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CEPL556: Conflict Resolution


This course includes:

One self-check quiz

Two discussions

One tool to download and use on the job

One scored project in multiple parts

Completing all of the coursework should take about five to seven hours.

What You'll Learn

Explain why conflict is inherent in projects

Describe approaches to resolving conflict and explain how your mode of addressing conflict does or does not

support these approaches

Discuss the elements of the principled negotiation approach to conflict resolution

Course Description

Conflict can arise at many levels in an organization. As a project leader, you should understand what conflict is, what

types of conflict can appear, what sources give rise to conflict, and how to manage conflict. Effective project leaders can

analyze a conflict situation and determine the best way to handle it. This course gives you the tools to manage conflict and

introduces you to strategies for moving people to mutually acceptable agreements.

Frank Wayno Senior Lecturer, College of Engineering, Cornell University

is a specialist in large-scale organizational change and managerial effectiveness.Frank Wayno

He recently researched the processes for total quality success used by winners of the Malcolm

Baldrige Award. His consulting work has involved helping entrepreneurial firms in a variety of


Click Play to Listen

industries manage the life-cycle transitions that occur with growth. Frank developed a successful

consulting practice with manufacturing and service organizations on competency-based

behavioral education for executives and increasing organizational effectiveness through

participative change strategies. Before that he was a corporate officer at Merrill Lynch, charged

with advising senior management on work redesign and organizational restructuring.

Start Your Course


Module Introduction: Conflict Resolution in Context

Conflict is inevitable in almost all organizations and projects. How can project managers better prepare themselves to

manage conflict? In this module, enhance your knowledge about conflict-how it manifests itself in an organization, the

types of conflict, and how conflict develops.

Conflict is a challenge most project managers need to deal with when leading project teams. This module explores what

organizational conflict is and provides resources to enhance your understanding of the types and sources of conflict that

can arise in an organization.

Everyone handles conflict differently. Do you know how you handle conflict? This module explains a tool that can help

project managers determine their mode of handling conflict. This module also provides resources to enhance your ability

to choose which type of conflict-handling mode to use when dealing with certain conflict situations.


Read: Conflict on the MicroWidget Team

Case Study F.W. Inc.

Naomi had been an engineer at F.W. Inc. for three years when she was asked to serve as project manager for the

development of the organization's new MicroWidget 3000 project. Now, the project is finally coming close to completion,

and Naomi believes that her success as a project manager on this project could lead to a large promotion.

Right now, however, Naomi is reviewing the financial data for the project…and coming to a somewhat staggering

realization.

Naomi's colleagues in the engineering department are working tirelessly to create a new microprocessor for the Widget.

And while the processor is certainly impressive, it also looks like it will be expensive to produce. Meanwhile, F.W. Inc. has

a large stock of the existing Widget processors waiting to be used, and with some modest design modifications to the

Widget, they could do the job. Though the budget allows for the production of the new processors, Naomi realizes that she

could claim a budget surplus of several million dollars if she uses the existing processors. Getting the project done on time

and ahead of budget would certainly impress senior management and guarantee her the promotion she is looking for.

At the same time, not using the new processor would upset her engineering colleagues. The engineering manager who is

functionally in charge of the engineers working on the new processor is particularly likely to be upset, because his

engineers may come to believe that he has not spoken up for innovation and has been complicit in taking away a

significant "victory" from them.

Naomi is in conflict. Should she risk her promotion for the sake of her engineering department? Or is her role as project

manager more important than her role as engineer?


Watch: Role Conflict

R. E. Jones and R. F. Deckro. "The Social Psychology of Project Management Conflict," European Journal of Operations

Research, 64, 1993: 216-228.


Read: Role Theory Framework

Key Points

Conflict can have subtle or internalized manifestations

A role theory framework identifies four types of conflict and four ways conflict might arise

People often think of conflict as an open argument between two or more parties. The reality, however, is that conflict could

have far more subtle or internalized manifestations. Consider the scenario at the beginning of this topic: Naomi is

conflicted because of a sense of dual obligations; she has to make concessions to either her role as a project manager or

her role as an engineer.

A role theory framework identifies four types of conflict and four ways in which this conflict might arise, as illustrated

below:

Conflict types Sources of conflict

Intersender conflict

Intrasender conflict

Interrole conflict

Person-role conflict

Bifurcation of authority

Technical complexity of the project

Internal organizational politics

Project life cycle

As a project manager you can use these to create a framework for analyzing your organization for conflict. Consider the

cells that might inform the situation with Naomi. Click the highlighted cells to see how the conflict might be explained.

How might you expand this analysis to other roles in the organization?

R. E. Jones and R. F. Deckro. "The Social Psychology of Project Management Conflict," European Journal of Operations

64, 1993: 216-228.Research,


Read: Attributes of an Effective Conflict Resolution Process

Key Points

Effective conflict management requires deft handling of conflicts

Examine conflict-negotiation process attributes

Being able to recognize and precisely define a conflict is critical to successful project management. More importantly,

however, the project manager must be able to manage the conflict effectively once it is identified. This will occasionally

mean the project manager will need to handle the conflict, choosing one of the conflict-handling modes defined in the

Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument to guide an interactive approach. At other times, this could mean trying to

resolve the dispute using one of the many formal mechanisms available, such as arbitration, litigation, or mediation. At

other times, it will involve crafting a unique "informal" dispute resolution procedure.

Negotiation consultant Danny Ertel proposes the following list of attributes of an effective conflict management process:


D. Ertel. "How to Design a Conflict Management Procedure that Fits Your Dispute," Sloan Management Review, Summer

1991: 29-42.


