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Challenges and opportunities forwater resources management insoutheast AsiaASHIM DAS GUPTA aa Water Engineering and Management Program, Asian Instituteof Technology , PO Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120,Thailand E-mail:Published online: 29 Dec 2009.

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Hydrological Sciences-Journal-ées Sciences Hydrologiques, 46(6) December 2001 923 Special issue: Can Science and Society Avert the World Water Crisis in the 21st Century?

Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia

ASHIM DAS GUPTA Water Engineering and Management Program, Asian Institute of Technology, PO Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand e-mail: adg@ait.ac.th

Abstract The issues of water resources management are addressed with specific reference to the available water resources and water demand for the Chao Phraya River basin in Thailand. The water resources management practices in most of the countries in southeast Asia have been generally on a sectoral level without con­sideration of any intersectoral interference and trade-off. A change of paradigm is needed with a holistic approach giving due regard to the requirement of equitable distribution of water, adequate governance, efficient economic performance and maintenance of environmental quality. Technological intervention, probable institu­tional reforms, community participation, water conservation and re-use, water policy and legal frameworks are some of the feasible measures that provide opportunities to evolve a systematic approach to water resources management.

Key words water resources management; Chao Phraya River; water budget; water demand; water shortage

Défis et opportunités pour la gestion de la ressource en eau en Asie du Sud-Est Résumé Cet article traite des problèmes liés à la gestion des ressources en eau en faisant plus particulièrement référence aux ressources disponibles et à la demande en eau dans le bassin du fleuve Chao Phraya en Thaïlande. Dans la plupart des pays d'Asie du Sud-Est, les pratiques de gestion des ressources en eau ont été généralement menées de manière sectorielle, sans considération d'aucune interférence ni de transaction inter-sectorielles. Un changement de paradigme dans une approche holistique est requis, qui s'appuierait sur une distribution équitable de l'eau, la pertinence de l'autorité de gestion, l'efficacité de la performance économique et le maintien de la qualité environnementale. L'intervention technologique, de probables réformes institutionnelles, la participation communautaire, la conservation et la réutilisation de l'eau, la politique de l'eau et le cadre législatif sont quelques unes des mesures propres à améliorer l'approche systémique de la gestion des ressources en eau.

Mots clefs gestion des ressources en eau; fleuve Chao Phraya; bilan hydrologique; demande et manque d'eau; défis

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater is essential for human survival. It has contributed significantly to the attainment of development goals in various sectors of the plans of many different countries. Over the years, water demands for domestic and municipal use, for agricultural purposes and for industrial processes have been steadily increasing. However, the quantities of water that any country can economically develop on a long-term basis unfortunately continue to remain limited. Moreover, the quality of the available water resources is increasingly degraded in many areas due to the large volume of industrial and other wastes from human activities being disposed of to the environ-

Openfor discussion until 1 June 2002

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924 Ashim Das Gupta

ment without much treatment. Under these circumstances, water management practices have to be significantly more efficient in order to ensure a continued adequate water supply for present and future needs. This certainly is a complex challenge for water management professionals in the 21st century.

Three broad categories of activities are distinguished in the water sector. Two of them have to do with the construction of the hydraulic infrastructure and with operating and maintaining that infrastructure: water resources development covers intake works, dams, wells, canals, weirs etc. and water conservation and control covers works for drainage, water level control, flood control, water quality control, water treatment etc. The third category, water resources management, is rather different. It requires an inte­grated approach to water. It encompasses policy development and involves the prepara­tion of national and regional development and management plans. It provides a balanced planning framework for the entire water sector, in order to optimize water use and water control in time and space, among present and future water users. It also includes the implementation of these plans, i.e. through institutional measures and by coordinating the construction of hydraulic works.

