2002) and the impact is more pronounced on the topsoil (Sombroek et al. 1993). As a

result, SOC vary considerably both along with land-use types and land-use patterns. Land

use and management affects the SOC and nutrient in the soil. Restoration and management

of degraded land with various conservation measures or disturbing virgin lands may

significantly contribute to enhance or degrade soil quality (Lal 2002, Singh and Lal 2005).

Changes in soil organic carbon stock as an effect of land use system in Gondia district of Maharashtra

Sarika D. Patil et al

International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.2, 2014 373

Soil carbon is an important attribute of soil quality and its productivity. Doran and Parkin

(1994) define soil quality as the ‘capacity of a soil to function, within ecosystems boundaries,

to sustain biological productivity, improve environmental quality and support human and

plant health’. Soil quality cannot be measured directly but inferred indirectly by measuring

soil physical and chemical properties which serve as quality indicators (Diack and Stott 2001).

However, soil properties do have different degrees of influence on soil quality.

Soils are the largest carbon reservoir of the terrestrial carbon cycle and hold potential for

expanded carbon sequestration. Thus, they provide potential way to reduce atmospheric

concentration of carbon dioxide. Soils store two or three times more carbon than that exists in

the atmosphere as CO2 (Davidson et al., 2000) and 2.5 to 3 times as much as that stored in

plants (Post and Mann, 1990 and Houghton, 1990). Carbon storage in soils is the balance

between the input of dead plant material (leaf and root litter) and losses from decomposition

and mineralization processes (heterotrophic respiration). Soil organic carbon is thus an

extremely valuable natural resource. Irrespective of the climate debate, the SOC stock must

be restored, enhanced and improved. Low soil organic matter (SOM) in tropical soils,

particularly those under the influence of arid, semi-arid, and sub humid climates, is a major

factor contributing to their poor productivity (Syers et al., 1996 and Katyal et al., 2001).

Therefore, proper management of SOM assumes importance in sustaining soil productivity in

tropical soils and ensuring food security (Scherr, 1999). Maintaining or improving organic C

levels in tropical soils is, however, more difficult because of rapid oxidation of organic matter

under prevailing high temperatures (Lal, 1997; Lal et al., 2003). Restoration of soil quality

through soil organic carbon (SOC) management is a major concern for tropical soils. To

sustain their quality and productivity, knowledge of SOC in terms of its amount and quality

needs to be improved.

World mineral soils have major carbon reserves to a tune of 1150-2200 Pg C (Post et al.,

1982; Eswaran et al., 1993; Batjes, 1996), 1580 Pg C (Schlesinger, 1985; Andrews, 2000

and Houghton, 2005) in 1m soil profile. World soils contain an important pool of active

carbon (C) that plays a major role in the global carbon cycle (Lal, 1995; Melillo et al., 2002

and Prentice et al., 2001) and therefore, the part it plays in the mitigation of atmospheric

levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs), with special reference to CO2. There is a rapid change

in SOC within the first 5-25 years, with losses ranging from 25 to 75 % in the uppermost soil

horizon with a change from forest to agriculture (Lal et al., 1995).The conversion of native

ecosystems, such as forests, prairies, and wetlands, leads almost invariably to losses in

vegetation and soil C stocks. Carbon (C) storage in forest ecosystems involves numerous

components including biomass C and soil C. The total ecosystem C stock is large and in

dynamic equilibrium with its environment. Because of the large areas involved at

regional/global scale, forest soils play an important role in the global C cycle (Detwiler and

Hall, 1988; Bouwman and Leemans, 1995; Richter et al., 1995; Sedjo, 1992; Jabaggy and

Jackson, 2000). Land use change causes perturbation of the ecosystem and can influence the

C stocks and fluxes. In particular, conversion of forest to agricultural ecosystems affects

several soil properties but especially soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration and stock.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

Present study was carried out in Gondia District which is situated in the western Indian state

of Maharashtra and located between latitudes 20039, and 21038, North and longitudes 79027,

to 80042, East. It is newly formed district and carved out by the division of Bhandara district




in May 1999. The adjoining districts to Gondia are on northern side Balaghat district,

Madhya Pradesh and on eastern side Rajnandgaon district of Chattisgarh state. To the south

and west are Chandrapur district and Bhandara district of Maharashtra. It is located in the

north-eastern part of the state and is bordered by the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya

Pradesh.

