cern courier – digital edition

8/10/2019 CERN Courier digital edition

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CERNCOURIERVO L U M E 5 4 N U M B E R 8 O C T O B E R 2 0 1 4

IN T E R N A T I O N A L J O U R N A L O F H I G H - E N E R G Y P H Y S I C S

Welcome to the digital edition of the October 2014 issue of CERN Courier.

CERN is a unique institution, born from the ashes of war as a beacon

of science and peace. As its facilities and research arena grew in size

following its ofcial foundation in 1954, so too did the extent of international

collaboration at CERN. In this issue to celebrate the 60th anniversary, a

pictorial timeline illustrates some key moments in this collaborative journey.

In addition, a few short articles highlight what CERN has meant to people

from various regions of the world, and a physicist and former science minister

gives his view on CERNs future direction. The issue also celebrates the

80th birthday of Carlo Rubbia, the only director-general to have received a

Nobel prize for his work at CERN.

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CERN Courier digital edition

W E L C O M E

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EDITOR: CHRISTINE SUTTON, CERN

DIGITAL EDITION CREATED BY JESSE KARJALAINEN/IOP PUBLISHING, UK
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C ER N C o ur i e r O cto ber 2 0 1 4

Contents


Covering current developments in high-energyphysics and related fields worldwideCERN Courieris distributed to member-state governments, institutes and laboratoriesaffiliated with CERN, and to their personnel. It is published monthly, except forJanuary and August. The views expressed are not necessarily those of the CERNmanagement.

EditorChristine SuttonNews editorKate KahleCERN, 1211 Geneva 23, SwitzerlandE-mail [email protected]+41 (0) 22 785 0247Web cerncourier.com

Advisory boardLuis lvarez-Gaum, James Gillies, Horst Wenninger

Laboratory correspondents:Argonne National Laboratory (US)Tom LeCompteBrookhaven National Laboratory (US)P YaminCornell University (US)D G CasselDESY Laboratory (Germany)Till MundzeckEMFCSC (Italy)Anna CavalliniEnrico Fermi Centre (Italy)Guido PiraginoFermi National Accelerator Laboratory (US) Katie YurkewiczForschungszentrum Jlich (Germany)Markus BuescherGSI Darmstadt (Germany)I PeterIHEP, Beijing (China)Tongzhou XuIHEP, Serpukhov (Russia)Yu RyabovINFN (Italy)Romeo BassoliJefferson Laboratory (US)Steven CorneliussenJINR Dubna (Russia)B StarchenkoKEK National Laboratory (Japan)Nobukazu TogeLawrence Berkeley Laboratory (US)Spencer KleinLos Alamos National Laboratory (US)Rajan GuptaNCSL (US)Ken KingeryNikhef (Netherlands)Robert FleischerNovosibirsk Institute (Russia)S EidelmanOrsay Laboratory (France)Anne-Marie LutzPSI Laboratory (Switzerland)P-R KettleSaclay Laboratory (France)Elisabeth LocciScience and Technology Facilities Council (UK) Julia MaddockSLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (US) Farnaz KhademTRIUMF Laboratory (Canada)Marcello Pavan

Produced for CERN by IOP Publishing LtdIOP Publishing Ltd, Temple Circus, Temple Way,Bristol BS1 6HG, UKTel +44 (0)117 929 7481

Publisher Susan CurtisProduction editorLisa GibsonTechnical illustratorAlison ToveyGroup advertising managerChris ThomasAdvertisement productionKatie GrahamMarketing & CirculationAngela Gage

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General distributionCourrier Adressage, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, SwitzerlandE-mail: [email protected] certain countries, to request copies or to make address changes, contact:ChinaKeqing Ma, Library, Institute of High Energy Physics,PO Box 918, Beijing 100049, Peoples Republic of ChinaE-mail: [email protected] Brandes, DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607 Hamburg, GermanyE-mail: [email protected] Rum or Anna Pennacchietti, INFN, Casella Postale 56, 00044 Frascati,Rome, ItalyE-mail: [email protected] Wells, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Polaris House, North Star

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Printed byWarners (Midlands) plc, Bourne, Lincolnshire, UK

2014 CERN ISSN 0304-288X

5 NEW S

Borexino measures the Suns energy in real t ime ATLAS closesand prepares for the restartThe SPS gets ready to restart First

beam in Linac4 DTLBudker Institutes booster gets going atBrookhavenALFA in ATLAS measures pp cross-section withhigh precisionATLAS provides further insights into the HiggsbosonA bright future for dark-matter searches

15 SCIE N CE W A T CH

17 AS T R O W A T CH

19 AR CH IV E

FE A T UR E S

For CERNs 60th anniversary, we presenthighlights of what the organization means forcollaboration and for science.

21 Six decades of science for peace31 CERN: a bridge between cultures and nations40 Carlo Rubbia: a passion for physics and a

craving for new ideas45 CERN and ITER co-operate

The LHC and ITER project share many technologies, providing anatural basis for collaboration.

51 FA CE S&P L A CE S

67 RE CR UIT M E N T

74 BO O KS H E L F

78 V I E W P O IN T

On the cover:CERN celebrates its 60th anniversary. (Image credit: CERN.)

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News

The Borexino experiment at the INFN Gra n

Sasso National Laboratories has measuredthe energy of the Sun in real time, showingfor the rst time that the energy releasedtoday at its centre is exactly the same asthat produced 100,000 years ago. This hasbeen possible through the experimentsdirect detection of the low-energy neutrinosproduced in the initial nuclear reactionsoccurring in the solar core.

Previous measurements of solar energyhave always been made on the radiation(photons) that currently illuminate andheat the Earth. The energy of this radiationoriginates in the Suns nuclear reactions, but,on average, has taken 100,000 years to travelthrough the dense solar matter and reach thesurface. Neutrinos produced by the samenuclear reactions, on the other hand, takeonly a few seconds to escape from the Sunbefore making the eight-minute journey to

Earth. The comparison between the neutrinomeasurement now published by the Borexinocollaboration and the previous measurementson the emission of radiant energy from theSun shows that solar activity has not changedduring the past 100,000 years.