The need for water resources management is often related to four main factors. The first is the desirability of achieving equitable distribution of (scarce) water among the users. This principle of equity is a dominant factor in the development assistance programmes of many external support agencies. The second factor is the importance of the economic optimization of water use now and in the future: for example, by choosing between allocating water to irrigation or to power generation. In many parts of the world such problems of allocation have to be faced not only nationally, but also across frontiers. The prevention of hazards and other negative environmental impacts is a third factor. The results of many case studies suggest that, unless effective management measures are taken now, we will have to pay very dearly in the medium to long term. Finally, the fourth factor is, of course, the need for the long-term sustainability of water resources and of the water supply facilities. This aspect, in particular, is often neglected in groundwater development where storage depletion, sea water intrusion, and gradual contamination may lead to irrevocable loss of essential resources. Starting with a regional perspective of water and development, a compre­hensive review of available water resources and water demand for a specific river basin reflects the challenges facing the professionals dealing with water resources management. Technological intervention, probable institutional reforms, water policy and legal frameworks provide the opportunities to embark on a systematic approach to water resources management with a focus on sound and efficient water use.

REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER AND DEVELOPMENT

Southeast Asia consists of nine countries, namely Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. The areal extent of the region is 4.3 million km2 and the total population is 500 million, predicted to grow to 600 million by the year 2025. Topographically, each country has a substantial extent of fluvial deposits with very fertile land ideal for agricultural production. In spite of the fact that the region has some important areas for global grain production and export, such as Thailand's Central Plain, the region is a net grain importer (Varis, 1999).

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 925

There are several important rivers in the region contributing significantly to the growth and development of the riparian countries. Two important international rivers, the Mekong and the Salween, run through the region. Both have their sources in Tibet. The Mekong River originates in the snow-covered mountains of the Tibetan Plateau of the Yunnan Province of China. The special feature of the river is that it covers a portion of China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and almost the entire territories of Laos and Cambodia through its 4200 km length. The four riparian countries in the Lower Mekong basin: Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam contribute a drainage area of 620 000 km2 which is about 78% of the basin's total area (795 000 km2) (Hori, 1993). The Salween River travels through the south of China, the east of Myanmar, the west of Thailand and along the border of Thailand and Myanmar. From the Thai border, the river again flows in the territory of Myanmar before discharging into the Andaman Sea. Both river systems have substantial water resources potential which could be used effectively for the social and economic development of the region.

The estimated availability of water resources on average in the region is quite substantial compared to the world and Asian averages as shown in Table 1. However, there is a large variation between countries in average annual surface water availability per capita, with Thailand having the lowest amount of 2980 m3 in 1998, as estimated by the Water Resources Institute (WRI, 1998). The most important and largest river basin in Thailand is the Chao Phraya basin. The basin is the heart of the agricultural and economic activities in the country. The demand for water for agricultural and non-agricultural sectors has increased rapidly in recent years and the basin often faces acute shortages of water, especially in the dry season. A comprehensive review of available water resources and water demand in the Chao Phraya basin, adapted from Vatcharasinthu & Babel (in press), is provided in the following section.

Table 1 Annual average water availability (WRI, 1998).

•gion/country

orld ;ia Thailand Cambodia Laos Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar The Philippines Vietnam

Total volume (km3) 41022 13 207

179 498 270

2 530 456

1082 323 376

Availability in m3 per capita in 1995 6 918 3 680 3 680 8 195

50 392 12 251 21259 22 719 4 476 4 827

THE CHAO PHRAYA BASIN, THAILAND

The River Chao Phraya, which traverses the central plain of Thailand, has played an important role in the economic development of the country. The basin has a total drainage area of 157 925 km2, including the major tributary sub-basins of Ping, Wang, Yom, Nan, Pasak and Sakae Krang, and Tha Chin. The annual natural runoff volume is estimated at about 37 120 Mm3, which is the major source of water for various users to

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926 Ashim Das Gupta

Table 2 Annual average runoff in the Chao Phraya basin (Vatcharasinthu & Babel, in press).

Sub-basin

Ping Wang Yom Nan Sakae Krang Pasak Tha Chin Chao Phraya main stream Chao Phraya basin

Catchment area (km2) 33 898 10 791 23 616 34 330 5 191

16 292 13 682 20 125

157 925

Population (million)

2.385 0.718 1.711 2.355 0.461 1.341 2.572

11.477 23.020

Total runoff volume (Mm3) 9 073 1624 3 684

11936 1096 2 823 2 449 4 435

37 120

Runoff m3 per capita in 1996 3 804 2 263 2 153 5 069 2 374 2 106

952 386

1613

support their economic activities. However, the river runoff is concentrated during the wet season. In the dry months, the river flow is not sufficient to meet the demand and this causes frequent water shortage problems. The average water availability in the Chao Phraya basin, based on the data collected during 1961-1995, is given in Table 2. The per capita water availability in the Chao Phraya main stream and the Tha Chin sub-basin is well below the overall basin average of 1613 m3. This clearly reveals that the water availability in the Chao Phraya Delta, the most densely populated and important irrigated area of Thailand, must be increased in order to sustain the economic development of the country.