2.2 Soil sampling and laboratory analysis

Three transects one each in Goregaon, Amgaon and Salekasa tehsils of Gondia district

(representing major paddy growing soils of different ages in Gondia) were selected and

studied. In each transect 4-5 soil profiles were selected. Paddy, the only major crop,

extensively cultivated under rainfed and irrigated conditions ranging from over 10 years

(after forest clearing) to centuries were selected along with a profile representing forest soil

(least affected by the anthropogenic activities) was selected as control or base line in each of

three transects. Survey of India topo-sheet (1:50,000) and satellite image (LISS-3) were used

in identifying the sites.

The samples were air-dried, ground in a wooden pestle and mortar and passed through a 2

mm sieve for subsequent analysis. The mechanical, physical and chemical analysis was

determined by standard method (Jackson, 1973) and is reported in table1 and table 2 as

weighted mean.

2.3 Calculation of carbon stock

The soil carbon stocks were estimated by mass, volume and density relationship (Batjes,

1996) and reported in table 3. The SOC pool (Mgha-1 for a specific depth) was calculated by

multiplying the SOC concentration (gkg-1) with bulk density (Mgm-3) and depth (m).

C Stock Depth = TC (i) * BD (i) * TH (i) * 10-3 MgKg-1 * 104 m2 ha-1 ........eqn 1

Where, C Stock (Depth) = Cumulative Soil Carbon Stock (Mgha-1)

TC (i) = Total soil C concentration in the ith layer (g C kg-1)

BD (i) = Bulk density of the ith layer (Mgm-3)

TH (i) = thickness of ith layer (m)

Carbon stock for each layer of the dominant land use was calculated by multiplying the C

stock obtained by equation 1 by the total area covered by a particular land use. Subsequently,

C stock in each soil layer thickness was summed up to determine total C stock contained up

to 30 cm depth for each land-use type. Difference in soil bulk density caused due to

difference in land use or cover affects the calculation of carbon stock by influencing the

amount of soil sampled from the same soil depth (Solomon et al. 2002).

3. Results and discussion

The soils, mostly developed in basaltic alluvium are, in general, deep, medium to fine

textured, well to moderately well drained, slightly to moderately acidic with low to medium

cation exchange capacity and low to medium organic carbon content. The soils were

classified as Vertic Haplustalfs, Vertic Endoaquepts, and Vertic Haplustepts. Bulk density of

the surface soils, in general, ranged from 1.18 to 1.73 Mg m-3 and that of sub soils were

observed to range from 1.19 to 1.95 Mg m-3.The bulk density of forest soils was less than




those of cultivated soils. The results revealed that conversion of forestland to paddy

cultivation significantly increased soil bulk densities. The bulk density of all paddy growing

soils, recently brought under cultivation, exhibited slight increase down the profile to a depth

of 60 cm followed by gradual declination. Similar results were found by Sharma and De

Datta1985, Aggarwal et al. 1995 and Hobbs and Gupta 2000.

Table 1: Physical properties of soils (weighted average)

Pedon No.