Borexino is an ultra-sensitiveliquid-scintillator detector designed todetect low-energy neutrino events in realtime at a high rate, in contrast t o earlierradioachemical experiments such as

Homestake, GALLEX and SAGE (CERN

CourierOctober 1998 p12). The experimentpreviously has focussed on measurements ofneutrinos from 7Be and 8B nuclei formedin certain branches of the principal chain ofreactions that converts hydrogen to heliumat the heart of the Sun. The7Be neutrinosconstitute only 7% of the neutrino flux fromthe Sun and the 8B neutrinos even less, butthey have been key to the discovery and studyof the phenomenon of neutrino oscillations,most recently by Borexino (CERN CourierJune 2009 p13). In contrast in this latestwork, Borexino has focused on the neutrinosfrom the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei(protons) to form deuterium the seedreaction of the nuclear-fusion cycle thatproduces about 99% of the solar power, some3.841033ergs/s.

The difculty of the new measurementlies in the extremely low energy of these

so-called pp neutrinos, which is smallerthan that of the others emitte d by the Sun.The capability to do this successfully makesthe Borexino detector unique, and has alsoallowed the study of neutrinos produced bythe Earth (CERN CourierMay 2013 p8).

The Borexino experiment is the result of acollaboration between European countries(Italy, Germany, France, Poland), the USand Russia, and it will take data for at leastanother four years, improving the accuracy

of measurements already made andaddressing others of great importance, forboth particle physics as well as astrophysics.

Further readingBorexino Collaboration 2014 Nature512383.

Borexino measures the Suns energy in real timeSO L A R N E U T R I N O S

Sommaire en franaisBorexino mesure lnergie du Soleil en 5temps rel

ATLAS : fermeture du dtecteur avant le 6redmarrage

Le SPS se prpare redmarrer 9

Premier faisceau dans le DTL du Linac4 9

Mise en route Brookhaven du booster de 10linstitut BudkerATLAS-AL FA : mesures de haute prcision 11

de la section efficace ppATLAS donne de nouveaux lments sur le 11boson de Higgs

Lhorizon sclaircit pour la recherche de la 12matire noire

Des plantes qui puisent leau des minraux 15

INTEGRA L dtecte la radioactivit dune 17supernova

Energy spectra for all of the solar neutrinoand radioactive background components.All components are obtained fromanalytical expressions, validated by MonteCarlo simulations, with the exception of thesynthetic pile-up, which is constructed fromdata. (Image credit: Borexino 2014.)

A total of 2212 8-inch photomultipliers mounted on a 13.7-m diameter stainless-steel spheredetect the scintillator light produced in Borexino. (Image credit: Borexino Collaboration.)

104

syntheticpile-up

1

2/d.o.f. = 172.3/147210Po: 5832(free)14C:39.80.9(constrained)

Pile-up:3217(constrained)210Bi: 278(free)85

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News

On 7 August, the technical teams incharge of closing activities in the ATLAScollaboration started to move the rst piecesback into position around the LHC beampipe. The subdetectors had been moved outin February 2013, at the beginning of the rstLHC Long Shutdown (LS1) a manoeuvrethat was needed to allow access and work onthe planned upgrades.

LS1 has seen a great deal of work on the

ATLAS detector. In addition to the upgradescarried out on all of the subdetectors,when the next LHC run starts i n 2015 theexperiment will have a new beam pipe anda new inner barrel layer (IBL) for the pixeldetector. For the work to be carried out inthe cavern, one of the small wheels of themuon system had to be moved to the surface(CERN CourierOctober 2013 p28).

The various pieces are moved using anair-pad system on rails, with the exception of

the 25-m-diameter big wheel (in the muonsystem), which moves on bogies. One of themost difcult objects to move is the endcapcalorimeter: it weighs about 1000 tonnes andcomes with many satellites, i.e. electriccables, cryogenic lines and optical bresfor the read-out. Thanks to the air pads,the 1000 tonnes of the calorimeter can bemoved by applying a force of only 23 tonnes.During the movement, the calorimeter, with

its cryostat lled with liquid argon, remainsconnected to the flexible lines whose motionis controlled by the motion of the calorimeter.

The inflation of the air pads must becontrolled perfectly to avoid any damageto the delicate equipment. This is achievedusing two automated control units onebuilt during LS1 which perform hydraulicand pneumatic compensation. This year,the ATLAS positioning system has beenimproved thanks to the installation of a new

sensor system on the various subdetectors.This will allow the experts to achievean accuracy of 300 m in placing thecomponents in their nal position. Theposition sensors were originally developedby Brandeis University within the ATLAScollaboration, but the positioning systemitself was developed with the help ofsurveyors from CERN, who are now usingthis precision system in other experiments.

All of the equipment movements in thecavern happen under the strict control of thetechnical teams and the scientists in charge ofthe various subdetectors. It takes several hoursto move each piece, not only owing to theweight involved, but also because several stopsare necessary to perform tests and checks.

The closing activities are scheduled to rununtil the end of September. By then, the teamwill have moved a total of 12 pieces, that is,3300 tonnes of material.

ATLAS closes and prepares for the restartL H C E X P E R I M E N T S

In closing ATLAS for the next LHC run, with a weight of 1000 tonnes and a diameter of 9 m, the endcap calorimeter, top left, is one of themost difficult objects to move. However, thanks to a system of air pads, the orange discs seen lower left, it can be moved with a force of only23 tonnes. At the right, the endcap can be seen on the air-pad system at the start of its journey back into the toroid barrel.(Image credits: ATLAS Collaboration.)

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News

Work continues apace to ready the SuperProton Synchrotron (SPS) for its plannedOctober restart, while beams are alreadybeing delivered to experiments at the ProtonSynchrotron (PS) and PS Booster (CERNCourierSeptember 2014 p5).

During July and August, SPS teams werekept busy with a range of start-up tests for thevarious equipment groups, including eightweeks of electrical power-converter tests.Since it began in February 2013, the Long

Shutdown 1 (LS1) has seen the replacementand renovation of about 75% of the SPSpowering, including major componentssuch as 18 kV tra nsformers, switches, cablesand thyristor bridges that sit at the heartof the power converters. There have alsobeen important upgrades to the controland high-precision measurement systems.The summer tests were to conrm t hatthe renovated converters were operatingcorrectly to power the SPS dipole andquadrupole magnets.

Slotted among this busy schedule ofpowering tests were the nal checks of theaccelerators magnets and beam dump. TheSPS had one of each of the three mai n typesof magnet fault: an electrical fault (shortcircuit) in a magnet circuit, a water leak (inthe cooling system), and a vacuum-chamberleak. In addition, the main beam dump had

to be replaced. Rather than stopping the testsfor each move, the teams replaced all fourelements in one go.