Activity: Write the Case

In this first part of the course project, you will write a brief description of a conflict situation in which you are currently or

were recently engaged. You will return to this scenario at various points throughout the course to analyze it and suggest

ways that it might be resolved.

To complete this activity:

1. Download the worksheet and save it.Course Project

2. Complete .Part One

3. Save your work. You will return to this worksheet throughout the course, then submit it at the end for feedback and

grading.

https://s3.amazonaws.com/ecornell/content/CEPL/CEPL556/cepl556_project_worksheet.docx


Read: Your Conflict Profile

Key Points

The five styles of conflict management identified include competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and

accommodating

Our orientation toward each of these five styles is determined by two choices we can make: our assertiveness and our

cooperativeness

One goal of this course is to help you understand how you handle conflict situations. Conflict situations-when two people

cannot agree or have a difference that is not easily resolved on its own-can occur at the interpersonal or at the group

level.

An assessment tool that organizations have used successfully for over 30 years to evaluate behavior in relationship to

conflict is the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI). The TKI was developed by Kenneth W. Thomas and

Ralph H. Kilmann to measure conflict style-how we choose to deal with conflict when confronted with it. The five styles of

conflict management identified include competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. Our

orientation toward each of these five styles is determined by two choices we can make: how much we choose to exert

energy to protect our own interests-our assertiveness; and how much we choose to exert energy to learn about and

protect the interests of the party with whom we are at odds-our cooperativeness.

If you would like to assess your behaviors in relation to conflict, there are several organizations that provide versions of

the TKI assessment. For a nominal fee, CPP, Inc. offers several packages. According to CPP, the TKITKI assessment

can be administered online or through a self-scoring method to help determine how to use the styles effectively when

dealing with conflict situations.

http://www.cpp.com/en/detailprod.aspx?pc=142


Watch: The Thomas-Kilmann Model


Read: Avoiding

Key Points

The avoiding method of conflict-handling can be useful; other times, it shouldn't be used

Use this conflict-handling mode when there is no chance your concerns will be met

Use this conflict-handling mode when addressing your concerns will only escalate conflict

What types of things might you see happening around you when using the conflict-handling mode ? There areAvoiding

times when this conflict-handling mode can be useful, and then there are times when it shouldn't be used. Understanding

the distinctiveness of this mode can help you to use it more effectively.

Uses

Typically, you use this conflict-handling mode when you perceive that there is no chance your concerns will be met in the

conflict or if you know that trying to address your concerns right away may create more tension in the conflict than you

originally started with. Other uses include:

Letting people take time away from the conflict to calm down. When conflict occurs, there are times when anger

may be induced. These are the moments when you need to walk away and allow yourself to take a moment to

reflect on your own thoughts.

When you need more time to research the issues relating to the conflict. It is necessary to gather as much

information as possible. Attempting to resolve a conflict with little or inaccurate information could worsen the

problems and create a larger conflict than you originally started with.

Allowing a more experienced person to handle the conflict. If a conflict occurs and you realize you may not have

the skills necessary to resolve it, sometimes it is best to turn to someone who can handle the situation better.

Questions to Ask

Asking questions can help you determine if you are underusing or overusing the conflict-handling mode:Avoiding

Signs of Underuse

Do you feel like sometimes others perceive you as magnifying the problem when handling conflicts? You may need

to work on avoiding the issue and reflect on it a bit more before you focus on the other person. You will want to

consider tactful ways for talking to the other individual…or simply letting the issue simmer by adopting a

"wait-and-see" posture.

Do you feel like you make decisions too quickly or are unclear about what issues you need to address in conflict

situations? You may need to take more time to prioritize and determine the best way to handle the conflict.

Signs of Overuse

Do you notice that people are frustrated about not getting feedback, or projects are stalled because team members


are waiting for your input on the issues? You may need to let your team know that you are taking more time to focus

on the issues causing the conflict and to find a way to continue with other parts of the project until you can figure out

how to address the issue in a tactical manner.

Do you get the impression that the team is stressed and afraid to talk about issues? Sometimes the overuse of

can create fear. Addressing the issue and getting the conflict out in the open so people feel they can freelyAvoiding

talk about it can help resolve this problem.

K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann. Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument and Interpretive Report. CPP, 2007.


Read: Competing

Key Points

Use the conflict-handling mode when you need to make a quick decisionCompeting

Use the conflict-handling mode when direct, unpopular action is necessaryCompeting

What types of things might you see happening around you when using the conflict-handling mode ? As with Competing

, there are times when can be useful, and then there are times when it shouldn't be used.Avoiding Competing

Uses

Use the conflict-handling mode when you need to make a quick and critical decision. Other uses include:Competing

When an unfavorable action needs to take place, individuals, especially leaders, need to be direct- even though

they may be uneasy with the action. This conflict-handling mode is especially important when disciplinary action

needs to occur or when a layoff needs to take place.

When you are certain you are correct in your resolution to the conflict and it is in the best interest of the project, the

team, and ultimately the company to enforce it.

When you need to take action against people or protect yourself against people who will use any tactic to achieve

their own personal agenda.

Questions to Ask

Asking questions can help you determine if you are underusing or overusing the conflict-handling mode:Competing

Signs of Underuse

Do you feel you lack power in situations or you have a difficult time standing up for what you think is right? You may

not be thinking about your concerns enough and be too concerned with pleasing others. Sometimes, to be heard and

to see your vision go into action, you need to take an assertive stance against others.

Signs of Overuse

Are others afraid to stand up against your thoughts, and do you find that they constantly say "yes" to you? You may

be unaware that your power is so forceful; it ultimately restricts others from sharing conflicting thoughts. As a

consequence, people will shut themselves off from you because they don't want their thoughts to be denied.



