5588 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

Cite this: Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617

Catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to fine chemicals and fuels

Chun-Hui Zhou,*aXi Xia,

aChun-Xiang Lin,

bDong-Shen Tong

aand Jorge Beltramini

b

Received 5th May 2011

DOI: 10.1039/c1cs15124j

Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant and bio-renewable resource with great potential for

sustainable production of chemicals and fuels. This critical review provides insights into the state-of

the-art accomplishments in the chemocatalytic technologies to generate fuels and value-added chemicals

from lignocellulosic biomass, with an emphasis on its major component, cellulose. Catalytic hydrolysis,

solvolysis, liquefaction, pyrolysis, gasification, hydrogenolysis and hydrogenation are the major processes

presently studied. Regarding catalytic hydrolysis, the acid catalysts cover inorganic or organic acids and

various solid acids such as sulfonated carbon, zeolites, heteropolyacids and oxides. Liquefaction and fast

pyrolysis of cellulose are primarily conducted over catalysts with proper acidity/basicity. Gasification is

typically conducted over supported noble metal catalysts. Reaction conditions, solvents and catalysts are

the prime factors that affect the yield and composition of the target products. Most of processes yield a

complex mixture, leading to problematic upgrading and separation. An emerging technique is to

integrate hydrolysis, liquefaction or pyrolysis with hydrogenation over multifunctional solid catalysts to

convert lignocellulosic biomass to value-added fine chemicals and bio-hydrocarbon fuels. And the

promising catalysts might be supported transition metal catalysts and zeolite-related materials. There still

exist technological barriers that need to be overcome (229 references).

1 Introduction

The depletion of fossil fuel resources and the resulting adverse

effects on the global environment and climate are of major

academic, economic and political concern worldwide.1–3

As supplies of fossil fuels and related petrochemicals may soon

be limited, alternative solutions are sought. One alternative is to

a Research Group for Advanced Materials & Sustainable Catalysis(AMSC), Breeding Base of State Key Laboratory of GreenChemistry Synthesis Technology, College of Chemical Engineeringand Materials Science, Zhejiang University of Technology,Hangzhou, 310032, China. E-mail: catalysis8@yahoo.com.cn,chc.zhou@yahoo.com.cn

b The School of Chemical Engineering, ARC Centre of Excellence forFunctional Nanomaterials, AIBN, The University of Queensland,St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia

Chun-Hui Zhou

Dr Chun-Hui (Clayton) Zhouis a Professor of ChemicalEngineering and GroupLeader of the Research Groupfor Advanced Materialsand Sustainable Catalysis(AMSC) at Zhejiang Univer-sity of Technology as well as aMember of the EditorialBoard of Applied Clay Science(Elsevier). He worked as avisiting Academic at the ARCCenter of Excellence for Func-tional Nanomaterials, AIBN,the University of Queenslandin 2006–2007 and as Visiting

Professor at the Centre for Strategic Nano-fabrication, theUniversity of Western Australia in 2010. His research interestsinclude clay-based materials for miscellaneous applications,sustainable catalysis for fuels and chemicals from biorenewableresources, process intensification and advanced biomaterials.

Xi Xia

Xi Xia has been a postgradu-ate under the supervision ofProf. Chun-Hui Zhou in theResearch Group for AdvancedMaterials & SustainableCatalysis, Zhejiang Universityof Technology (ZJUT) sinceSeptember, 2008. He obtainedhis Bachelor’s Degree inChemistry from NanyangNormal University in 2008and his Master’s degree ofIndustrial Catalysis at ZJUTin 2011. His research interestsare in advanced clay-basedmaterials, catalysts and their

potential for the catalytic conversion of biomass into liquid fuelsand chemicals.