Water budget

To cope with water shortage problems mainly in the dry season, a number of storage-type water resources development projects have been implemented in the upper sub-basins of the River Chao Phraya. The Bhumibol and Sirikit dams, with effective storage capacities of 9862 and 6660 Mm3, respectively, are the major examples. However, the result of such development is still far from being sufficient against the potential demand for water in the basin. Growing second crops in the lower basin is still limited to a minimum level and the shortage of water for domestic and industrial uses becomes more crucial. The situation will be more serious in the forthcoming years because the water demand in the basin, particularly in the Chao Phraya Delta, will continue to increase.

Dams are playing a role in storing the wet season runoff, for flood control, hydro-power generation, and water supply to downstream areas, including the Chao Phraya Delta. The average annual and seasonal inflow to and outflow from the Bhumibol and Sirikit reservoirs during the past (1972-1984) and more recently (1985-1997) are given in Table 3. It can be seen that both inflow to and outflow from the reservoirs have decreased in the recent years due to increased water use in the upstream catchment.

Water demand and shortages

The water demand for various economic activities has increased rapidly in the Chao Phraya basin. The present and projected water demand for various sectors is provided

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 927

Table 3 Inflow to and outflow from the Bhumibol and Sirikit reservoirs (Vatcharasinthu & Babel, in press).

Reservoir/basin area (km2)

Inflow/ outflow

Past years (1972-1984) (Mm3) Wet Dry Total

Recent years (1985-1997) Runoff yield (Mm3) (mm) Wet Dry Total Past Recent

Bhumibol (26 386) Sirikit (13 130)

Inflow Outflow Inflow Outflow

5 165 2 551 5 100 2 601

844 3 266 761 2 683

6 009 5 817 5 861 5 284

4 327 1579 4 267 2 022

655 3 151 680 2 721

4 982 4 730 4 947 4 743

288 220 446 402

189 179 377 361

Wet season: June-November; dry season: December-May.

Table 4 Present and future sectoral water demands in the Chao Phraya basin (Vatcharasinthu & Babel, in press).

Sector

Irrigation Water supply* Industries and tourism Power (thermal plant) Ecological balance Total

Water demand (Mm3 year"1): Present 20 927

1741 21 45

4 661 27 395

In 5 years 22 503

1758 23 61

4 819 29164

In 10 years 23 797 2 088

27 61

4 819 30 792

In 20 years 26 145 2 121

39 61

4 819 33185

* Includes industrial demand in and around Bangkok. t Demand upstream of Chao Phraya Dam.

Table 5 Water demand, supply and shortages in Chao Phraya Basin (in Mm ) (Vatcharasinthu & Babel, in press).

Basin/sub-basin

Ping Wang Yom Nan Sakae Krang Pasak Chao Phraya Delta Chao Phraya Basin

+ Tha Chin (Whole)

Present (1996): Demand 4 254

587 1095 3 275

738 600

16 846 27 395

Supply 3 654

515 725

2 949 367 518

16 227 24 955

Shortage 600 72

370 326 371 82

619 2 440

In 20 years Demand

6 213 871

2 574 3 956

886 1490

17 195 33 185

Supply 4 465

641 1220 3 246

421 1259

15 769 27 021

Shortage 1748

230 1 354

710 465 231

1426 6 164

in Table 4. The demand for an ecological balance includes the requirements for the maintenance of river flow, salinity control and others. Water demand will increase significantly in the basin for the different uses, especially for irrigation. This will result in a serious water crisis in the Chao Phraya basin, especially in average and dry years.

Water shortages in the Chao Phraya basin are temporal and occur mainly in the dry season. They will be more serious in the future due to the increased demand in the lower Chao Phraya basin and the decreased inflow to the Bhumibol and Sirikit reservoirs. Table 5 presents the summary of water demand, supply, and shortages in the Chao Phraya basin. More than 50% of basin water shortages occur in the two sub-basins of the Ping and the Chao Phraya (including Tha Chin). At present, the average annual water scarcity in the Chao Phraya Delta (including Tha Chin) and the Chao

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Phraya basin as a whole is about 619 and 2440 Mm , respectively, which will increase to 1426 and 6164 Mm3, respectively, over the next 20 years (Vatcharasinthu & Babel, in press).