On 1012 August, the three magnets andbeam dump were removed and replaced

with spares in the SPS tunnel. The logisticsfor this move were complex because of theweight of the magnets and beam dump,and also the 10-tonne chariot and liftingequipment. In addition, these large piecesof equipment ll the entire width of thetunnel, so co-ordinating which vehicles andteams were where and synchronizing theirmovements was vital.

Although the SPS teams are well-versedat replacing magnets they can replace as

many as four magnets during a two-daytechnical stop replacing the beam dumpproved to be a tougher challenge. Becausethe dump is radioactive, the length oftransport had to be kept as short as possibleand moving the dump from the tunnel to theradiation storage area could not take place ifit rained. With this in m ind, the operationsteam created detailed plans for the move,providing hourly updates and back-upsolutions in case of rain.

Despite these extensive tests andreplacements, the SPS remains onschedule to take beam from the PS in ea rlySeptember, with the accelerator operatingagain in October to provide beams to t heNorth Area.

At the LHC, in late August the cooling ofsector 1-2 was in progress, and the coolingof sector 5-6 beginning. Vacuum teams

were checking for any nal leaks andcarrying out sealing tests in various sectors.At the same time, the copper-stabilizercontinuity measurement tests were inprogress in sector 8-1, before being carried

out throughout the machine. The rst powertests have begun in sector 6-7, which will bethe rst sector ready for beam. Elsewhere,electrical validation tests were in progressthroughout the machine, together with

instrumentation tests, particularly on thebeam-loss sensors. All of the collimators,the kicker magnets and the beaminstrumentation in the straight sections of theLHC were installed and under vacuum.

The SPS gets ready to restartC E R N

The SPS tunnel, with a qu adrupole magnet in the foreground. (Image credit:CERN-GE-1311288 03.)

Les physiciens des particules du monde entier sont invits apporter leurscontributions aux CERN Courier, en franais ou en anglais. Les articles retenusseront publis dans la langue dorigine. Si vous souhaitez proposer un article,faites part de vos suggestions la rdaction ladresse [email protected].

CERN Courier welcomes contributionsfrom the internationalparticle-physics community. These can be written in English or French,and will be published in the same language. If you have a suggestion foran article, please send proposals to the editor at [email protected].

Work progresses on Linac4, the linearaccelerator foreseen to take over from thecurrent Linac2 as injector to the PS Booster. On5 August, the first drift-tube linac (DTL) tank sawbeams at 12 MeV. After seven years of design,prototyping and manufacturing, the Linac4DTL, which comprises three tanks, underwent

countless workshop-based measurements ofthe geometry, vacuum and magnet polarizationof the tanks, before the first was installed in theLinac4 tunnel on 5 June. Beam commissioningtests ran until 21 August, and found the DTLoperating with nominal transmission.

First beam in Linac4 DTL

A DTL tank undergoing workshop tests inMay prior to installation in Linac4. (Imagecredit: CERN-PHOTO-201404-087 3.)

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News

Data from a specialrun of the LHCusing dedicatedbeam optics at 7 TeV

have been analysed to measure the totalcross-section of protonproton collisionsin ATLAS. Using the Absolute LuminosityFor ATLAS (ALFA) Roman Potsub-detector system located 240 m from theinteraction point, ATLAS has determinedthe cross-section with unprecedentedprecision to be

tot(ppX) = 95.41.4 mb.

The total cross-section is a fundamentalparameter of the strong interactions, settingthe scale of the size of the i nteraction regionat a given energy. To measure the totalcross-section, the optical theorem is used,which states that the total cross-sectionis proportional to the imaginary part of

the forward elastic-scattering amplitude,extrapolated to momentum transfer, t = 0.From a measurement of the elastic-scattering

cross-section differential in t, the value ofthe total cross-section is inferred, and isfound to increase logarithmically with thecentre-of-mass energy (see gure).

Measuring elastic scattering is a challengebecause elastically scattered protons escapethe interaction at very small angles of tensof micro-radians or less. To detect theseprotons, dedicated detectors are installed,such as ALFA. To achieve the requiredfocusing properties, the LHC was operatedwith special beam optics of *= 90 m. Thedetectors can then be moved as close as a fewmillimetres from the LHC beam, to accessthe smallest scattering angles.

Further readingATLAS Collaboration 2014 submitted toNucl. Phys.BarXiv:1408.5778 [hep-ex].

The discovery of a Higgs boson by theATLAS and CMS collaborations in 2012marked a new era in particle physics. Sincethen, the experimental determination of theproperties of the new boson, such as its massand production rate, as well as the study of itsdecays into as many nal states as possible,have became crucial tasks for the LHCexperiments.

The ATLAS collaboration has recentlypublished a new set of measurements ofthe Higgs bosons properties from thetwo high-resolution decay channels, totwo photons (ATLAS Collaboration2014a) and to four charged leptons(ATLAS Collaboration 2014b). The newmeasurements have been performed usingthe protonproton collisions delivered bythe LHC in 2 011 and 2012. They exploit themost accurate knowledge of the detector

performance achieved so far, which hasalso led to an updated measurement of theHiggs mass, mH= 125.360.41 GeV (ATLASCollaboration 2014c).

The Standard Model predicts precisely thecouplings of the Higgs boson to all otherknown elementary particles, once its mass ismeasured. The simplest way to probe the newboson couplings is to measure the ratio (orsignal strength) between the number ofHiggs bosons measured in the collected data

and the number predicted by the theor y: a

measured= 1 would mean that theobservation is consistent with the StandardModel Higgs boson. In these latest analyses,the signal strength in the two-photon channelis found to be = 1.170.27, while it is= +0.400.331.44 in t he four-lepton channel. So,within their uncertainties, both results agreewith the Standard Model.

The Standard Model also predicts thata Higgs boson can be produced throughdifferent mechanisms in protonproton

collisions. The most frequent mechanism(87%) is the scattering (or fusion) ofstrongly interacting gluons to form a Higgsboson. Production through the fusion ofW or Z bosons is predicted to occur in7% of the cases, and has a characteristicevent signature of two jets in the forwarddirection (along the proton beams) thataccompany the Higgs boson. The gureshows a candidate event for this productionmode. In the recent papers, ATLASphysicists have identied and measuredHiggs bosons from various productionmechanisms (ATLAS Collaboration 2 014aand 2014b).