Read: Accommodating

Key Points

The mode: less assertive, highly cooperativeAccommodating

The mode: someone else's suggestion is betterAccommodating

In contrast to the conflict-handling mode Competing, when using the mode, one is much less assertiveAccommodating

and is highly cooperative. As with the other modes, there are times when can be useful, and then thereAccommodating

are situations where it is more detrimental to your position in the conflict.

Uses

You often use the conflict-handling mode in situations where you know the solutions to an issueAccommodating

suggested by others are better than yours or where you are trying to build a relationship with others by giving them what

they need. Other uses include:

When you realize your position is less important to you than the other person's position is to her. This can be

helpful for future positions that you wish to take, because if team members recognize you as a flexible person, they

may be more flexible with issues that are more important to you.

When you realize that taking a strong stance may only harm your reputation or your position on the team.

When the atmosphere of the team or organization is important and the issue may cause more discord than is really

necessary.

When individuals need to learn from their mistakes. Stepping back and taking an unassertive position will allow

them to move forward with their plan.

Questions to Ask

Asking questions can help you determine if you are underusing or overusing the conflict-handling mode:Accommodating

Signs of Underuse

Do you notice that you have a hard time building agreeable relationships? It would be effective to

relationship-building to provide more support to other people's decisions instead of forcing your own.

Do you have a difficult time admitting you are wrong, or are people afraid to oppose your view? Admitting to your

team that you are wrong is sometimes necessary to keep good relationships with people. People will also feel more

comfortable sharing their different views with you if they know you have the ability to think about things analytically

and thoughtfully.

Signs of Overuse

Do you feel that your ideas are being overlooked? Being unassertive and too cooperative can diminish your power to

influence other people. Some people may take advantage of you. Building assertive skills is important to gaining


respect and recognition in your team and your organization.



Read: Compromising

Key Points

finding a middle-ground resolution to conflictCompromising:

when a team can't choose among acceptable optionsCompromising:

If you are interested in finding a middle-ground resolution to conflict, the conflict-handling mode can beCompromising

very helpful. But keep in mind that while is a useful way to reach expedient solutions, there can beCompromising

problems with using this mode too often or not often enough.

Uses

When teams have an important goal but cannot decide among a number of acceptable ways to achieve it, Compromising

can help to resolve the conflict. Other uses for this conflict-handling mode include:

When you need a temporary resolution to allow time for a closer look at a more complex issue.

When you need to make a quick decision.

When and are not working, Compromising may be the best alternative for resolving aCollaboration Competition

conflict.

Questions to Ask

Asking questions can help you determine if you are underusing or overusing the conflict-handling mode:Compromising

Signs of Underuse

Do you find yourself feeling insecure when you need to negotiate with team members? Or do you feel uncomfortable

when you have to give something up? Sometimes it is necessary to find a balance between assertiveness and

cooperativeness when negotiating with others. You may need to plan and determine what you can live with and put

yourself in the other person's shoes to craft an alternative that at least partially meets each of your needs.

Signs of Overuse

Do you find you lose sight of what you are trying to achieve, about what is fundamentally important to you, as you

resolve conflicts? You may be focusing so much on finding common ground, or on what you will trade off, that you

forget about the objectives of the goal or task.



Read: Collaborating

Key Points

C fully satisfy the concerns of all the parties involvedollaborating:

C when the issue is important to everyone involvedollaborating:

C when the parties have an ongoing relationshipollaborating:

If you want to find a way to fully satisfy the concerns of all the parties involved in the conflict, then the conflict-handling

mode can assist you.Collaborating

Uses

When the issue is very important to everyone involved and a middle-ground answer just isn't acceptable, and when the

players in the conflict have an ongoing relationship and must work together to implement a solution, is theCollaboration

way to go. Other uses for this conflict-handling mode include:

When the standard approaches to a problem don't seem to be enough and you require a truly different, creative,

and wise solution.

When gaining the commitment of all stakeholders is important to resolve a problem.

Questions to Ask

Asking questions can help you determine if you are underusing or overusing the conflict-handling mode:Collaborating

Signs of Underuse

Do you find yourself not being able to understand differences as opportunities for growth or problem solving? Do you

find yourself trying to accommodate to other points of view even though you feel you are right? Conflict can be

intimidating, but as long as you view it that way, you will have a hard time working collaboratively with others.

Reframing conflict as a learning opportunity and as a way to solve problems can encourage a win-win approach to

conflict.

Signs of Overuse

Do you sometimes overdiscuss items that don't necessarily need in-depth discussion? Inconsequential items can get

in the way of a team that is trying to come to a consensus on a problem. It takes time to collaboratively resolve

differences, and minor issues that may not be central to the conflict can cause delays. This can be overcome by

staying focused and on topic.



Module Introduction: Getting to Yes

An effective project leader should possess the skills to resolve conflict and to negotiate to gain agreement among people.

This module introduces you to a strategy to help you achieve these skills.

As a project manager, you should recognize that conflict is inherent in project life. This module examines resources that

help you understand how conflict can benefit a project. This modules also examines resources that enrich your negotiating

skills and help you manage conflict.

An important step in resolving conflict is to generate new, flexible, innovative ideas, and this requires creative thought.

This module introduces strategies for increasing creative thought and idea generation.

Once the parties have identified mutually beneficial options, how can a project manager get them to agree on one option?

This module explores a negotiation technique for evaluating and choosing a mutually acceptable option.

Now that you have learned the model for effective negotiation developed by Fisher and Ury, use the resources in this

module to help implement the techniques and develop the necessary competencies and behaviors to help manage

conflict.


Read: Conflict at F.W. Inc.