Groundwater use

Over the last three decades, to cope with the rapid increase in demand, groundwater has been extensively developed in various sectors because of its lower cost of develop­ment (development can be phased with the increase in demand) as well as its availa­bility near to the place of utilization (independent of the distribution system). With years of increasing groundwater pumpage, problems related to overabstraction, like the continual decline of the groundwater table associated with other undesirable environ­mental consequences, are being felt in many areas. The authorities concerned have been involved in exploration and development without much attention being given to the evaluation of the state of the resource geared to groundwater resources management.

As an example of overexploitation of groundwater, the large-scale groundwater withdrawal in the city of Bangkok has resulted in adverse economic/environmental problems, such as the continual decline of potentiometric levels, land subsidence and groundwater quality deterioration by saltwater encroachment. Many associated and potential problems, such as flooding, loss of property and human lives, severe deterioration of infrastructure facilities, groundwater pollution and health hazards have been attributed to the effects of excessive groundwater withdrawal and land subsidence. A recent investigation indicates that some parts of the city and surrounding areas are sinking by 1.5-5.3 cm a year. The groundwater pumpage now stands at 2.5 Mm3 day"1, compared to a long-term safe withdrawal rate of 600 000 m3 day"1 as predicted by a research team of the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) and the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) in 1982 (AIT & DMR, 1982).

Of the total pumpage, as much as 60% or 1.5 Mm3 day"1 is used by industry, 500 000 m3 by households and the rest by other sectors, including the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) and the Provincial Waterworks Authority (PWA). Reduction of groundwater pumpage is a must, which can only be achieved when enough water is supplied from surface water sources. In 1999, the MWA withdrew about 1415 Mm3 of raw water from the River Chao Phraya to supply consumers in Bangkok and the surrounding provinces. At this rate, even the largest reservoir in Thailand, the Bhumibol, cannot supply enough water for the city. In mid-1999, the Bhumibol Reservoir had only 951 Mm3 of water stored—just over 9% of its total capacity. Of the 1415 Mm3 of water withdrawn by the MWA, only 857 Mm3 reached consumers, while the remainder was lost in the distribution network. The distribution system is not well spread over the area and a major portion of the distribution network is old, resulting in considerable losses.

Resolving the issues

To improve the water supply situation in the Chao Phraya basin, as well as to meet the increasing demand for water in the metropolitan Bangkok, the authorities involved are considering different possibilities for bringing additional water to the upper storage

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 929

reservoir through diversions from the Salween and Moei rivers. The MWA also has plans to expand the distribution network and to improve the distribution efficiency by reducing losses through leakage prevention and replacement of old pipes. Considering the extent of the distribution system and the problems involved, it is difficult to assess the level of improvement that can be achieved, given the technology available for leakage detection and pipe replacement on the one hand and the physical and financial constraints on the other.

As far as the control of groundwater pumpage is concerned, the Ministry of Industry is empowered, by a Cabinet resolution 20 years ago, to order an immediate halt to groundwater extraction. However, this could not be achieved in a realistic sense, as the expansion of the surface water distribution system was not in phase with the expansion of the city and the increase in water demand. Instead, the ministry is trying to discourage extraction by levying water charges; this has not been particularly successful as the charging rate is far below the rate for surface water supply. Furthermore, the DMR is in the process of considering a water injection project using the flood water in the basin during the rainy season to replenish the depleted ground­water reserves and to stabilize the settlement of the ground surface. However, one may question the technical as well as the financial implications of operating such a system, which might increase the taxpayers' burden, whereas the major share of benefits will go to the industrial sector.