So far, no surprises have emerged whenlooking into the details, but the statisticaluncertainties are still large. The newdata-taking campaign starting in 2015will be important to improve the precision

of the measurements, and will lead to animproved understanding of the nature ofthe Higgs boson.

Further readingATLAS Collaboration 2014a arXiv: 1408.7084[hep-ex].ATLAS Collaboration 2014b arXiv: 1408.5191[hep-ex].ATLAS Collaboration 2014c arXiv:1406.3827[hep-ex].

ALFA in ATLAS measures pp cross-sectionwith high precision

ATLAS provides further insights into the Higgs boson

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Resolution vs Peaking Time

PeakingTime(s)0 1 2 3 4 5

Resolution([email protected]

keV)

180

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25 mm2

Standard SDD

FASTSDD


The National Synchrotron Light Source II(NSLS-II) is currently being commissionedat Brookhaven National Laboratory. Whencompleted, it will be a state-of-the-art,medium-energy electron storage ringproducing X-rays up to 10,000 timesbrighter than the original NSLS, whichstarted operating at BNL in 1982 and will be

shut down at the end of September.The injector system includes a 2 00 MeV

linac and booster with energy up to 3 GeV.The booster is a joint venture between theNSLS-II injector group and the BudkerInstitute of Nuclear Physics (BINP) inNovosibirsk, one of the NSLS-II partners.BINP has a solid relationship with theBrookhaven lab and has played a signicantrole in NSLS-II development, comingup with the nal design of the booster.The institute has its own well-developedworkshops and a variety of specialists,who are not only involved in many majorinternational projects but also operate theVEPP-2000 and VEPP-4M colliders.

In May 2010, according to tender resu lts,a contract was signed between Brookhavenand BINP on the manufacturing,installation and commissioning of the

turnkey booster (except an RF system).One year later, Brookhaven staff visitedBINP and accepted all rst articles. Mostof the components including the magnets,power supplies, diagnostic systems,injection-extraction system were madeat BINP. However, BINP also engagedsubcontractors, including Europeanrms. For example, power supplies for thebooster dipole magnets were produced byDanfysik A/S.

An 11-hour time difference betweenNovosibirsk and New York did not preventgood interaction between the laboratories.In the morning and evening, Brookhavenand BINP experts usually made contact todiscuss the latest achievements and posenew questions. So the Sun never set over thebooster project.

Booster parts arrived at Brookhaven fromJanuary through to August 2012. Most ofthe components came as girder assemblieswith magnets aligned to tens of microns, andvacuum chambers installed. The journeyof more than 10,000 km was made rst byroad from Novosibirsk to St Petersburg andthen to New York by ship. Upon arrival atBrookhaven, all assemblies were thoroughlytested, but the long journey did not affect thealignment of magnets on the girders.

The testing and installation activitieshave spanned both organizations. Thebooster commissioning also involved stafffrom both NSLS-II and BINP. Followingauthorization, the commissioning of thebooster started in December 2013 andwas successfully completed in February2014, ahead of schedule. The beam passingthrough booster was up to 95%, with all

systems working according to design.The commissioning of the main storage

ring started in March and on 11 July,NSLS-II reached a current of 50 mAat 3 GeV, using a new superconductingradio-frequency cavity. The second cavityand other hardware are still to be installedbefore the accelerator reaches the fulldesign current of 500 mA. The next stepis commissioning insertion devices andfront-ends.

Budker Institutes booster getsgoing at Brookhaven

LI G H T S O U R C E S

The new booster for the NSLS-II in Brookhaven. (Image credit: Pavel Cheblakov.)

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7/42CERNCOURIERVO L U M E 5 4 N U M B E R 8 O C T O B E R 2 0 1 4

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15


SciencewatchC OM P I L ED BY J OH N SW A I N , N O R T H E A S T E R NU N I V E R S I T Y

Some plants are able to live in dryenvironments by extracting water from thecrystalline structure of gypsum, in the absenceof any free liquid water. Sara Palacio of the

Instituto Pirenaico de Ecologa in Jaca, Spain,and colleagues have shown that the gypsumspecialist plantHelianthemum squamatum a small evergreen shrub that can be foundin northeastern Spain, and other places candraw water from gypsum. The mineral,which is a hydrated form of calcium sulphate

(CaSO4 2 H2O), can also exist as bassanitewith a quarter of the water content, or asanhydrite, with no water at all. The isotopiccomposition of the crystallization water in

gypsum differs from free water, and can beused to show that for shallow-rooted plants,7090% of the water taken up comes fromgypsum. Details of how the plants extract thecrystallization water have yet to be workedout, but it is interesting to note that gypsum iswidespread not just on Earth, but also on Mars.

Further readingS Palacio et al.2014 NatureCommun. 54660.

Imaging with undetectedphotonsIn a remarkable extension of earlierinteraction-free measurement techniques,Gabriela Barreto Lemos of the AustrianAcademy of Sciences in Vienna andcolleagues have managed to make i magesusing only photons that have not i nteractedwith the object to be visualized. Two separatedown-conversion nonlinear cr ystals aredriven with the same pump laser, but creating

only one pair of photons. The ambiguityin which crystal produced the photons,together with a rather subtle interferometricset-up, allows an image to be formed entirelyusing information from photons that are notthemselves detected that is, the photons thatilluminate the object are not detected, whilethose that are detected never illuminated t heobject. The technique is demonstrated bymaking images of objects that are opaque orinvisible to the photons that are detected.

Further readingG B Lemos et al.2014 Nature512 409.

Reliable teleportationImplicit in the now iconic phrase Beamme up, Scotty! is the assumption thatteleportation should be reliable something

that has only just been achieved. W Pfaffof Delft University in the Netherlandsand colleagues used two diamondcrystals, each with a cryogenically coolednitrogen-vacancy (NV) as the sender andreceiver sites (traditionally called Aliceand Bob). An input qubit is entangled withAlices NV, 3 m from Bobs, with which itwas previously entangled by optical means.Before decoherence spoils things here afew milliseconds Alice couples her input

qubit to her NV, and makes a measurementwhose result can then inform Bob (via aclassical channel) what to do to his NV to getthe original qubit at his end.

