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International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 216 (2013) 88– 90

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hygiene andEnvironmental Health

j o ur nal homep age: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / i jheh

hort communication

hallenges in setting up a potable water supply system in a United Nationseacekeeping mission: The South Sudan experience

niruddha Hazraa,b,∗

Indian Level – II Hospital, United Nations Mission in Sudan, Upper Nile State, South SudanDepartment of Community Medicine, Armed Forces Medical College, Pune 411040, India

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 17 August 2011eceived in revised form 17 May 2012ccepted 24 May 2012

eywords:rinking waternited Nationseacekeeping mission

a b s t r a c t

Problem: A United Nations peacekeeping contingent was deployed in the conflict affected areas of SouthSudan with inadequate environmental sanitation, lack of clean drinking water and a heightened riskof water-borne diseases. In the immediate post-deployment phase, the contingent-owned water purifi-cation system was pressed into service. However, laboratory analyses of processed water revealed itsunsuitability for human consumption.Approach: A systematic, sanitary survey was conducted to identify the shortcomings in the water supplysystem’s ability to provide potable water. Under field conditions, the ‘H2S method’ was used to detectfaecal contamination of drinking water.Local setting: The raw water from the only available source, the White Nile River, was highly turbid andcontaminated by intestinal and other pathogens due to an unprotected watershed. Water sterilizingpowder was not readily available in the local area to replenish the existing stocks that had deterioratedduring the long transit period from the troop contributing country. The water pipelines that had beenlaid along the ground, under water-logged conditions, were prone to microbial recontamination due toleakages in the network.

Relevant changes: The critical evaluation of the water supply system and necessary modifications in thepurification process, based upon locally available options, yielded safe drinking water.Lessons learnt: . Provision of safe drinking water in the mission area requires an in-depth analysis ofprevailing conditions and appropriate planning in the pre-deployment phase. The chemicals for waterpurification should be procured through UN sources via a ‘letter of assist’ request from the troop contrib-utor.

ntroduction

In a number of United Nations (UN) field missions, the Memo-andum of Understanding between the troop contributing countryTCC) and the United Nations (as per the terms and conditions of

‘wet-lease’ agreement) stipulates that providing the source ofater is the responsibility of the UN whereas, the purification and

urther distribution of drinking water to troops is the responsibilityf the TCC (UNDPKO, 2005). Therefore, the water purification andtorage equipment, chemicals for water purification, spare parts

Abbreviations: UN, United Nations; TCC, troop contributing country; UNMIS,nited Nations mission in Sudan; H2S, hydrogen sulphide; NTU, nephalometric tur-idity unit; RO, reverse osmosis; PVC, poly-vinyl chloride; UNOE, United Nationswned equipment; WSP, water safety plan.∗ Correspondence address: Department of Community Medicine, Armed Forcesedical College, Pune 411040, India. Tel.: +91 9216223757; fax: +91 2026333065.

E-mail address: drhazra@hotmail.com

438-4639/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.05.008

© 2012 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

and consumables have to be provisioned by the TCC and carried tothe mission area by the peacekeeping contingent.

In the recent past, an Indian military peacekeeping contingentwas deployed as a part of United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS)in the Upper Nile State of South Sudan. The region has an equatorialclimate, with high temperatures, high rainfall and very high humid-ity. The White Nile River is the pre-dominant geographic feature ofSouth Sudan and most of the settlements are clustered around thissource of water. The region has clayey soil and during the rainyseason there is a serious problem of water-logging and slush. Theconflict affected areas of South Sudan with poor sanitation, lack ofclean drinking water and overcrowded living conditions are at anincreased risk of water-borne diseases like cholera (WHO, 2005).

In the initial days of the post-deployment phase, packageddrinking water was supplied to the peacekeeping troops by the

UN. In due course of time, contingent-owned water purificationsystems were pressed into service. However, the laboratory anal-yses of drinking water samples collected from various points ofuse showed that same were unfit for human consumption. It was

A. Hazra / International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 216 (2013) 88– 90 89

Table 1Laboratory reports of water samples tested.