Chem Soc Rev Dynamic Article Links

www.rsc.org/csr CRITICAL REVIEW

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This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 5589

develop a series of novel chemical processes based on renewable

feedstocks, typically biomass4 and biomass-derived chemicals.5–7

Biomass generally refers to organic materials such as wood,

grass, algae, agricultural crops and their residues and wastes,

including some animal waste.8 All of these materials originally

result from biological photosynthesis from readily available

atmospheric CO2, water and sunlight. Therefore, biomass is a

sustainable and green feedstock for the production of fuels and

fine chemicals with net zero carbon emission.

Biochemically, living systems produce a large number

of organic molecules such as carbohydrates, fats and oils,

phospholipids and glycolipids, waxes, steroids, proteins and

nucleotides. Among them, carbohydrates are the primary

energy-storage molecules. Carbohydrates are the main struc-

tural components of the cell walls of plants, in which the

carbohydrate polymers, namely cellulose and hemicellulose,

are tightly bound to the lignin.9 Any materials rich in cellulose,

hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as ligno-

cellulosic biomass.10 For example, wood, bamboo, grass and

their derived pulp and paper, and agricultural residues like

corn stover and sugarcane bagasse are typical sources of

lignocellulosic biomass.

Lignocellulosic biomass has received intensive attention

over the past decade. Many studies have shown that ligno-

cellulosic biomass offers great potential to be used as a renewable

feedstock in abundance with easy availability.11–14 Fig. 1 displays

the weight percentage of cellulose, hemicellulouse and lignin in

some typical biological sources such as pinaster,15 eucalyptus

globules,15 wheat straw,16 sorghum stalks,17 bamboo18 and

banana pseudo-stems.19 Generally, most of the lignocellulosic

biomass contains 35–50% of cellulose, 20–35% of hemi-cellulose,

and 10–25% of lignin. Clearly, the major component of ligno-

cellulosic biomass is cellulose. It is estimated that nearly half of

the organic carbon in the biosphere is present in the form of

cellulose. Therefore, in the context of processing lignocellulosic

biomass into fuels and valuable chemicals, the conversion of

cellulose is of paramount importance and worth being given

priority.11–14

The development of the processes to convert lignocellulosic

biomass to fuels and value-added chemicals, however, remains

a big challenge. Firstly, the complex chemical composition of

lignocellulosic biomass makes it difficult to yield target fuels

and chemicals in a high yield and quality. Comparatively, as

to the three main components in lignocellulosic biomass,

the structure of cellulose is the simplest and most ordered.

Cellulose consists of only anhydrous glucose units, while

hemicelluloses contain many different sugar monomers. Con-

sequently, cellulose is crystalline and hemicellulose just has a

random, amorphous structure. Different from carbohydrate-

based cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin is a class of complex,

cross-linked, three-dimensional biopolymers with phenyl-

propane units with relative hydrophobic and aromatic properties.

Those differences in the chemical composition and structure in

lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose lead to their much different

reactivity. On one hand, for example, the decomposition of lignin

and hemicellulose is generally easier than that of cellulose.20,21

In other words, the decomposition and degradation of cellulose is

the most difficult and energy-consuming step in the conversion of

lignocellulosic biomass. As a result, to improving the reactivity of

cellulose is a first critical point. On the other hand, based on

their different reactivity, it is feasible to separate cellulose and

hemicellulose from lignin.22,23 Therefore, as reported in the

literature and discussed below, besides using the natural ligno-

cellulosic biomass as the reactants, many researchers often choose

pure cellulose, in particular microcrystalline cellulose, as a model

of lignocellulosic biomass.

Over decades, many researchers have endeavored to explore

the production of fuels and chemicals from cellulose, which

is representative of lignocellulosic biomass.24,25 A cellulose

molecule has the generic chemical formula (C6H12O5)n.