(Site)

Depth

(cm)

Clay

(%)

Bulk Density

(Mg m-3)

AWC

(%)

Transect-I (Goregaon)

Pedon 1 (Assalpani) 110 50.6 1.67 11.2

Pedon 2 (Bagarban) 113 58.3 1.74 11.6

Pedon 3 (Assalpani) 120 31.8 1.70 10.4

Pedon 4 (Bagarban) 118 44.2 1.78 9.8

Transect-II (Aamgaon)

Pedon 5 (Waghdongari) 115 42.7 1.53 11.6

Pedon 6 (Waghdongari) 125 48.0 1.88 14.2

Pedon 7 (Pauldauna) 127 22.1 1.68 11.7

Pedon 8 (Pauldauna) 105 49.6 1.86 11.5

Transect-III (Salekasa)

Pedon 9 (Salekasa) 116 55.0 1.42 11.4

Pedon 10 (Nimba) 117 40.8 1.43 12.6

Pedon 11 (Nimba) 110 42.3 1.45 11.2

Pedon 12 (Nimba naka) 80 29.3 1.47 13.1

The surface soils were acidic with pH ranging from 4.94 to 6.26. Wide variation was

observed in organic matter concentration. Forest soils were richer in organic carbon

concentration (0.77 to 2.51 %) than the paddy growing soils (0.32 to 0.68 %). Irrespective of

land use, the soils were found to be inadequate in nutrient stock.

Table 2: Chemical properties of soils (weighted average)

Pedon No.

(Site)

Depth pH EC OC CaC

O3

Exchangeable cations CEC

[cmol(p+)kg-1]

(%) Ca Mg Na K


Pedon 1

(Assalpani)

110 6.47 0.04 0.54 0.71 15.8 8.5 0.26 0.16 30.6

Pedon 2

(Bagarban)

113 6.49 0.04 0.25 0.70 17.3 10.9 0.29 0.59 46.1

Pedon 3

(Assalpani)

120 6.32 0.03 0.37 0.29 13.5 6.8 0.27 0.27 24.7

Pedon 4

(Bagarban)

118 6.65 0.04 0.28 0.56 13.3 4.4 0.43 0.19 25.6


Pedon 5

(Waghdongari)

115 6.31 0.07 0.56 0.32 12.1 4.9 0.22 0.23 25.9

Pedon 6 125 7.52 0.08 0.21 1.14 19.2 4.6 0.31 0.29 28.0




(Waghdongari)

Pedon 7

(Pauldauna)

127 5.82 0.06 0.31 0.07 8.3 4.3 0.34 0.16 18.6

Pedon 8

(Pauldauna)

105 5.85 0.04 0.32 0.22 12.1 7.7 0.50 0.32 37.9


Pedon 9

(Salekasa)

116 5.91 0.06 1.19 0.04 17.6 8.2 0.35 0.33 32.6

Pedon 10

(Nimba)

117 6.55 0.12 0.23 0.19 7.3 4.1 0.45 0.35 22.5

Pedon 11 (Nimba) 110 6.21 0.08 0.32 0.0 6.8 3.9 0.42 0.29 18.5

Pedon 12 (Nimba

naka)

80 5.91 0.11 0.40 0.05 7.2 1.7 0.33 0.24 14.9

Forest soils, being the least disturbed by anthropogenic activities like agriculture, were

selected as control for the present study. In each of the three transects chosen, a forest soil

(contiguous to the cropland) was identified as control. The soils of dense forest (Control)

were found to hold the highest SOC stock of 50.19 tons/ha followed by those of open forests

(ranging from 12.99 to 15.86 tons/ha). The SOC stocks in the recently converted forest to

paddy ranged from 6.29 to 9.29 tons/ha. The SOC stocks of 50 and 100 years old paddy

growing soils varied narrowly and ranged from 11.57 to 13.34 tons/ha. The estimates of

SOC stocks clearly indicate that recent (more than 10 years) conversion of forestland into

agriculture (namely paddy) resulted in huge loss of SOC (Ranging from 45.8 to 81.5 %of

control soil) in the surface soil to a depth of 30 cm. The SIC pools were very low and

showed considerable variation both spatially and vertically. Low SIC stock is attributed to

the acidic nature of the soils.