The conflict between Lukas and Jasbeer began as a simple disagreement about product specifications. Lukas-the

marketing representative to the MicroWidget team-had just given his presentation on the functional needs of the target

market when Jasbeer-a sales specialist-interjected. "Let's not forget," he offered, "that the product also needs to be

operational in environments with an air pressure of three atm."

Lukas scanned his list and shook is head. "I'm not quite sure what that means, but our research does not suggest anything

like that is a serious need."

Jasbeer looks concerned. "Pacific Underwater Research Enterprises is a huge client I have been trying to sign with us for

three years now. I promised them the new MicroWidget would be usable at their underwater laboratory."

Lukas looks at Naomi. "We can't possibly meet this need. Sales people are always doing that! You can't just make

promises to a client and then call it a customer requirement. We do research in marketing. And you are undermining this

data. If we let Jasbeer do it now, next week he'll bring a list of ten new demands and all of my work will have been for

nothing."

"That is unfair," shouts Jasbeer. "You look at trends from such a high view that you don't even care about our customers

anymore. This need is important for a potential client and important for our company, but you are trying to take it away

from me just to prove a point."

The shouting continues and Naomi recognizes that a conflict has erupted on her team. What can she as the project

manager do to help manage the conflict?


Watch: From Traditional to Interest-Based Resolution


Read: Getting to Yes

This course uses as a model for effective negotiation technique a book written by negotiation specialists Roger

Fisher and William Ury. The book, , takes a four-stepGetting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In

interest-based approach to managing conflict. This article is a distillation of the book, and provides basic information

about what the model is and how it works.

Key Points

Positional bargaining: each party takes a position, works to negotiate a compromise

: underlying elements of Principled negotiation people, interests, options, and criteria are considered

Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In

According to Roger Fisher and William Ury, there is a strategy to effectively negotiate and reach agreement without giving

in. In their book, they compare two forms of negotiation, positional bargaining and principled negotiation , and explain why

principled negotiation is a better technique.

Positional Bargaining

Fisher and Ury suggest that people often engage in "positional bargaining," in which each party takes a position and works

to negotiate a compromise. Fisher and Ury assert that when people focus on and argue more about the position than

about the actual issue, several problems can occur. Using positional bargaining often:

Leads to unwise agreements

Creates inefficiency

Endangers relationships

Principled Negotiation

An alternative to positional bargaining is principled negotiation. According to Fisher and Ury, this technique can create

"wise outcomes efficiently and amicably," producing mutually acceptable agreements. They recognize four underlying

elements in the process of principled negotiation: people, interests, options, and criteria.

People: Separate the people from the problem

When negotiating, each person should consider working side by side with the other person, focusing on the problem,

not on the other person.

Interests: Focus on interests, not positions

The object of effective negotiation is to satisfy the underlying interests of each individual involved in the negotiation.

Focusing on the other person's position often takes your focus away from what you really want.


Options: Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do

When negotiating, people often find themselves in pressure situations where they need to make a decision right

away. Giving yourself time to think about the situation and to generate several potential solutions can help you

advance shared interests and reconcile differing interests between the parties.

Criteria: Insist that the result be based on some objective standard

In some situations, people in negotiations are unwilling to compromise to come up with a mutually acceptable

agreement. In these situations, if you focus on best practices and focus on providing a fair solution, you can help the

other person realize that it is better to come to a mutually accepting agreement.

These four basic elements of principled negotiation are relevant from the time you begin to think about negotiating until

you either reach an agreement or you decide to break off the effort. This period can be divided into three stages: analysis,

planning, and discussion.

This is the stage where you try to gather information, organize it, and think about the situation. At this stage, Analysis:

you should consider the status of all parties in the negotiation, their positions, and the issues that have already been

identified as important to reaching a conclusion.

In this stage, you continue working with the elements you identified during the analysis stage, generating Planning:

ideas and considering how to handle the situation and the other people involved.

This is the stage when all parties involved communicate with one another, with the specific goal of trying Discussion:

to come to a mutually acceptable agreement. Each side should work toward understanding the interests of the other.

This summary is derived from Roger Fisher and William Ury's book, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving

In . For more information about principled negotiation and the techniques involved in effective negotiation, please click

here to purchase the most recent edition of Getting to Yes .

R. Fisher and W. Ury. New York: Penguin Books, 1991.Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In.

http://www.amazon.com/Getting-Yes-Negotiating-Agreement-Without/dp/0140157352

http://www.amazon.com/Getting-Yes-Negotiating-Agreement-Without/dp/0140157352


Listen: Step 1: People

Negotiations fail when parties fail to recognize the human element inherent in the conflict. When you attack a problem but

do not deal sensitively with those defending the opposing position, they may become defensive and emotional, confusing

perception with reality and distorting what you have said. This, in turn, leads to reinforced prejudices, counterattacks,

and-eventually-a complete breakdown of the negotiation process.

When entering a conflict management setting, remember that all parties approach a conflict with sets of interests: their

relationship with the substance of the argument and their relationship with the other people involved in the negotiation.

The real problem with a positional resolution framework is that these two interests tend to become entangled, and arguing

about positions only reinforces the conflict between them. Consider the case study in this topic: Lukas and Jasbeer

disagree about the functional specifications for a project. But their attacks became personal, each blaming the other for

trying to undermine the integrity of the organization and its processes.

The first step in the process is therefore . Then, deal directly with the people. As youseparating the people from the problem

turn your attention to people, you can focus on the needs of each individual and create solutions that meet common

needs, rather than focusing on substantive disagreement.

Now, listen as faculty author Frank Wayno explains the three categorizations of people problems: perception, emotion,

and communication.