It consists of a skeletal linear polysaccharide, in which glucose-

based monomer units are jointed together through b-1,4-glyco-sidic linkages.26 The glucose units are further tightly bound by

extensive intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding

networks (Scheme 1a). The chain length of a cellulose molecule

ranges from about 100 to 14000 units. Accordingly, cellulose has

an average molecular weight in the range of 300000–500000.27

Noticeably, cellulose exists in the form of a robust crystalline

structure. And it is the principle scaffolding component of all

plant cell walls. Such a cell wall polymer is neither soluble in water

nor easily digestible in the gastrointestinal tract of humans.

The changes in the types of chemical bonding and the

crystalline structure in polysaccharides, however, have signi-

ficant impacts on their physical properties and chemical

reactivity.23 For example, starch is also a polysaccharide with

the same general formula (C6H12O5)n as cellulose. Neverthe-

less, in each starch(amylose) molecule the neighboring glucose

units are linked through the 1,40-a-glycosidic bond (Scheme 1b)

or the 1,60-a-glycosidic bond (amylopectin), rather than the

1,40-b-glycosidic bond in each cellulose molecule.28 This differ-

ence has a profound effect on the three dimensional structure

and reactivity of the biopolymer molecule. Such 1,40-a-glycosidiclinkages in starch are more easily attacked by acids or enzymes.

Thereby in the presence of acids or enzymes as catalysts starch is

more easily deconstructed into glucose monomers than cellulose.

For instance, starch is more easily fermented to yield ethanol

than cellulose. This is one of the major reasons that starches are

currently used as the starting materials for commercial bio-

ethanol production, instead of cellulose.29,30 Nonetheless, any

large-scale processing of starch to fuels and chemicals readily

brings about strong competition between chemical production

and food demands.31 Therefore, in terms of both the abundance

Fig. 1 The weight percentage of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin in

some typical biological sources: pine pinaster,15 eucalyptus globules,15

wheat straw,16 sorghum stalks,17 bamboo18 and banana pseudo-stems.19

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5590 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

and availability from bioresources and little impact on food

supply, cellulosic materials as feedstocks are more practicable

and sustainable for the production of fuels and commodity

chemicals. In this context, the catalytic conversion of cellulose

to fuels and chemicals is more attractive and promising than that

of any other form of biomass like starch to bioethanol and

vegetable oil to biodiesel.32–35

Still, lignocellulosic biomass such as wood, grass and agri-

cultural residues are conventionally used as energy sources

typically by direct combustion.36 The principal utilization of

cellulose in industry is currently limited to textiles and paper

manufacturing.37 In some biological processes such as fermen-

tation and enzymic catalysis, peculiar enzymes, bacteria and

other microorganisms are used to break down cellulose

molecules and thus a few commodity chemicals can be

obtained.38,39 Nevertheless, such biological processes generally

suffer from unsolvable problems such as low efficiencies,

narrow reaction conditions and limited scale of produc-

tion.39,40 Chemocatalytic conversion of cellulose has been

around for some time, but it only receives serious attention

with the advent of a series of novel chemocatalytic reaction

routes since the fossil oil crisis in the 1970s.

However, besides the complexity of biological sources,

the inert chemical structure and the compositional ratio of

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in molecules in lignocellulosic

biomass produce additional difficulties in the chemocatalytic

conversion of cellulose to valuable fuels and commodity

chemicals. In this context, the development of a new family

of highly active and selective catalyst systems is an essential

prerequisite for chemoselectively catalytic conversion of

lignocellulosic biomass to desired products.41 As such, this

article attempts to summarize and review recent advancements

in the different catalytic processes for the conversion of

lignocellulosic biomass, in particular cellulose, into potential

fuels and commodity chemicals.

Scheme 2 lists some typical fine chemicals and fuels which

can be produced by chemocatalytic conversion of cellulose

by different chemical processes. Clearly, a variety of fuels,

including ethanol, hydrogen, methane and chemicals such as

glucose, fructose, sorbitol, levulinic acid and lactic acid can be

obtained from catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass.

Lignocellulosic biomass can also be used to produce syngas

(CO + H2) which can then be transformed into fuels and

myriad chemicals.