Source of water sample Bacteriological examination results (H2S method)a Turbiditya

Raw water from the source (White Nile River) Presence of Salmonella, Citrobacter and Escherichia coli detected 40 NTUWater sample from team – site A (after RO treatment) Presence of Citrobacter and Salmonella detected NAWater sample from team – site B (after RO treatment) Presence of Escherichia coli detected NA

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As per WHO guidelines for drinking water quality: (a) E. coli or thermotolerarinking; (b) for effective terminal disinfection, turbidity should be ≤5 NTU.

ecommended that the troops should be supplied with packagedrinking water until the shortcomings in the water supply systemere redressed.

The most effective means of consistently ensuring the safety of drinking-water supply is through the use of a comprehensive riskssessment and risk management approach that encompasses allteps in water supply from catchment to consumer and such anpproach is known as a water safety plan (WSP) (WHO, 2011).

ethods

A systematic, sanitary survey was carried out by the authoro evaluate the quality of water supply, as per the Unitedtates Environmental Protection Agency guidance manual (U.S.nvironmental Protection Agency, 1999). The survey included theater supply system’s source, treatment, distribution network,

torage and laboratory results of the bacteriological quality of waterntended for drinking purposes, with the purpose of identifying theeficiencies that were adversely affecting the water system’s abilityo provide safe drinking water. In the field laboratory in the missionrea, the ‘hydrogen sulphide (H2S) method’ test kit was used as anndicator of faecal contamination of drinking water (WHO, 2003;upta et al., 2008).

esults

The findings of the survey were as follows:

(i) Risk assessment of the source of water. The source of collectionof drinking water was the White Nile River. The water col-lection point was downstream of the local settlement withrun off of surface waste water across the township as wellas significant bather density and defaecation/urination on thebanks of the river. The unprotected watershed also providedeasy access to domestic cattle to the banks of the river. Thewater at this point was highly turbid (up to 40 NTU) andpathogens such as Salmonella, Citrobacter and Escherichia coli

were detected by the H2S method (see Table 1). The feasibil-ity of collecting water from an alternate site, upstream of thesettlement, was explored however; the approach was througha dirt road which was practically un-motorable in the rainy

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the modified po

form bacteria must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample of water intended for

season due to intense, water-logging and knee-deep slush.The problem was further compounded by the fact that therewas a widespread threat of landmines in the region and onlyroads/tracks that had been cleared by the mine action groupwere certified fit for use by UN personnel.

(ii) Problems with water treatment. The source of water had avery high load of microorganisms which was possibly cloggingreverse osmosis (RO) membranes and causing bio-fouling. TheRO Plant that was being used by the TCC had an activated car-bon pre-filter. The same was being used on non-chlorinatedwater supplies. This provided a place for microorganisms tomultiply and possibly led to increased bio-fouling of the ROmembrane surface (Kneen et al., 2005). There was limitedscope for chlorination of water due to the non-availabilityof fresh water sterilizing powder/chlorine gas in the area ofdeployment. The existing stocks of bleaching powder with theTCC had become crystalline due to exposure to heat and humid-ity in the long period in transit from the country of origin tothe mission area. The same had very little available chlorine tobe effective in disinfection of water.

iii) Risk assessment of the water distribution network. The waterwas distributed from the water purification plant to the drink-ing water storage tanks through flexible PVC pipes. Thesepipes were laid on the ground through water-logged areasand had ad-hoc joints that were prone to leakages. In thesystem of intermittent water supply, negative pressures devel-oped inside the pipes when water was not being pumpedthrough them. This probably led to siphoning of contaminatedwater from the surrounding area into the water supply systemthrough the leaky joints in the PVC pipes.

(iv) Problems with RO processed water storage. The RO processedwater entered the storage tank by means of flexible PVCpipe through an open hatch on top. In the absence of properscreening of this opening there was a likelihood of recon-tamination of water at this point by dust, rain, insects, birddroppings and microorganisms. In the absence of any disinfect-ant residual in the water, the pathogens entering the system

at this point due to recontamination could not be dealt with.The design of the polymer water storage tanks with a singlehatch on top was not amenable to periodic cleaning of internalsurfaces as there was no outlet at the bottom.

table water supply used in a UN field mission.