Table 3: Soil carbon stock (tons/ha) for 30 cm depths

Profile No Land use SOC SIC TC


P1 Open forest 15.86 0.81 16.67

P2 More than 10 years paddy cultivation (Rainfed) 8.60 0.67 9.27

P3 More than 50 years Paddy cultivation (Rainfed) 11.63 0.68 12.31



P5 Open forest 12.99 0.48 13.48


P7 More than 50 yrs paddy (Irrigated) 12.59 0.0 12.59



P9 Dense forest 50.19 0.0 50.19






P12 More than 100 years paddy cultivation (Irrigated) 13.34 0.0 13.34

A positive impact of the duration of paddy cultivation on SOC stock was noticed where there

was a gain of SOC stock (ranging from 34.5 to 100.1% to a depth of 30 cm) in soils under

paddy for more than 50 years as compared to that under the same crop for over 10 years. The

SOC stocks showed narrow variations among the soils under paddy for more than 50 years

and those of 100 years indicating that minimum duration of 50 years is required for

stabilizing SOC under the present pedo-climatic settings. Irrigated paddy was found to

sequester more SOC as compared to rainfed paddy. The SOC stock estimates revealed that

most soils are much below their potential level because of huge carbon loss. Therefore, the

scope of sequestering organic carbon in these soils is immense. The potential to sequester

organic carbon in the soils under open forest was estimated to the tune of 34.3 to 37.2

tons/ha by way of good management practices. Recently converted forestland into

agriculture resulted in huge loss of SOC stock, ranging from 6.3 to 40.9 tons/ha in the

surface soil to a depth of 30 cm. These are most affected soils where SOC can be sequestered

well to the extent ranging from 6.7 to 40.9 tons/ha following modern methods of cultivation

instead of traditional ones. Although the soils under paddy cultivation over 50 years showed

a state of SOC stabilization (SOC pools ranged between 11.57 and 13.34 tons/ha), good

management /intervention strategies can improve organic carbon health of these soils by

sequestering SOC to the extent of 36.8 to 37.6 tons/ha.

The soils under the open forest also exhibited considerable loss of SOC due to soil erosion

and lack of soil conservation measures. These soils need immediate and adequate attention to

control soil erosion and enhance SOC through sequestration. Nevertheless, the soils under

dense forest too deserve due care to elevate its existing SOC stocks by way of proper

management and maintaining the bio-diversity. Conversion from natural to agricultural

ecosystems changes soil organic carbon (SOC) pools, the magnitude of changes depends on

land use, management, and ecological factors, such as, temperature, precipitation, soil types

and native vegetation. Quantification of changes in the SOC pool as a result of agricultural

land use provides a reference point regarding sequestration potential of SOC through

improved management. The results conclusively indicate that the soils those are recently

brought under plough (paddy) lost their SOC the most. Therefore, these soils need to be

prioritized for carbon sequestration followed by the soils under paddy for over 50 years.

Balanced fertilization in combination with FYM could be the possible best option for

sequestering SOC in these soils.

Setting the baseline is important for SOC stock estimation and comparing the C

sequestration potential of various land use systems. Variation in SOC and nutrient

distribution with depth are the result of interaction of complex processes such as land

management, biological cycling, leaching, illuviation, soil erosion, weathering of minerals,

atmospheric deposition, application of fertilizers and FYM.

Several researchers (e.g. Larson and Pierce 1994, Andrews et al. 2002) have pointed out that

SOC is the most important indicator of soil quality because it determines many of the

physical, chemical and biological soil properties (Wang et al.2003). Similarly, BD influences

agriculture by restricting air and water movement, and has been recognized as a key attribute

of soil quality indicator (e.g. Andrews et al. 2002, Fu et al. 2004, Awasthi et al. 2005).




4. Conclusions

As the area is homogenous, the differences in estimated SOC stock were caused by different

land use systems and or land use pattern and the management practices. Soil in forest showed

higher soil organic carbon than rice cultivated land. SOC increased as the duration increased

from 10 years to 50 years and then no further because it reached to a new equilibrium value.

Therefore further increase in SOC stock after 50 years is very rare.