This is a rst for quantum t eleportationbetween distant solid-state (as opposedto photonics) qubits. Owing to smallimperfections, the actual delity was 86%,but in principle could be perfect. Now it isjust a matter of getting from one qubit up toAvogadros number, to make Star Trek fanshappy, but in the meantime the technique

holds great promise for quantum computing.

Further readingW Pfaff et al.2014 Science 345532.

Searching for (not-so?)intelligent alien lifeAttempts to detect signatures of alien lifehave involved looking for atmosphereswith molecular oxygen and a reducinggas, but what about intelligent life? HenryLin of Harvard College in Cambridge,Massachusetts, and colleagues have madethe amusing or perhaps depressing suggestion that exoplanetary atmospherescould be searched for industrial pollutants,such as the chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs)that are damaging our own ozone layer andare unlikely to arise naturally. They estimate

that the James Webb Space Telescope could,within a couple of days of observation andat no signicant extra cost, check out otherworlds, not just for signs of life, but for signsthat their residents are dumping around 10times as much CFCs into their atmospheresas we have done.

Further readingH W Lin et al.2014 The Astrophysical Journal Letters792L7.

Plants that drink from rocks

Helianthemum squamatum. (Image credit:Ghislain118http://www.fleurs-des-montagnes.net.)

Space dustNASAs Stardustspacecraft mighthave brought the firstspecks of dust fromoutside the SolarSystem back to Earth.

Andrew Westphalof the University ofCalifornia, Berkeley,

and colleagues,together with30,714 volunteersworldwide workingwith Stardust@home, scannedmore than 1 milliontracks left in the .1 m2Stardust InterstellarDust Collector. The collector, made ofultralow-density aerogel and aluminium,was exposed to the interstellar dust streamcoming from the direction of the constellationOphiuchus for 195 days during two periods in2000 and 2002.

Interstellar dust-particle candidates weredistinguished on the basis of compositionand/or impact trajec tory, rather as in aparticle-physics experiment. Seven candidatedust specks were found one dominated

by carbon, another a silicate, and the othersmore complex. The observations diverge fromany one representative model of interstellardust, leaving the understanding of its naturean ongoing open problem that will take moredata to solve.

Further readingA J Westphalet al.2014 Science 345786.

Tri-colour iron,

calcium,(chromium+manganese)elemental map ofone dust-particlecandidate derivedfrom X-rayfluorescence data.

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17


AstrowatchC OM P I L ED BY MAR C T R L E R, ISDC AN D OB S ER VA TOR Y OF TH E U N I V E R S I T YOF G E N E V A , AN D CHIPP, U N I V E R S I T YOF ZU R I C H

ESAs INTEGRAL satellite has detectedgamma-ray lines from the radioactive decayof nickel and cobalt in a nearby supernova oftype Ia. This unprecedented result conrmsthat the intense light of the supernova comes

from the radioactive decay of these elements,which were formed by the thermonuclearexplosion of a white-dwarf star.

There are basically two main classes ofsupernova explosions. Type II supernovaeresult from the collapse of the core of amassive star, whereas those of type Ia arethought to be the thermonuclear disruptionof a white-dwarf star. According to thetheory of such explosions, the carbon a ndoxygen found in a white dwarf should befused into radioactive nickel (56Ni) duringthe explosion. The 56Ni should decay quicklyinto radioactive cobalt (56Co), which itselfsubsequently decays, on a somewhat longertimescale, into stable iron (56Fe). The ignitionshould arise when the white dwarfs massexceeds a critical mass of about 1.4 times themass of the Sun. This can result from masstransfer from a companion star or by the

merger of two white dwarfs.It is this uniform process among all type-Ia

supernovae that makes them standardcandles for cosmology, which were used tomeasure the acceleration of t he expansion ofthe universe (CERN CourierNovember 2011p5). Type Ia supernovae are also less fre quentthan type IIs, and it is only by coincidencethat two relatively nearby events appearedrecently: SN 2011fe in the Pinwheel Galaxy(CERN CourierJanuary/February 2012 p13)and now SN 2014J in Messier 82 (Picture ofthe month CERN CourierMarch 2014 p12).

At a distance of 11.5-million light-yearsfrom Earth, SN 2014J is the closest of its typesince 1972. Its appearance offered a uniqueopportunity to use the SPI gamma-rayspectrometer aboard INTEGRAL to try to

detect the emission lines from the decaysof 56Ni and 56Co. All other scheduledobservations of INTEGRAL were delayed,but it paid off.

Eugene Churazov, from the SpaceResearch Institute in Moscow and theMax Planck Institute for Astrophysics inGermany, and collaborators, report thedetection of two emission lines at 847 and1238 keV from the radioactive decay of 56Cobetween 50 and 100 days after the ignition.They also nd a weak signal at 511 keVfrom the electronpositron annihilation

following the decay 56Co56Fe + e+andassociated emission in the 200400 keVband. By tting a three-parameter model tothe observations, they calculate that about0.6 solar masses of 56Ni have been produced

by the thermonuclear explosion. Theobserved broadening of the lines suggestsa typical expansion velocity of about10,000 km/s.

Another team, led by Roland Diehl fromthe Max Planck Institute for ExtraterrestrialPhysics, reports the detection of 56Nialready 15 to 20 days after the explosion.This came as a surpris e, and suggests thatabout 10% of the nickel is not produce dat the centre of the star from where theradiation could not escap e but must havebeen produced outside it. The researcherspropose that a belt of helium accreted fromthe companion star could have detonatedrst, forming the observed nickel andthen triggering the internal explosion thatbecame the supernova.

Regardless of the ne details, theseresults represent a new breakthrough for the

12-year-old INTEGRAL spacecraft, whichhas previously detected the radioactive signalof 44Ti from the bright type-II SN 1987Ain the Large Magellanic Cloud (CERNCourierDecember 2012 p11). The newresults provide direct evidence that type-Iasupernovae are indeed thermonuclearexplosions of white-dwarf stars.

Further readingE Churazovet al.2014 Nature512406.R Diehlet al.2014 Science ExpressDOI:10.1126/science.1254738.