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elevant changes

The main shortcomings in the water supply system that neededo be rectified were: (i) to find a suitable site or source for collectionf raw water; (ii) to reduce the turbidity of water prior to filtration;iii) to chlorinate the water; (iv) to provide a water-tight networkf distribution pipes; (v) to modify the design of processed watertorage tanks. A brief description of the relevant changes that wereade to improve the quality of drinking water (Fig. 1) is presented

n the succeeding paragraphs.Under the prevailing circumstances, it was not straight away

easible to find an alternate site for collection of water from thehite Nile River, in the vicinity of the camp-site. Therefore, it was

ecommended to the UN Sector Engineer to explore the possibil-ty of drilling deep bore wells, sited away from potential sources ofontamination. Since required spares and consumables to augmenthe water supply system were not available in the local setting,resh stocks of alum, bleaching powder and additional water pumpsere requisitioned and shipped on an urgent basis from the TCC.ther essential stores like rigid PVC pipes, joints and collapsibleater storage tanks were made available from the sector engineer-

ng stores [UN owned equipment (UNOE)]. Provision was made forlum flocculation of river water and further sedimentation in theollapsible water tanks. The supernatant water from sedimenta-ion tanks was pumped into another set of interconnected, polymerater storage tanks and calculated dose of bleaching powder solu-

ion was added for chlorination. After a contact period of one hour,he water was pumped into the reverse osmosis plant, equippedith an activated carbon pre-filter to eliminate the risk of free chlo-

ine damage to the semi-permeable RO membrane. A network ofater-tight, rigid and fixed PVC pipes (raised over ground) was laid

rom point of entry to the intended points of use of drinking water.he RO plant was also relocated closer to the intended points ofse. Special modifications were also made to the processed watertorage tanks, to include an inlet (separate from the top hatch) andwo outlets viz. one for the water dispensing tap and another athe bottom of tank to facilitate run-off of water used for periodicleaning of the tanks.

onclusion

The critical evaluation of the water supply system and theelevant modifications in the purification process facilitated the

vailability of safe drinking water to the UN peacekeeping con-ingent, as was substantiated by subsequent laboratory analysesf water samples. However, this vital aspect requires an in-depthnalysis of prevailing conditions and appropriate planning in the

Environmental Health 216 (2013) 88– 90

pre-deployment phase. It is also recommended that the chemicalsfor water purification such as alum, bleaching powder, chlorinetablets etc. should be procured through UN sources (as is the casewith fuel and food items) via a ‘letter of assist’ request from thetroop contributor (UNDPKO, 2005). Safe drinking water is a basichuman need and a prerequisite for ensuring optimal health ofpeacekeeping personnel.

Summary of the main lessons learnt.

• It may not always be possible to select a suitable source ofdrinking water or utilize a standard method for water treat-ment in conflict affected areas due to the limitations imposedby the prevailing conditions.

• In order to ensure availability of safe drinking water in UNpeacekeeping missions, it is imperative to carry out an in-depth analysis of the local setting along with meticulousplanning for provisioning of appropriate water purificationequipment and stores in the pre-deployment phase.

• The chemicals for water purification, being an essentialrequirement in the mission area, should be procured throughUN sources (as is the case with fuel and food items) via a“letter of assist” request from the TCC.

References

UNDPKO (United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations), 2005. Man-ual on policies and procedures concerning the reimbursement and controlof contingent-owned equipment of troop/police contributors participatingin peacekeeping missions (COE Manual). United Nations document No.A/C.5/60/26.

WHO (World Health Organisation), 2005. Infectious Disease Risk Pro-file for Sudan (accessed 15.01.11) http://www.emro.who.int/sudan/pdf/InfectiousDiseaseRiskProfileforSudan.pdf.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999. Guidance Manual for Conducting San-itary Surveys of Public Water Systems—Surface Water and Ground Water Underthe Direct Influence (GWUDI). Office of Water, Washington, DC, EPA 815-R-99-016.

WHO (World Health Organisation), 2003. Emerging Issues in Water andInfectious Disease (accessed 02.02.11) http://www.who.int/watersanitation health/emerging/emerging.pdf.

Gupta, S.K., et al., 2008. Usefulness of the hydrogen sulfide test for assessment ofwater quality in Bangladesh. J. Appl. Microbiol. 104 (2), 388–395.

Kneen, B., Lemley, A., Wagenet, L., 2005. Reverse Osmosis Treatment ofDrinking Water (Fact Sheet 4, updated November 2005). Cornell Coop-

erative Extension, New York State College of Human Ecology, New York(accessed 15.01.11) http://waterquality.cce.cornell.edu/publications/CCEWQ-04-ReverseOsmosisWtrTrt.pdf.

WHO (World Health Organisation), 2011. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality,4th ed.