Read: Step 2: Interests

Key Points

Focusing on interests, rather than positions or problem symptoms, allows negotiators a good deal more flexibility to search

for mutual gain

Often there are identifiable "triggers" or patterns in the situations or relationships in which control is the hardest to manifest

If you asked Lukas what he wanted in the case study for this topic, he might tell you that he wants the sales specialists to

stop making promises that run counter to the functional needs described in his analysis. This, however, is not really

representative of the interests of a party. Rather, Lukas is describing the problem he is encountering…and ultimately,

someone else's position in the situation at hand.

The second step of the model is focusing on interests, rather than positions or problem symptoms. Perhaps the real driver

behind Lukas's position is that he wants others on the team to appreciate the effort he put into creating the list of functional

needs. Or perhaps as a result of his professional subculture, Lukas needs the product specifications to reflect the trends

identified by the analysis.

Whatever the reason, focusing on the interests of the parties, rather than on the problematic positions they take, allows

negotiators a good deal more flexibility to search for mutual gain. The parties' positions are hardened and largely mutually

exclusive. Behind the positions, however, are very human reasons why they have taken these positions; these are

ultimately what we are trying to protect or gain through advocating a position. As Fisher and Ury clearly point out,

"Interests define the problem," and those interests are typically tied to basic human needs for such things as "security,

economic well-being, a sense of belonging, recognition, and control over one's life."

Again, consider Lukas. Given his initial complaint, the only way to satisfy his concern would be for the sales specialists to

stop making promises. However, if his problem is a lack of perceived appreciation of his work, potential solutions might

include asking the sales specialists to make their requests before Lukas does his analysis so that he can take them into

account, or else framing their requests in a different manner.

Another reason for focusing on interests is that opposed positions might be supported by overlapping or similar interests.

Consider Jasbeer, whose desire to make promises is directly opposed to Lukas's initial position. But both positions might

be based on a common interest in pleasing clients and being perceived as competent on the job. As a project manager

responsible for this negotiation, you can use these points of commonality to help shape alternatives.


Read: Identifying Interests

The list below, taken from Fisher and Ury's , guides you to an understanding of how interests can beGetting to Yes

separated from problems. Remember, when you approach a conflict situation, understanding your own interests is just as

important as understanding those of the person with whom you are negotiating, if not more so.



Read: Perception

Key Points

If our perceptions of others are clouded, our analyses will be distorted

Perceptions can be distorted by a number of factors

Perception is a vital skill to negotiators hoping to separate out and focus on people problems. The natural workings of our

system for taking in and categorizing information can cause problems if our perceptions of others are clouded by any of

the numerous factors that influence our impressions of the people with whom we are negotiating.

Especially when there is not enough information for us to form a complete impression, our perceptions will be

disproportionately affected by:

The environment in which we are introduced to others

Generalizations drawn from the few behaviors we have witnessed-our initial impressions

The intelligence and character someone has displayed in casual conversation

Our own perceptual limitations as described below:

Stereotyping: predisposed judgments on the basis of membership in a particular group

Halo effect: a general impression-whether favorable or unfavorable-that keeps the perceiver from actually

seeing the traits he is judging

Projection: reliving a feeling of guilt or failure by blaming others

Perceptual defense: ignoring particular traits or events that would be personally disturbing

Think about the impact of these factors on your ability to manage conflict. If you are unable to accurately create

impressions of the people with whom you are negotiating, you will not be able to accurately assess their needs and

interests. Subsequently, your analysis will be distorted and your conflict resolution efforts will be in vain.

S. S. Zalkind and T. W. Costello, "Perception: Implications for Administration," ,Administrative Science Quarterly

September 1962: 218-235.


Read: Developing a Capacity for Perceptual Objectivity

Key Points

Perceptual Objectivity competency involves the capacity to get in touch with the worldviews of others

Listening and empathy skills enhance the competency's development

Others must confirm the accuracy and utility of how we understand their perspectives

The eCornell course "Introduction to Project Leadership" introduced a model of leadership competencies that, if properly

employed, can increase the likelihood of project success. One competency that is critical to employ in the first steps of an

interest-based conflict management approach is Perceptual Objectivity.

The Perceptual Objectivity competency involves the capacity to get in touch with the worlds and the worldviews of

others-to understand their thinking. This competency can be applied to two classes of situation: when your perspective

differs from that of another person, and when you discern the perspectives of others in a conflict that doesn't necessarily

involve you.

When you are objective, you stand outside your biases or prejudices and sense the world as another experiences it.

Perceptual Objectivity has to do with the senses and the way we "read" others. At a more basic level, it is also about how

well we listen-and hear.

This is an instrumental competency, which means that it enables you to support your subordinates more effectively,

address conflict issues at their heart, build a team with awareness of the members' diverse perspectives, and increase

your capacity for Accurate Self-Assessment, another competency in this model of high-performance leadership.

Listening and empathy skills enhance the competency's development. This competency is obviously interactive-we cannot

perceive others accurately without their concurrence. Perceptual Objectivity also involves the skill of self-transcendence,

the capacity to reach beyond your own immediate perceptual experiences into the larger world of others.

Competency

Acquisition Process

1. Recognition

2. Understanding

3. Assessment

4. Experimentation

5. Practice

6. Application

To demonstrate this competency, it is not enough just to state others' views. Competency requires substantial use in

one-on-one and group settings in which others confirm both the accuracy and the utility of the way we understand their

views and perspectives.


A person demonstrating this competency:

Describes another person's point of view on an issue when it differs from his or her point of view

Accurately states the differing perspectives that each party in the conflict brings to the situation

Recognizes or explicitly regrets another person's loss of status or injured feelings resulting from actions taken for

the good of the organization


Activity: Applying the First Steps

We return now to the case you wrote in the first part of this course project. When you wrote it, did you focus more on

people or problems? Begin using the framework presented in this course to analyze the case.