This example of the water supply and demand for Bangkok City and adjoining provinces in the context of water resources utilization in the Chao Phraya basin clearly reveals that both surface water and groundwater are being considered as separate entities without any integration. Also, the utilization is considered on a sectoral level without any intersectoral interference and trade-off. Furthermore, any management aspect has been supply-oriented, without paying sufficient attention to options for influencing water demand and increasing water-use efficiency. The needs and develop­ment goals of the various sectors and categories of users should be carefully evaluated and appropriately valued, while allocating resources to various sectors and users. Planning should shift from the traditional project and specific area approach towards a basin-wide approach. In order to achieve sustainable development, a basin develop­ment plan needs to strive for a balance between water resources exploitation and the socio-economic development of the basin. It is appropriate to advocate a careful study of the multi-faceted implications of the transfer of water from one basin to another so that the development potential of the basin from which the water is transferred will not be affected. However, although it would be difficult to assess the situation at a particular moment in time, the full development potential of the basin should be evaluated before making any decision on the transfer of water from it. There should be a well-defined management plan for all the steps involved in the development process, such as project planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. Most importantly, overall water resources management should not be limited to government agencies alone: it should also involve the public, including various user groups.

WATER RESOURCES POLICY AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Traditionally water policy has been linked to specific problems like water shortages, flooding and water pollution. The construction of water supply and flood defence

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systems and technological developments were mostly related to a few particular interests. Over the years, a shift has been observed from single-purpose water resources development to multipurpose development objectives. The traditional con­cept of water resources development with an emphasis on exploiting water resources systems should be oriented towards the concept of water resources management with more emphasis on allocation issues. Furthermore, the conservation of water for eco­system integrity should be emphasized. A number of recent publications have dealt with the concept of sustainable development and have indicated the steps necessary to include the concept in the management of water resources systems (e.g. Falkenmark, 1997; Kundzewicz, 1997; Das Gupta & Onta, 1997; Loucks, 2000). Chen & Xia (1999) addressed the problem of water resources management in China and advocated a number of feasible measures to address the issues of sustainable water management. The current water resources management practices in most of the countries in southeast Asia are not sustainable from either an economic or an environmental per­spective. The following factors contribute to the weakness of current management practices.

Structure of organization and centralization

Fragmented water resources management has led to overinvestment and uncoordinated management, especially for water from different sources, e.g. surface water and groundwater; and for allocation of water to various sectors. In Thailand, there are more than 30 agencies in nine ministries working in water resources development. In addition, seven national committees are involved in the water resources field. This leads to incoherent, sometimes even confusing, decisions.

Government policy and budgeting

In Thailand, several of policies have been formulated on specific areas namely, water resources development policy, water resources conservation policy, polluted water treatment policy, water resources allocation and utilization policy, and flood mitigation policy. However, they do not have sufficiently clear guidelines on water resources management. Emphasis has always been placed on the development and provision of water. There were no master plans for water resources management in the different river basins. Only, a series of studies have been completed on preliminary basin development plans for 25 basins (Anukularmphai, 1999). The current policy of allocation of budget is by agency, based on their requests. Such a process is not geared towards a regional or basin-wide emphasis on problem solving. This practice usually results in a lack of effectiveness in implementation.

Legal framework

An adequate legal framework of rules and regulations should be in place to address various issues like a water resources inventory, planning, use, quality and protection. One authority with power should be designated for the administration and implementa­tion. In addition, there are several acts covering water resources. They fall under the

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 931

jurisdiction of different agencies and are not directly related to the general concept of water resources management. In order to address the various issues and problems related to water resources development, a new law on water resources management is essential.

Available information

Data and information are essential for decision making on development aspects, as well as for adopting certain control measures against the undesirable implications of development. As a large number of agencies is involved in the implementation of various projects, information on water resources development is scattered. This makes it difficult to establish plans for efficient water resources development and manage­ment. Moreover, such circumstances create difficulties in formulating new projects based on the concept of sustainability.

Environmental considerations

Environmental issues have become an important component of water resources development project planning. At the current stage, there are many issues that need to be reconciled between the conservation and development groups. These issues include environmental values and costs, the acceptance of trade-offs between environmental losses and project benefits, a clear definition of sustainable development, and so forth. The participatory approach, which requires involving all stakeholders, poses the most difficult procedure in practice. In many cases, the process becomes a forum for con­frontation between the pro- and anti-project groups, with the involvement of non­governmental organizations. Therefore, case studies should be undertaken to develop practical guidelines for environmental considerations. A more realistic approach could then be introduced to address the environmental issues associated with water resources development.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