Picture of the month

This unprecedented high-resolution view of the nucleus of a comet was t aken bythe OSIRIS narrow-angle camera of ESAs Rosetta spacecraft on 3 August 2014.After 10 years, five months and four days travelling towards our destination,

looping around the Sun five times and clocking up 6.4-billion kilometres, we aredelighted to announce finally we are here, declared Jean-Jacques Dordain, ESAsdirector-general. Indeed, launched on 2 March 2004, Roset ta finally reached itstarget comet 67P/ Churyumov-Gerasimenko on 6 August, and remains in orbitaround this icy body at a distance of less than 100 km. The comet nucleus is onlyabout 4 km in size, and was found to have an unexpected double-lobed structurewith many surface features. The next major mission objective scheduled for11 November is to drop the Philae module to land on the surface and drill into thecomet. (Image credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA.)

INTEGRAL catches radioactivity of a supernova

Hubble image of the supernova SN 2014J,taken in visible light on 31 Januar y 2014(inset) superimposed on an earlierwide-field view of the host galaxyMessier 82. (Image credit: NASA/ESA/A Goobar (Stockholm University)/Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA).)

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19


CERN Courier Archive:1971A L O O K B A C K TO CERN C OU R I ER VO L . 11, O C TOB ER 1971, C OM P I L ED BY P E G G I ER I M M ER

The Eighth International Conference onHigh-Energy Accelerators was held atCERN from 20 to 24 September. It attractedabout 200 specialists from many research

centres, mainly in Europe, the US and USSR,in addition to people from CERN itself.

Four years ago, at the Cambridge conference,people were obsessed by space-charge effectsand boosters. At Yerevan two years later,interest had swung to electron-ring accelerators

and superconductivity. At CERN, electron-ringaccelerators had moved down a peg butsuperconductivity was still there, althoughnarrowed to superconducting accelerator rings.

But above everything else, storage rings heldthe stage.

In the wake of the success of the ISR, andwith electronpositron machines at Frascati,Orsay and Novosibirsk supporting fruitfulexperimental programmes, there are some

major new proposals from Brookhaven andStanford for storage-ring construction, inaddition to the projects already underwayat Cambridge, DESY, Novosibirsk, Orsay

and Stanford. Also, when talking of optionsbeyond the several hundred GeV stage at thenew US and European proton synchrotrons,the possibility of superconducting storagerings is much more prominent.

Compiled from texts on pp295296.

ISR inauguration

In his speech at the CERN IntersectingStorage Rings inauguration, 16 October1971, Werner Heisenberg [a theor ist]said: Here we have a golden key, whichcontrols the transfer of protons from theProton Synchrotron to the IntersectingStorage Rings. I have it not only for ourown protection but also to hand it to thepresident of the CERN Council, ProfessorAmaldi [an experimentalist]. As is the

rule in physics, such a symbolic key shou ldrst be in the hands of the experimentalphysicists and only when they have donetheir work should it be handed back to thetheoreticians. I give it to Professor Amaldiin the hope that it will not be too longbefore your colleagues can symbolicallyhand it back to my colleagues with manygood new results.

Compiled from texts on pp295296.

Accelerator Conference

Left: At the inauguration of the ISR, 16 October 1971, Professor Werner Heisenberghands the key to Professor Edoardo Amaldi, president of CERN Council and representingthe European high-energy-physics community. (Image credit: CERN 342.10.71.) Right:The key to the beam stoppe r that is located bet ween the 28 GeV proton synchrotron andthe ISR. Gold-plat ed for the occasion, it is kept i n a small box that has a pictu re by the19th-century painter Gustave Dor engraved on the lid. Designed to illustrate LaFontaines fable The Two Goats, the picture shows the goats in head-o n collision.(Image credit: CERN 396.10.71.) Above right: At the ISR closure ceremony on 26 June1984, the key was symbolically returned from Giorgio Bellettini, the last chairman of theISR Experiments Committee, standing right, to Viki Weisskopf, doyen of theorists, who asdirector-general of CERN in the early 1960s did much to promote the construction of theISR. (FromCERN CourierSeptember 1984 p28 7.)

Compilers Note

During the 1960s

and 1970s, morethan 20 particleaccelerators ofvarious designscame on line forresearch.

There were threehigh-intensity hadronaccelerators: LAMPF(now LANSCE) at

Los Alamos, at SIN (now PSI) in Villigen, and atTRIUMF in Vancouver the largest cyclotron everbuilt. These are still going strong, supportinga diverse range of applications from materialsscience to nuclear medicine.

And there were 10 colliders: nine for leptonsand just one for hadrons, CERNs Intersecting

Storage Rings (ISR). On 27 January 1971, theISR produced the worlds first protonprotoncollisions. A decade later, on 4 April 1981, itproduced the worlds first protonantiprotoncollisions, heralding the conversion of CERNsSuper Proton Synchrotron to a protonantiprotoncollider in July of that year.

As for the golden key to the ISR, does anyoneknow of its whereabouts?

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21


60 years of CERN

SIX DECADES OF SCIENCE

FOR PEACE

1949French physicist Louis deBroglie puts forward the firstofficial proposal for aEuropean laboratory at aconference in Lausanne inDecember.

1955Felix Bloch, CERN's firstdirector-general, lays thefoundation stone on thesite at Meyrin on 10 June.

1952Under the auspices of UNESCO,the Conseil europen pour larecherche nuclaire CERN is founded. A delegation visitsBrookhaven Laboratory todiscuss ideas that eventuallybear fruit with CERNs ProtonSynchrotron (PS).

1953The convention establishing CERN is signed, subjectto ratification, by 12 future member states, at thecouncil session in Paris on 29 June1 July. Itstipulates that the research carried out must bepurely scientific, not used for military applications,and that all results must be made public.

1954Work starts in May on thesite chosen near Geneva.On 29 September, theEuropean Organization forNuclear Research comesinto being, after theconvention is ratified by asufficient number of the12 founding member states.

UNESCO gainsobserver status

1959The PS starts up on24 November.

Austria becomesa member state

1960In the midst of the Cold War,the first exchange of scientistswith the Joint Institute forNuclear Research at Dubnatakes place, with three Sovietscientists arriving at CERNon 18 July.

CERNs origins can be traced back to the late 1940s, when a divided

Europe was emerging from the ashes of war. A small g roup of vision-

ary scientists and public administrators, on both sides of the Atlantic,

identied fundamental research as a potential vehicle to rebuild the

continent and foster peace in a troubled region. It was from these

ideas that CERN was born on 29 September 1954, with a dual man-

date to provide excellent science, and to bring nations together.

Twelve founding member states Belgium, Denmark, France,

the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands,

Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and Yugoslavia signed the

convention that ofcially entered into force 60 years ago.