In many instances, depolymerization and hydrolysis of

cellulose to monomer glucose is regarded a necessary first step.

Then glucose is further catalytically degraded into various

intermediates, chemicals and fuels (Scheme 2, Route A). Recent

research has paid much heed to accelerating the conversion

of lignocellulosic biomass in the presence of multifunctional

catalysts. The typical processes can be categorized as direct

liquefaction, gasification and aqueous-phase reforming,

Scheme 1 Comparison of the chemical structure of polysaccharides. (a) cellulose with 1,40-b-glycosidic bonds and intra- and inter-chain hydrogen

bonding,27 Adapted and reprinted with permission from ref. 27. Copyright 2006 American Chemical Society; and (b) starch (amylose) with

1,40-a-glycosidic bonds.28 Adapted and reprinted from ref. 28, Copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.

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This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 5591

pyrolysis. An emerging trend is to integrate catalytically thermo-

chemical conversion with selectively catalytic hydrogenolysis

and hydrogenation with the addition of hydrogen.42–44 Because

of the advantages of easy recovery and reusability of solid

catalysts, heterogeneous processes have been taking priority

over homogeneous catalytic processes. In addition, increasing

endeavors are being made to integrate the two- or multi-step

batch processes into a one-pass continuous conversion by using

well-designed multifunctional catalysts with an expectation to

transform lignocellulosic biomass into various commodity

chemicals in an efficient and environmentally friendly way

(Scheme 2, Route B).45

2 Catalytic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass

Lignocellulosic biomass with cellulose as a main component is

generally resistant to hydrolysis in water. As such, the hydro-

lysis of cellulose in lignocellulosic biomass usually involves the

use of strong liquid acids as catalysts. Cellulose hydrolysis in

the presence of acids primarily yields reducing sugars, which

are a class of compounds that have an open chain with an

aldehyde or a ketone group. Typically, glucose and xylose are

obtained. Interests in such acid-catalyzed hydrolysis have been

reignited because many fine and even platform chemicals can

be obtained from further conversion of reducing sugars.

Moreover, using a multistep fractionation process, various

fine chemicals and potential fuels can also be directly obtained

from acid processing of lignocellulosic biomass.46 Neverthe-

less, instead of the traditional use of liquid acids, nowadays

much attention is given to the use of solid catalysts such as

solid-supported Brønsted or Lewis acid reagent catalysts, acid-

modified amorphous carbon, layered transition metal oxides,

and acidic resins for the depolymerization of lignocellulosic

biomass by hydrolysis (Tables 1 and 2).

2.1 Liquid acid-catalyzed hydrolysis

Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose is a reaction in which

hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxide anions (OH�) from the

splitting of molecules of water react with polymeric cellulose

molecules, thereby yielding hydrolytic products by depolymer-

ization. The discovery of such an acid-catalyzed reaction of

cellulose hydrolysis has a relatively long history.55–77 Commer-

cial microcrystalline cellulose is just a slightly depolymerized

Scheme 2 Potential chemicals and fuels from the catalytic conversion of cellulose. (Route A: chemocatalytic conversion of cellulose into various

chemicals and fuels through glucose, Route B: Conversion of cellulose into various chemicals and fuels by a one-pass catalytic process in the

presence of a multifunctional catalyst).

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5592 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

product of cellulose by liquid acid-catalyzed hydrolysis.47,48

More importantly, various products such as glucose, xylose,

arabinose and cellobiose and oligosaccharides can be readily

formed from liquid acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose

(Scheme 3).

Both inorganic liquid mineral acids such as H2SO4 and HCl,

and organic acids such as various carboxylic acids and

p-toluenesulfonic acid can be used as catalysts for the hydro-

lysis of cellulose. Various types of lignocellulosic biomass, for

example wood chips, sawdust, corn-cobs, and walnut shells,

have been tentatively processed by the liquid acid-catalyzed

hydrolysis (Table 1). However, it should be pointed out that

the hydrolysis mainly occurred in the cellulosic components in

these lignocellulosic sources with glucose and xylose as the

main products in most cases.