1. If you have not already done so, download the worksheet and save it.Course Project

2. Complete .Part Two

3. Save your work. You will return to this worksheet throughout the course and submit it for grading at the end.



Read: Naomi Generates Options


Naomi decides to bring Lukas and Jasbeer together for a session to brainstorm ways they can resolve their conflict. The

three of them sit together and take turns suggesting ideas that might benefit both parties. Naomi is confident things are

going well. Both parties are being open, offering suggestions but withholding opinions to respect the other's suggestions.

Naomi is capturing the list, which over the span of 20 minutes grows quite large.

But when the meeting is over, Naomi finds herself with a long list of suggestions-some good, some bad. How should she

proceed in a way that honors the ideas of both parties, but results in a set of solutions as realistic and mutually beneficial

as possible?


Read: Blocks to Idea Generation

Key Points

Inventing options for mutual gain is the essential

Obstacles to creative options: premature judgement; searching for the single answer; the assumption of a fixed sum; and

the belief that all parties solve their own problem

In a positional approach to negotiation, parties often assume that they have the only correct answer. As a result, they

often resist creating a list of options. This, however, is the essential third step in the interest-based approach: inventing

options for mutual gain.

In general, you should be aware of four major obstacles that stand in the way of people developing creative options:

It is more natural for you to forego creating options than it is for you to actually create them.Premature judgment:

This may predispose you to ignore this phase and instead move to a solution you believe to be "correct." Judging

ideas as correct or incorrect, which we tend to do all too readily in a conflict situation, hinders your ability to be

creative. You should therefore resist this temptation.

Premature closure is as devastating to creativity as premature criticism. Thinking thatSearching for the single answer:

you are only searching for one idea that is good enough will lead to solutions that do not meet all the needs of

everybody involved.

A third block to creating options is a belief that the matter in dispute is in some wayThe assumption of a fixed sum:

fixed, and therefore if you get it all, I'll get nothing. Following this line of reasoning usually means that I will be

reluctant to generate options that lead to gain for you, since that will mean less for me.

Showing concern only for your own interests is the same as comingThe belief that all parties solve their own problem:

to a negotiation from a positional framework. The whole purpose of the interest-based approach is to find mutually

beneficial solutions. Concern only for your own agenda, therefore, leads to a breakdown in the process and

unsatisfactory conclusions for all parties.

R. Fisher and W. Ury. . New York: Penguin Books, 1991.Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In


Read: Step 3: Idea Generation

Key Points

To begin, separate the from the inventing procedure deciding process

Take advantage of the creative energy from brainstorming

Once you have a set of solutions, decide which options involve mutual gains

After you understand what might prevent you from generating creative solutions to conflict, think about what you can do to

encourage the creation of new options.

The first step is to separate the from the . Brainstorming-if used correctly-presents ainventing procedure deciding process

good opportunity for all parties to work together to generate ideas without thinking about whether an idea necessarily

meets all criteria. Effective brainstorming frees people to think creatively. As people suggest options, you write them down.

You will judge their effectiveness for resolving the conflict later.

A second step is to broaden the ideas. In other words, this step is designed to take advantage of the creative energy

engendered by brainstorming and put it to use developing constructive solutions that focus on the interests of the people

involved in the conflict. Consider the chart below:


(Fischer and Ury, 1991, p. 68)

This chart describes the four types of thinking that are required at this stage of the process. First, you must think factually

about the particular problem you are trying to resolve. Then, you enter a period of descriptive analysis-generally speaking,

how you diagnose the problem. The third phase considers what you could possibly do to solve the problem. Like

descriptive analysis, this is a theoretical exercise. Finally, you re-enter the specific situation and see which solutions you

could feasibly apply to solve the problem. It is important to recognize that this means simply narrowing the scope to

realistic options. It does not mean selecting a single option.

Once you have a set of solutions, you decide which options involve mutual gains. Which ideas meet your shared needs?

Which allow differing interests to coexist?

Finally, ask which options are the easiest for both parties to accept. Without options that are appealing to both parties, you

are not likely to gain agreement on your ideas.

R. Fisher and W. Ury. . New York: Penguin Books, 1991.Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In


Watch: Exercising Creativity

J. L. Adams. . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1986.Conceptual Blockbusting


Activity: Applying Step 3

Think about the third step of interest-based negotiations-generating options-with regard to your case study. What creative

idea generation did you do when faced with this case? How can you use the material in this topic to inform your analysis?



2. Complete Part Three

3. Save your work. You will return to this worksheet throughout the course for grading.



Read: Naomi Focuses on Criteria


Lukas and Jasbeer have listed a set of mutually beneficial solutions. Naomi suggests that it is time to select the best

option. But when Lukas looks at the list, he suggests the option that most narrowly limits Jasbeer's ability to include

client-specific demands in the specification document. And Jasbeer selects the option that offers the sales team greater

ability to meet customer demands.

Naomi encourages them to reconsider, but the pair refuse to budge. Even after all the time they have spent in negotiation,

the process looks like it may break down if Naomi can't stop the decision-making step from focusing on an exercise of will.

How can Naomi change this part of the process? On what basis should the options be judged?


Read: Step 4: Using Objective Standards to Evaluate Options

Key Points

Create objective criteria for assessing the value of a particular option

When two sets of standards are in conflict, find an objective rationale for using one

Develop evaluative criteria with your "opponent" early on

After you have narrowed your list of creative options for meeting the interests and needs of all parties, you still face a

question: how do you decide between two mutually beneficial options? If two different options meet some of the needs of

each party, how do you decide which is the correct option? Is it the one that meets the most needs? The one that meets

the most important needs? Or is it the one that meets the needs most closely aligned to the original problem?