As CERNs facilities and research arena grew in size, so too

did the extent of collaboration, with more countries becom-

ing involved in particular with the programme for the Large

ElectronPositron (LEP) collider, and more recently with the

construction of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) itself, as well

as its experiments. Today, CERN has 21 member states, with one

candidate for accession, one associate member in the pre-stage to

membership and seven observer states and organizations. In addi-

tion, it has co-operation agreements with many non-member states.

This timeline illustrates a few key moments in this collaborative

journey, from those early days to 2014, the 60th anniversary year.

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Happy BirthdayOn September 29 it will be exactly

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each 57 metres long, which focus thebeams. Just prior to collision, another

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discoveries in the field of fundamental

physics. One of the side products, but

not less important, is what we today

call the world wide web. After 60 years

of pioneering scientific research its

utterly impossible to enumerate all theexciting discoveries that CERN has made.The detection of the Higgs Boson, for

instance, was of enormous importance.

The confirmation of this theory was the

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during the last decades. It is one of

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upcoming decades. The CERNs impact

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the importance of bringing nations

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and technology.

Linde Kryotechnik AGDaettlikonerstrasse 5

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Phone +41.52.304-0555Fax 41.52.304-0550E-mail [email protected] www.linde-kryotechnik.ch

CMS Experiment at the LHC, CERN

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The dedication of the CERN crew and

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22


60 years of CERN

On 27 January 1971, Kjell Johnsen announces that the worlds first interactions at a proton collider have been recorded in the ISR.

1965With the signing on 13 Septemberof agreements on the extensioninto French territory, CERNbecomes the first internationalorganization to span a frontier.

1967A co-operation agreement between CERN and the USSRis signed in July, enabling European scientists tocollaborate on the worlds largest accelerator at thetime, at the Institute for High Energy Physics atSerpukhov. CERNs director-general joins in thestart up celebrations.

1971On 27 January, CERNs IntersectingStorage Rings (ISR) become theworlds first proton collider,attaining a totally new energyrange. The experiments attractsubstantial participation from theUS, and also groups from othernon-member states, such as India.

1972An agreement is signed with Franceon 16 June, establishing a newCERN site at Prvessin. Constructionwork soon begins for the SuperProton Synchrotron (SPS).

1961Spain becomes a member state

Yugoslavia leaves

Turkey gains observer status

1962First CERN Schoolof Physics

19701st Joint CERN-JINRPhysics School

1969Spain leaves

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60 years of CERN

The LEP ground-breaking ceremony on 13 September 1983, with Franois Mitt erand, centre left, and Pierre Aubert, centre right,

presidents of the host states, France and Switzerland, respectively.

Hungrary becomes amember state

Czechoslovakia becomes amember state

1993The Czech Republic andSlovakia become member

statesThe Russian Federationbecomes an observer state

The CERNJINR schoolbecomes the EuropeanSchool of High-EnergyPhysics

1991Finland and Polandbecome member states

USSR becomes anobserver state

Israel becomes anobserver state

1985Production of bismuthgermanium oxide (BGO)crystals for the L3experiment at LEP beginsin China, using materialsfrom both the USSR andChina, and machinerydeveloped in France.

1994CERNs 40th-anniversary year sees thefirst approval by Council for theconstruction of the LHC in the LEP tunnel.

1992Ideas for LHC experiments gopublic for the first time at ameeting in Evian in March.

The proto-collaborationsinclude a dozen or sonon-member states.

1987The scale of the LEP experimentsdemands big collaborative efforts,with components coming from manycountries. The superconducting coil ofthe DELPHI experiment at LEP,descends from the Jura mountainsnear CERN, in October.

1989Following first collisions in August, LEPis inaugurated on 13 November in thepresence of dignitaries from the14 member states.

Portugal becomes amember state

The European Commissiongains observer status

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60 years of CERN

The Super Proton Synchrotrons 7-km tunnel straddles the Franco-Swiss border, making it the first cross-border accelerator.

1976The SPS is completed.After acceleration to 80 GeVin May, it reaches 400 GeV

on 17 June.

1978Soviet technicians work on finalpreparations for the first joint CERN-JINRexperiment, NA4, at the SPS.

1981The completed 2000-tonneUA1 detector is ready whenthe SPS starts up as the

worlds first protonantiprotoncollider in August. Led byCarlo Rubbia, the experimentsets a new scale and attractsgroups from the US to searchfor the W and Z bosons.

1983The ground-breaking ceremony for the27-km Large ElectronPositron (LEP) collidertakes place on 13 September. Much of thetunnel is to pass through French territory.

1973One of the first contacts withscientists from the People'sRepublic of China takes placewith a visit of a delegation fromPeking in June.

Spain rejoins as a member state

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60 years of CERN

The first magnets installed in the LHC tunnel, in April 2005. The last of the 1232 dipoles was put in place two years later.

US becomes an observer state

Japan becomes an observer state

1999Bulgaria becomes amember state

2002India becomes anobserver state

2005The first inner triplet set offocussing magnets from theUS and Japan is assembledat CERN in April.

2007Cold testing of the superconducting LHC

magnets, with the participation of teamsfrom India, comes to a successful end.

1997Agreements between CERN and theUS government signed in Washingtonand at the Council meeting in Decembermark the start of the significantcontribution of the US to the LHC.

1995To mark the start of collaborationbetween Japan and CERN, theJapanese minister and CERNsdirector-general paint one eye of adaruma talisman, the second to beadded on the projects completion.

2001CERN and the CentroLatino-Americano de Fsicainitiate a new series ofCERNLatin-AmericanSchools of High-EnergyPhysics, with the first beingheld in Brazil in May.

1998Neutrino physics in the SPS WestArea ends. The CHORUS experimentthere saw a significant contributionfrom Turkish physicists.

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60 years of CERN

Delight in the CERN Control Centre on 30 March as the LHC produces the first collisions at 7 TeV in the centre of mass, and embarks

on a journey that unites physicists from all corners of the globe.

2008The inauguration of the LHC on 21 October isattended by 1500 invited guests, includingofficial delegations from CERNs member states,observer states and non-member states.

2009CERN and UNESCO hold the first digital libraryschool in Africa, on this occasion in Rwanda.

2014CERN celebrates 60 years ofscience for peace.