There is certainly a need for a systematic approach to integrated water resources management. Apart from the requirement of equitable distribution of water among the stakeholders, governance, economic performance and environmental quality are the crucial challenges facing water resources management. Water resources management must inevitably involve multi-objective tradeoffs in a multi-disciplinary decision­making process. However, under the present institutional framework, several depart­ments/agencies deal with the water resources development according to their own requirements, without much integrated effort towards basin-wide planning and management. In the long run, this practice leads to inefficiency in water use and undesirable consequences of development. Furthermore, management of wastewater, its treatment and re-use are important factors to be considered in association with the concept of water resources management, as these practices will impact on the availability of freshwater and on water quality. This calls for adequate technical and managerial capabilities with effective regulation and control through proper legislation

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932 Ashim Das Gupta

and enforcement mechanisms. A number of regional consultation meetings conducted by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) have dealt with the issues of integrated water resources management and urban water management (ESCAP, 1993, 1995). Guidelines are put forward in the following sections indicating certain approaches which address these issues.

The river basin approach

All surface and sub-surface water-related activities are closely interlinked through upstream-downstream relationships in river basins and aquifers. As such, the whole river basin must be considered in all water development policies and research. To intro­duce an integrated approach to water management, most countries in the region have to upgrade their institutional frameworks dealing with the various aspects of water resources development, management and protection. River basin organizations (RBOs) should be established and should have regulatory powers over the intersectoral allocation of water, the enforcement of water quality standards, arbitration in disputes and compensation procedures. The RBOs should be autonomous and should have representa­tion from all users, they should include sub-basin management units and should balance the macro- and micro-level aspects of allocation, development and other activities. Integrated water resources development and management should be delegated to the lowest appropriate levels, thus ensuring the representation of those concerned or affected and the integration of sectoral demands. Furthermore, the RBOs should be equipped with state-of-the-art information and modelling technologies, enabling them to monitor and evaluate the effects of alternative actions in the river basin.

The basic mandate of an RBO is to coordinate and regulate the development and management of the water resources in the basin. Since many of the existing national and local agencies also have similar mandates, the structure of an RBO depends on the state of water resources development and management in the basin, as well as the national policies and traditions on the devolution of authority and responsibilities. While there are many successful RBO models worldwide, there are also those which have failed to live up to expectations and have become ineffective. The major prob­lems contributing to this effect are (a) institutional weaknesses, (b) inappropriate policy and regulatory frameworks, (c) inadequate data and information, (d) problems in coordination, and (e) a lack of community involvement. Some additional desirable features for a successful RBO are:

- that the river basin should be of sufficient size with problems of competition and conflicts in water resources development and management to justify a separate organization;

- a clearly defined authority with responsibilities that would not override the pre­rogatives of national and local agencies;

- adequately trained and motivated personnel; - adequate data, information and modelling studies leading to sound policies and

sustainable solutions; - full consideration of all issues on water and related land resources; and - effective procedures for community participation in the planning and programming

of water resources activities.

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 933

Water conservation and saving

Traditionally, water resources management has been supply oriented, not paying sufficient attention to options for influencing water demand and increasing water use efficiency. At present, the efficiency of water use by agriculture, by industry and for domestic purposes is low in the region. Within the framework of integrated water resources management, great emphasis should be given to realistic alternative measures to increase the efficiency of water utilization rather than providing more water. One of the specific targets included in Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 (ESCAP, 1995) for all states for the year 2000 is to have established efficient water-use programmes to attain sustainable resource utilization patterns. To achieve this target, a number of activities for demand management are being recommended:

- subsidized funding for the rehabilitation and improvement of water systems; - privatization and commercial operation of water systems; - water tariffs and penalties; - monitoring and metering systems; - recycling of water, including treatment of wastewater for re-use; - irrigation scheduling to fit climate and rainfall patterns; - crop diversification for efficient water use; - public campaigns and education programmes directed to reducing water consump­

tion; - wider use of water-saving devices; and - development of an attitude of "community ownership" of water facilities.

Capacity building and human resources development

A key to effective water resources management is the existence of sufficiently well trained personnel in all the disciplines in the planning, development and management process. Expertise from outside and support of aid organizations will certainly assist in addressing key issues at the local and regional levels; however, long-term sustainable river basin development will inevitably depend on the in-country professionals to provide the know-how and expertise. As such, education, training, research and devel­opment are the keys for framing the long-term potential and capacity building and in pursuing effective efforts in the planning, development and management processes.