In view of benefiting soil resources, this study demonstrates that conversion from natural to

agricultural ecosystem brings in a considerable loss in SOC stock. Moreover, since most soils

in the present investigation are much below their potential level in SOC stock (because of

huge carbon loss), the scope of sequestering organic carbon in these soils is immense. Further,

the stabilization of SOC stock in soils that remained under paddy cultivation for a period of

more than 50 years under the existing conditions point at the maximum sequestration

potential of these soils. Any endeavour to further sequester carbon beyond this limit will call

for improved management strategies and hence the regional government should give

emphasis and policy priority toward sequestering carbon stock in the efforts of improving

environmental degradation

Acknowledgments

Authors are grateful to the Director, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning,

Nagpur and Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola.

5. References

1. Agarwal, G.C., A.S. Sidhu, N.K. Sekhon, K.S. Sandhu, and H.S. Sur. (1995),

Puddling and N management effect on crop response in rice-wheat cropping system.

Soil and tillage research 36, pp 129-139.

2. Andrews, J. A., Matamala, R., Westover, K. M. and Schlesinger, W. H., (2000),

Temperature effects on the diversity of soil heterotrophs and the delta 13C of soil

respired CO2. Soil biology and biochemisrty, 32, pp 699–706.

3. Andrews, S. S., Karlen, D. L., and Mitchell, J. P., (2002), A comparison of soil

quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in Northern California.

Agriculture, Ecosystems and environment, 90, pp 25-45.

4. Awasthi, K. D., Singh, B. R., and Sitaula, B. K., (2005), Profile carbon and nutrient

levels and management effect on soil quality indicators in the Mardi watershed of

Nepal. Acta Agriculture Scandinavica section b-soil and plant, 55, pp 192-204.

5. Batjes, N. H., (1996), Total carbon and nitrogen in the soil of world. European journal

of soil science, 47, pp 151-163.

6. Bhadwal, S. and R. Singh., (2002). Carbon sequestration estimates for forestry

options under different land-use scenarios in India. Current science, 83(11), pp 1380-

1386.

7. Bhattacharyya, T., D. K. Pal, M. Velayutham, P. Chandran, and C. Mandal., (2000),

Total carbon stock in Indian soils: priorities and management. In : Special publication

of the International seminar on land resource management for food, Employment and




environment security (ICLRM), Soil conservation society of India, New Delhi, pp 1-

46.

8. Bouwman, A.F. and Leemans, R., (1995), The role of forest soils in the global carbon

cycle. In: McFee, W., Kelly, J.M. (Eds.), Carbon forms and functions in forest soils.

Soil science society American, Madison, WI, pp 503–525.

9. Chandran, P., S. K. Ray, S. L. Druge, P. Raja, A. M. Nimkar ,T. Bhattacharyya and D.

K. Pal., (2009), Scope of horticultural land-use system in enhancing carbon

sequestration in ferruginous soils of the semi-arid tropics. Current science, 97(7), pp

1039-1046.

10. Davidson, E.A., Trumbore, S.E. and Amundson, R., (2000), Soil warming and organic

carbon content. Nature. 408, pp 789-790.

11. Detwiler, R.P. and Hall, C.A.S., (1988), Tropical forests and the global carbon cycle.

Science, 239, pp 42–47.

12. Diack, M. and Stott, D. E., (2001), Development of soil quality index for the

Chalmers silty clay loam from the Midwest USA, In D. E. Stott, R. H. Mohtar, and G.

C. Steinhardt (eds.), Sustaining the global farm. Selected papers from the 10th

International soil conservation organization meeting held on May 24_29, 1999 at

Purdue University and the USDA-ARS National soil erosion laboratory, pp 550-555.

13. Doran, J. W. and Parkin, J. B., (1994), Defining and assessing soil quality. In: J. W.

Doran, D. C. Coleman, D. F. Bezdicek, and B. A. Stewart (Eds.), Defining soil quality

for sustainable environment, pp3-21. Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) special

publication No. 35. Madison, WI: ASA and SSSA.