2010On 30 March the LHC produces the firstprotonproton collisions at a newrecord energy of 7 TeV in the centreof mass.

2012On 12 July, enthusiastic applause by physicists from around theworld at the International Conference on High-Energy Physics inMelbourne welcomes the webcast announcement of the discoveryof a Higgs boson by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the LHC.

Romania becomes a candidate for accession

Serbia becomes an associate member in the pre-stageto membership

Israel becomes amember state

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60 years of CERN

After 40 years at CERN, what have I Iearnt? From a Russian: the meaning of8 March, how communication can be achieved with few words, and friendship,even if interrupted abruptly, can remain for life. From a Chinese: is theinsurmountable really insurmountable? From an Iranian: what is important isnot appearance but that you are respected. This is a short list in reality, I wasalways learning something from the people I met at CERN. If nothing else, new

recipes, what to see in their countries, or new cultural insights.When I arrived at CERN in 1969, I thought I was a rare being not only anacademic woman but also a biologist. However, time showed that the biggestrarity was the place where I had come to work . During the first month, I wasinvited for dinner to the home of my boss, Johan Baarli, a Norwegian physicistwho was head of the Health Physics Group. Travelling there on the bus, I meta Polish r adiation-dosimetry physicist, Mieczyslaw Zielczynski, who wasalso invited. At that time it was a great rarity to encounter someone frombehind the Iron Curtain, and although we could not talk much because of

our different languages, we became lifelong friends. A still bigger surprisecame in April 1971, when the International Congress on Protection againstAccelerator and Space Radiation was held at CERN, and Russian, Americanand European physicists and engineers could speak freely with each other.

As a collaborator on studies towards the possible applications ofhigh-energy particle beams for cancer therapy, a Russian biologist,Valentina Kurnaeva, was working with me, whose husband was withthe Serpukhov collaboration at the Proton Synchrotron. I still have manymemories of good work and warm hospitality invited for lunch, I arrived atnoon, but the meal did not start until 2:0 0 p.m., and at 10:00 p.m. we werestill there, singing, talking, eating and drinking. S adly, it ended abruptlywhen one of the Russians disappeared mysteriously. My friends had to leavewithin a week, and we cried knowing that there was not much hope that wewould see each other again.

By the end of the 1970s, Chinese physicists were appearing at CERN,with three in the Radiation Protection Group. They were friendly and eager toknow everything. The Chinese philosophy on life helped me a great deal, notonly because they were hard workers, no matter what time of day or night,

but also because of their kindness and politeness. When I organized thefarewell party after the decision was taken to end radiobiological activity atCERN in 1981, one of them did me a drawing. Even now, when I feel down, Ilook at it and it cheers me up. It is true that there is always light somewhere,one just has to pass over the mountain.

Later, when I was doing the safety courses for the physicists who had towork underground at the Large ElectronPositron ( LEP) collider, I neededtranslations of a safety note and a sticker to call the fire brigade, in as manylanguages as possible. It was simple to find help with Chinese, Russian and

CERN is knowledge, understanding and peace

(CERN Courier March 2006 p15). It was based on scientific institutionsthat had grown up after the S econd World War in a town on the Volga thateventually was named Dubna city of s ciences. At the same time, Sovietscientific work previously recorded in internal reports was declassifiedand published in scientific journals. English translations were published,mainly in the US, and learning Russian became popular among physicists.

The symposium organized by CERN in July 1956 offered the opportunityfor many people to make personal contacts, and especially during anexcellent reception held by the Soviet delegation at the Hotel Metropole,where they were all lodged for security reasons. Vodka ran abundantly.

Many of the Soviet physicists subsequently became directors of thedifferent laboratories of JINR and/or were to have important roles in Sovietphysics. It was the first time that a large delegation of Soviet scientistsworking in particle physics took part in a scientific conference in the West.

The scientific sessions included reports from the Soviet delegation onthe work done at the synchrocyclotron, at was then the Institute of NuclearProblems, during the years 19501955, together with work done in othersectors and in other laboratories. This was when the whole world learnt

that the USSR had what was then the largest synchrocyclotron ever built with a diameter of 6 m. At the same time, the wo rld learnt that BrunoPontecorvo had an active part in the scientific work with that machine(CERN CourierSeptember 2013 p78). Although he was not present inGeneva, he had contributed to a paper on the synchrocyclotrons beamsand their use.

Adolf Mukhin presented results on+p scattering at energies in the176310 MeV range. These results, together with those on pion productionfrom other experiments, created some embarrassment in the physicscommunity interested in performing similar experiments at the CER N

Synchrocyclotron (SC). In 1956 the SC was still being constructed, andpion beams for users were foreseen only for early in 1958. For tunatelynature was kind, because weak interactions were soon to come to the fore,and experiments at the SC were able to make an important impact. Later,in 1961, Mukhin was one of the first two experimental physicists from theUSSR to visit CERN for a long period the ot her was Vladimir Nikitin duringwhich he joined an experiment on muon nuclear capture at the SC.

With the kind help of Maria Fidecaro, CERN.

Marilena Streit-Bianchi, centre, with Karen Panman, left, and

Roger Paris, with an experiment by the Radiobiology Group to

study the effect of radiati on on living cells. (Image credit:

CERN-PHOTO-8010439-1.)

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60 years of CERN

My formative years as a young Polish experimental high-energy physicist werespent at CERN, starting in 1974 and lasting, with breaks, until 1984, when Iemigrated from Europe to the US. Today, I am a research faculty member in theradiology department in a medical centre quite a transformation for a personwith PhD training in experimental high-energy physics, who specializedinitially in the development of gaseous particle detectors.

CERN had a special ambiance and offered tremendous opportunities toany young particle physicist, not only those from Poland. However, the Polishcontingent at CERN was always disproportionally large compared with the sizeof the country in the Soviet block. We always had much more freedom to travelthan others from the block, and I benefited 200 % from that opportunity. I owemuch gratitude to all who were supportive. Luckily for my family and me, weleft Poland before martial law was imposed in December 1981.

At CERN I worked in several groups, but I owe the most to GeorgesCharpak and Fabio Sauli, and to the Nucleus Heidelberg group. WhateverI learned later after emigrating to the US was a natural continuation andexpansion of that initial training not just in a technical sense, but mostlyin a cultural sense, with the mindset that everything is possible. This wasthe message from Georges, at least to young people like us. It was G eorgeswho got me interested in imaging

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