Deficiencies in human resources development in many countries of the region have contributed to an inadequate level of expertise to pursue an efficient and effective management process. Even though Thailand boasts an education system that provides nearly the entire population with a basic primary level education (the criteria for literacy statistics), the proportion of the workforce who graduate from the secondary level or higher is only 21%. It is estimated that Thailand has only 261 scientists and engineers per one million population, while Korea, Singapore and Japan have 2500. Even China has a higher proportion than Thailand: 350 scientists and engineers per million. Such shortages hinder national development (Chareonwongsak, 2000). In term of investment in research and development (R&D), Thailand spent 0.1% of GNP in 1995 compared to 2.9% for Japan, 1.1% for Singapore, 2.8% for South Korea, 0.5% for China and 0.4% for Vietnam. Within the next 10 years, Thailand must endeavour

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934 Ashim Das Gupta

to achieve human resource development at the level of 1000 scientists and engineers per million, and to ensure an investment of 2% GNP in R&D.

Technology

Technology alone is not enough. The technologies currently in use in most of the developing countries are the same as those employed in the developed countries. However, appropriate provisions do not exist for the proper operation and maintenance of existing, as well as new, installations. Little attention is given to the institutional aspects associated with the implementation of such functions. An excellent example of the serious consequences of inadequate operation and maintenance is the large volume of unaccounted-for-water in many urban centres in developing countries. In many cities in developing countries, around 50% of the water that is treated and distributed at public expense is not accounted for by sales to customers.

It is essential to adapt technically sound, affordable, simple, cost-effective and sustainable technologies in the water supply, sanitation and waste management sectors. In many developing countries, there is a tendency to insist on standards higher than necessary, sometimes doubling the cost of service delivery. The result is poor access to water supply and sanitation services. Per capita unit costs of providing services have generally continued to increase, despite the development of less expensive technologies. Only a drastic revision of design standards to sharply reduce construction costs is likely to offer hope of providing even minimum levels of public water services.

Community involvement

Community management of water supply and sanitation is a viable option, particularly for poor urban settlements where adequate services are not provided. However, in general, urban communities show lower levels of participation than rural communities because community ties are weaker in the former, thus preventing a proper collective definition of priority needs and the expression of demands. Nevertheless, governments should support and encourage community management of services, in particular by setting up formal mechanisms for interaction between the community and the municipal authorities. It is necessary that decisions are taken at the lowest appropriate level, with public consultation and involvement of the users in the planning and implementation of water projects. Therefore, capacity building of local institutions is necessary to make community management effective.

Re-use and recycling of effluents

Re-use and recycling of municipal wastewater and industrial effluent is very important on account of: (a) the reduction of the pollution load in the receiving water, and (b) the reduction in the requirement of freshwater for various uses. Re-use of the municipal wastewater after the treatment necessary to meet industrial water requirements, has been in practice, albeit in a limited way, for quite some time in India. In some areas, treated sewage is being used for horticulture, watering of lawns and even for flushing public sewers and toilets.

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Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia 935

CONCLUDING REMARKS

A collaborative and coordinated effort is needed among all the stakeholders involved in order to address the issues and challenges of water resources management. In the past most countries did not pay much attention to the management aspects as the resource was abundant compared to the demand and easily obtained from river, lakes, canals and from rainfall. With the growth in demand over the years, many regions are facing shortages of water, particularly in the dry season, and, frequently, excess of water during the wet season. These concerns result not only from the scarcity or excess of water, but also from the lack of appropriate water management policies and institutional structures to utilize the national water resources effectively. The major water development schemes in the past were mainly based on the supply-oriented approach, without much, or any, consideration of the interactions with other develop­ment sectors. With the promotion of the concept of integrated water resources management, an appropriate shift in the water management paradigm is needed, con­sidering three important elements of an enabling environment, effective institutional structure, and appropriate tools and technologies. This should be viewed as a flexible framework to be adapted within the economic, strategic and social dimensions of each country concerned.

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Chareonwongsak. K. (2000) Deficient human resource development: a major cause of Thailand's economic crisis. Asian Infrastruc. Res. Rev. 2(1), 17-22.

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