14. Eswaran, H., Berg, E. V. and Reich, P., (1993), Organic carbon in soil of the world.

Soil science society of America journal, 57, pp 192-194.

15. Fu, B. J., Liu, S. L., Chen, L. D., Lu, Y. H., and Qiu, J., (2004), Soil quality regime in

relation to land cover and slope position across a highly modified slope landscape.

Ecological research, 19, pp 111-118.

16. Gong, J., Chen, L., Fu, B., Huang, Y., Huang, Z., and Penh, H., (2006), Effect of land

use on soil nutrients in the loess hilly area of the Loess Plateau, China. Land

degradation and development, 17, pp 453-465.

17. Guo, L. B., and Gifford, M., (2002), Soil carbon stocks and land use change: A meta

analysis. Global change biology, 8, pp 345-360.

18. Gupta, R. K., and D. L. N. Rao., (1994), Potential of wastelands for sequestering

carbon by reforestation. Current science, 66, pp 378-380.

19. Hobbs, P.R. and R.K. Gupta., (2000), Sustainable resource management in intensively

cultivated irrigated rice-wheat cropping systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South

Asia. Strategies and options. P. 157. In A.K. Singh(ed.). Proc. Int. Conf. Managing

Res. For Sustainable Agric. Prod. In the 21st Century. New Delhi, India. 14-18 Feb.

2000. Indian Soc., Soil Sci., New Delhi, India.




20. Houghton, R. A., (1990), The future role of tropical forests in affecting the carbon

dioxide concentration of the atmosphere, Ambio., 19, pp 204-209.

21. Houghton, R. A., (2005), Aboveground forest biomass and the global carbon balance.

Global change biology, 11, pp 945-958.

22. Jabaggy, E. G., and Jackson, R. B., (2000), The vertical distribution of soil organic

carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecological application, 10, pp 423–

436.

23. Jackson, M. L., (1973), Soil chemical analysis, Prentice Hall India Limited, New

Delhi.

24. Katyal, J.C., Rao, N. H. and Reddy, M. N., (2001), Critical aspects of organic matter

management in the tropics: the example of India. Nutrient cycles in agro ecology, 61,

pp 77-88.

25. Kaul, M., G. M. J. Mohren and V. K. Dadhwal., (2010), Carbon storage versus fossil

fuel substitution: a climate change mitigation option for two different land use

categories based on short and long rotation forestry in India. Mitigating adaptation

strategy. Global change, 15, pp 395–409.

26. Lal, R., (1997), Residue management, conservation tillage, and soil restoration

formitigating green house effect by CO2 enrichment. Soil and tillage research, 43, pp

81–107.

27. Lal, R., (2002 b), Soil carbon dynamics in cropland and rangeland. Environmental

pollution, 116, pp 353-362.

28. Lal, R., (2002), The potential of soils of the tropics to sequester carbon and mitigate

the greenhouse effect. Advances in agronomy, 74, pp 155-192.

29. Lal, R., Follett, R. F. and Kimble, J., (2003), Achieving soil carbon sequestration in

the U.S: A challenge to the policy makers. Soil science, 168, pp 827–845.

30. Lal, R., Kimble, J., Levine, E. and Whitman, C., (1995), Towards improving the

global database on soil carbon. In ‘Soil and global change’. (Eds R. Lal, J. Kimble, E.

Levine, BA Stewart) CRC Press, London, p 433.

31. Larson, W. E., and Pierce, F. J., (1994), The dynamic of soil quality as a measure of

sustainable management. In J. W. Doran, et al. (eds.), Defining soil quality for

sustainable environments, pp37-51. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.

32. Melillo, J. M., Steudler, P. A., Aber, J. D., Newkirk, K., Lux, H. , Bowles, F. P.,

Catricala, C., Magill, A., Ahrens, T. and Morrisseau, S., (2002), Soil warming and

carbon-cycle feedbacks to the climate system. Science, 298, pp 2173–2176.