The fourth and final step in the interest-based negotiation approach is to create objective criteria for assessing the value of

a particular option. Objective criteria mean that decisions are based on predefined principles-fair standards-or on

predefined methods-fair procedures-rather than on the will of the party exerting the most pressure at the end of the

negotiation. Even though you have established criteria, you still enter negotiations with an open mind. Arguing for a given

solution as "a matter of principle" is still positional negotiation. You may believe your standards are fair, but you should be

willing to consider the standards put forth by other parties. When two sets of standards are in conflict, find an objective

rationale for using one standard over the other. Is one more widely accepted? Have you had success using one or the

other standard before?

At the same time, be careful that if you yield, you are yielding to another set of objective standards, and not to pressure

exerted by the person with whom you are negotiating. Pressure can come in a number of forms: bribes, threats, or simple

refusal to move from a position. But when you see it, simply ask for the reason for a behavior or position and suggest a set

of objective criteria you would apply to the situation. Only when those criteria are met should you move from your position.

Ideally, you should develop the evaluative criteria we have been discussing together with your "opponent" early in the

problem-solving process. Being able to reach agreement on criteria can be a group activity that shows you are capable of

working together…creating tangible evidence that you can successfully solve problems. Remember that these criteria

ultimately address a simple question: if we reach an agreement on the issue before us, how will we know we have

developed a wise solution that produces value and that we can implement? To answer this you must be quite specific.


Activity: Applying Step 4

In this final part of the worksheet, you will complete your analysis of the solutions you have considered.



2. Complete .Part Four

3. Save your work. You will submit this project at the end of the course for grading.



Read: The Effective Negotiator

Key Points

Certain behaviors lead to superior negotiating while others are best to be avoided

In a 1978 study, a team of consultants and researchers observed actual negotiators in action and analyzed their behavior

to try to understand what made the most effective of them different from their colleagues. The researches identified a set

of behaviors that the best negotiators avoided displaying and another set that they assiduously tried to display.

The best negotiators are those who practice:

Behavior

Labeling

The best negotiators give notice of a behavior they are about to use. For example, they say,

"Can I ask you a question-what do you want from this situation?" or "If I may make a

suggestion…" This behavior alerts the other party to what is coming, reducing the chance that

something will be misunderstood. This gives the other side time to think and collect their

thoughts, and it gives the negotiator power by slowing down the process and introducing a

sense of formality. Skilled negotiators do not, however, label disagreement in the same way.

When they are going to disagree, they first build the argument and then label the conclusion:

"…so that's why I disagree." Labeling disagreement early may cause anxiety and probably

causes the other party to focus on how they are going to respond to the disagreement, rather

than actually listening to the explanation of why agreement cannot be given.

Testing for

understanding

and

summarizing

These behaviors demonstrate a concern for clarification and the prevention of

misunderstanding. But they also provide an opportunity for the negotiator to reflect on the

proceedings and to consider concerns with implementation.

Seeking

information

First and foremost, questions do the obvious…they encourage understanding and more

information sharing in support of problem solving. They also, however, act as a strategy for

controlling the conversation by controlling both the content of the conversation and its pace;

questions keep the other party active and give negotiators an opportunity to think.

Feelings

commentary

Though it may seem counterintuitive, skilled negotiators are more likely than average

negotiators to provide information about internal events-that is, what they are feeling. If

negotiating effectiveness requires that we separate the people from the problem and deal with

both, then anything we can do to help others understand how we are emotionally responding to

the things they are saying contributes mightily to another's ability to understand us. On the other

hand, pretending that our reactions do not exist, or acting them out, generally reduces

negotiating effectiveness. In essence, by labeling our emotional reactions, we honor them and

make them part of the dialogue. Interestingly, whereas the most skilled negotiators share their

feelings, less skilled negotiators are almost twice as likely to provide information about facts or

general expressions of opinion.


The best negotiators are those who avoid:

Irritators Irritators are words or phrases that have negligible value but serve to annoy the other party.

Such irritators are positive statements we make about ourselves. Phrases such as "generous

offer," "fair," and "reasonable" have no persuasive value, and when we use them to describe

ourselves, they carry the implicit suggestion that if we are this way, the other person is not.

Counterproposals A counterproposal introduced as a reflexive response to a proposal is going to be offered at a

time when the other party is least receptive, because they are preoccupied with their own

proposals. Skilled negotiators make immediate counterproposals far less frequently than

average and unskilled negotiators. Instead, they first ask questions about the other party's

proposals, try to fully understand them, and convey to the other side that they want to

understand them. Only then do they introduce their own proposals.

Defend-attack

spirals

Skilled negotiators are careful to avoid emotional responses that derail the negotiations.

Emotional defenses are invariably misinterpreted as attacks…so be careful when you feel a

need to defend yourself. According to the study, average and below-average negotiators are

more than three times as likely to get caught up in these spirals.

Argument

dilution

Skilled negotiators offer a few excellent arguments instead of treating the discussion as

though more is better. The use of large numbers of supporting arguments invariably means

that a number of weaker ones are included. When this happens, the skilled opponent finds

these weaker arguments, destroys them, and uses that as a reason to dismiss all of our

arguments. Be careful that you are not trying to appear "smart" by showing that you can

come up with lots of reasons why you should get what you want. In negotiations, more is not

always better.