33. Mulugeta, L., Karltun, E., and Olsson, M., (2005), Soil organic matter dynamics after

deforestation along a farm field chronosequence in southern highlands of Ethiopia.

Agriculture, Ecosystems and environment, 109, pp 9-19.




34. Pathak, H., K. Byjesh, B. Chakrabarti and P. K. Aggarwal., (2011), Potential and cost

of carbon sequestration in Indian agriculture: Estimates from long-term field

experiments. Field crops research, 120, pp 102-111.

35. Post, W. M, and Mann, L. K., (1990), Changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen as

a result of cultivation. In: soils and the Greenhouse Effect (ed.Bouw-man A.F) Jhon

wiley and sons New York, pp 401-406.

36. Post, W. M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J. and Stangenberger, A.G., (1982), Soil

carbon pool and world life zones. Nature, 298, pp 156–159.

37. Prentice, I.C., (2001), The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Climate

Change 2001: The Scientific Basis IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

UK, pp 183–237.

38. Richter, D. D., Markewitz, D., Wells, C. G., Allen, H.L. , Dunscombe, J.K.,

Harrison, K., Heine, P. R., Stuanes, A., Urrego, B. and Bonani, G., (1995), Carbon

cycling in a loblolly pine forest: implications for missing carbon sink and for the

concept of soil. In: McFee, W., Kelly, J. M. (Eds.), Carbon forms and functions in

forest soils. Soil science society American, Madison, WI, pp 233– 251.

39. Scherr, S., (1999), Soil degradation: A threat to developing-country food security by

2020? (Discussion Paper 27). International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),

Washington, DC, USA.

40. Schlesinger, W.H., (1985), Changes in soil carbon storage and associated properties

with disturbance and recovery. In: The changing carbon cycle: A global analysis (eds

Trabalka JR, Reichle DE), Springer-Verlag, New York.

41. Sedjo, R. A., (1992), Temperate forest ecosystems in the global carbon cycle. Ambio.

21, pp 274–277.

42. Sharma, P.K. and S.K. De Datta., (1985), Puddling influence on soil, rice

development and yield. Soil science society of America journal, 49, pp 451-1457

43. Shrestha, B. M., Situla, B. K., Singh, B. R., and Bajracharya, R. M., (2004), Soil

organic carbon stocks in soil aggregates under different land use systems in Nepal.

Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems, 70, pp 201-203.

44. Singh, B. R., and Lal, R., (2005), The potential of soil carbon sequestration through

improved management practices in Norway. Environment development and

sustainability, 7, pp 161-184.

45. Solomon, D., F. Fritzsche, J. Lehmann, M. Tekalign and W. Zech., (2002), Soil

organic matter dynamics in the subhumid agroecosystems of the Ethiopian highlands:

evidence from natural 13C abundance and particle-size fractionation. Soil science

society of America journal, 66, pp 969-978.

46. Solomon, D., Lehmann, J., and Zech, W., (2000), Land use effects on soil organic

matter properties of chromic Luvisols in semi-arid northern Tanzania: carbon,

nitrogen, lignin and carbohydrates. Agriculture. Ecosystems and environment, 78, pp

203-213.




47. Sombroek, W. G., Nachtergaele, F. O., and Hebel, A., (1993), Amount dynamics and

sequestering of carbon in tropical and subtropical soils. Ambio, 22, pp 417-426.

48. Syers, J. K., Lingard, J., Pieri, J. and Ezcurra, G., (1996), Sustainable land

management for the semiarid and sub-humid tropics. Ambio. 25, pp 484–491.

49. Wang, J., Fu, B., Qiu, Y., and Chen, L., (2003), Analysis on soil nutrient

characteristics for sustainable land use in Danangou catchment of the Loess Plateau,

China. Catena, 54, pp 17-29.

50. Warkentin, B. P., (1995), The changing concept of soil quality. Soil water

conservation, 50, pp 226-228.

changes in soil organic carbon stock as an effect of land ... · changes in soil organic carbon...

Documents