N. Rackham and J. Carlisle. "The Effective Negotiator - Part 1: The Behaviour of Successful Negotiators." Journal of

, 2, 1978: 6-11.European Industrial Training


Read: Psychology and Principled Negotiations

Key Points

McClelland's theory identifies three basic needs: achievement, power, affiliation

Everyone has them in different degrees

Certain need profiles may lead to the over- or under-use of conflict management styles

The eCornell course, "Influence Without Authority," introduced the Power Management Inventory (PMI). The PMI

assesses aspects of your psychological need structure that relate to your comfort with and use of power. It is based on the

theory of learned needs, a model developed by social psychologist David McClelland.

McClelland's theory identifies three basic needs. The first of those-and the one for which the theory is most well-known-is

the need for achievement. The need for achievement is a drive state to set goals and meet them. A second important

need is the need for power. This is a drive state to have an impact on others. Thirdly, there is something called the need

for affiliation, which is a need to have positive affect flow toward us, or-said simply-a need to be liked.

McClelland's theory of learned needs suggests that these needs are differentially developed in people. In some of us,

early life experiences have led one or more of these to be strong; in others, they are less well-developed. We all have a

need for achievement, a need for power, and a need for affiliation, but we all have them in different degrees.

You should be aware of your need structure, because certain need profiles may lead to the over-use of certain conflict

management styles and to the under-use of others. Someone with a highly developed need for achievement (or its PMI

concomitant, the Personalized Power Motive), for example, may be more likely to use the style, and less likelyCompeting

to use the or styles, even if the details of the situation suggest an avoidance tactic is the mostAvoiding Accommodating

appropriate. Meanwhile, people with a highly developed need for affiliation may be more drawn to the Accommodating

style than is wise. Finally, those with a highly developed need for power (or most especially, the Socialized Power Motive,

as measured in the PMI) will, all things being equal, find attractive.Collaboration

Our psychology may lead us away from a purely rational approach to conflict, if the right enabling conditions are present.

This fact highlights the need for project managers to be aware of their own psychology and to be able to effectively

analyze and manage their own behavior to be optimally effective as leaders.


Read: Applying Competencies

Effective conflict management requires you to demonstrate a broad range of leadership competencies. An interactive

activity appears below describing some of the generic leadership competencies you should possess. Read below about

the behaviors you need to exhibit to demonstrate proficiency with that competency. Be sure you take inventory of how

often you demonstrate these behaviors. When you identify behaviors that you need to work on, look for places in your

project life where you can practice them and integrate them into your leadership routine.

Competency Demonstrated by

Accurate

Self-Assessment

Evaluates his or her own performance in terms that reflect recognition of specific

examples of personal strengths and weaknesses

Seeks help or takes other action to improve a specifically stated personal limitation,

weakness or deficiency

Self-Control

Explicitly denies a personal impulse, need or desire for the good of an overriding

organizational need

Explicitly replaces a habitual response with a response that is more appropriate to a

given situation

Does not display anger or convey that he or she is emotionally upset when being

verbally attacked

Perceptual

Objectivity

Describes another person's point of view on an issue when it differs from his or her own

point of view

Accurately states the differing perspectives that each of the parties in a conflict brings to

the situation

Recognizes or explicitly regrets another person's loss of status or injured feelings

resulting from actions taken for the good of the organization

Use of

Socialized

Power

Builds a political coalition or influence network to accomplish a task

Models desirable behavior in an explicitly acknowledged attempt to influence the

behavior of others

Influences others involved in a conflict or dispute by building coalitions, which will affect

the resolution of the conflict or dispute


Use of Oral

Presentations

Speaks clearly and convincingly to others (i.e., is articulate, persuasive and maintains

the attention of the audience)

Uses symbolic and other nonverbal cues to reinforce or interpret the meaning of a verbal

message

Present diagrams, exhibits or other visual aids to an audience to illustrate and reinforce

the message

Uses questioning to the audience and his or her response to questions from the

audience to ensure that individuals understand the message

R. E. Boyatzis. . New York: Wiley & Sons, 1982.The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance


Listen: Thank You and Farewell

Hi. This is Frank Wayno again. I'd like to thank you for taking this course. I hope I've helped you to better appreciate how

important conflict management expertise can be to project success. When we create an open participative environment in

a project--an environment that fosters the collective intelligence so important to dealing effectively with uncertainty and

risk--we inevitably open the door to differences of opinion, differences that may result in overt disagreement. Building a

capacity to help others to overcome these differences is the mark of the high performing project leader.

If you've not yet taken the other courses in this series on project leadership, I encourage you to do so. If you have now

completed our series, I wish you much success as you put into practice these insights about this most demanding of roles.


Stay Connected


Supplemental Reading List

To learn more about the concepts presented in this course, you may want to consult, on your own, the following supplemental

resources:

J. L. Adams. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley Publishing Co., 1986.Conceptual Blockbusting.

R. E. Boyatzis. New York: Wiley & Sons,The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance.

1982.

D. Ertel. "How to Design a Conflict Management Procedure that Fits Your Dispute," Sloan Management

, Summer 1991: 29-42.Review

R. Fisher and D. Ury. "Getting to Yes," , February 1982: 16-21.Management Review

R. Fisher and W. Ury. New York: Penguin Books,Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In.

1991

R. E. Jones and R. F. Deckro. "The Social Psychology of Project Management Conflict," European Journal

, 64, 1993: 216-228.of Operations Research

N. Rackham and J. Carlisle. "The Effective Negotiator - Part 1: The Behaviour of Successful Negotiators."

, 2, 1978: 6-11.Journal of European Industrial Training

K.W. Thomas and R.H. Kilmann. Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument and Interpretive Report. CPP,

2007.

S. S. Zalkind and T. W. Costello, "Perception: Implications for Administration," Administrative Science

, September 1962: 218-235.Quarterly

cepl556: conflict resolution€¦ · conflict is the thomas-kilmann conflict mode instrument (tki)....

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