As summarized in Table 1, thus far H2SO4 has been the

most frequently used liquid acid catalyst in the hydrolysis of

lignocellulosic biomass. The reaction is usually conducted

at temperatures in the range of 363–533 K and under atmo-

spheric or higher pressure. In general, when a dilute acid

solution is used, higher temperature and longer reaction

time are necessary.49 In turn, when the hydrolysis reaction of

cellulose is conducted at low temperature and in a short

reaction time, concentrated acid is favorable. The treatment

of cellulose in a concentrated acid solution remarkably

accelerates such biopolymer molecules to be depolymerized

to monomers.50,51 Usually, the yield of reducing sugars

increases with increasing acid concentration. However, the

use of concentrated acid solutions could lead to a decrease of

the yield of glucose and xylose due to further degradation.

Consequently, there is a substantial increase in the amount of

products of further degradation of glucose or xylose, for

example 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (5-HMF).52 In addition,

taking into account the operation safety, equipment corrosion

and waste disposal, dilute acid is preferable for use in the

hydrolysis of cellulose.53 Furthermore, as for catalytic perfor-

mances in the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass with a high

content of hemicelluloses, dilute acid could be more effective

than concentrated acid.54

The deep insights into the effect of pressure on the conver-

sion and distribution of products are scarcely reported.

However, it has been revealed that under atmospheric

pressure, catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose is also feasible with

both hydrolytic and dehydrated products.56 Clearly, under

atmospheric pressure, higher temperature, concentrated acid

and longer residence time are favorable to effectively depoly-

merize and degrade lignocellulosic biomass.

The impregnation of lignocellulosic biomass with acid

solution can lead to partial destruction of the cellulosic parts

in lignocellulosic biomass. Thereby such a pretreatment can

facilitate their further hydrolytic reaction. For example,

Emmel and co-workers57 reported that the pretreatment of

wood chips by impregnating them in 0.175 wt% H2SO4 led to

the remarkable hydrolysis of hemicellulose after the dilute

acid-catalyzed hydrolysis at 483 K for 2 min in steam. Thus

a yield of xylose up to 70% of its theoretical yield was

obtained in the water-soluble fraction. In this case, the pre-

treatment temperature was found to influence the yield of

xylose. Interestingly, impregnation with gaseous SO2 proved

to be more effective than H2SO4 since a higher yield of

Table 1 Typical hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass or pure cellulose with H2O over liquid acid catalysts

Catalyst Feedstock Reaction conditions Typical products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

H2SO4 (0.175 wt%) Wood chips 483 K, 2 min Xylose 47.0–54.0 Emmel et al./2003 57B1.9 MPa

H2SO4 (0.05 wt%) Filter paper 488 K, 35 min Reducing sugar 46.6 Zhuang et al./2006 534 MPa (H2O)

H2SO4 (0.1 wt%) Cotton 473 K, 6 min Levoglucosenone 42.2 Kawamoto et al./2007 1440.1 MPa Furfural 26.9

5-HMF 8.8H2SO4 (0.5 wt%) Corn cobs 398 K, 165 min Xylose 25.0 Rivas et al./2008 55

—H2SO4 (6.2 wt%) Sugar maple

wood extract368 K, 50 min Xylose 161.6 g L�1 Hu et al./2010 560.1MPa Glucose 13.3 g L�1

Rhamnose 12.4 g L�1

Mannose 12.9 g L�1

Galactose 5.6 g L�1

SO2 impregnation Aspen chips 478 K, 3 min Glucose 37.0 (wt%) De Bari et al./2007 581.62 MPa (H2O) Xylose 10.3 (wt%)

HCl (5 wt%) Walnut shells 523 K, 430 min1.5–8.6 MPa (H2O)

Levulinic acid 12.0 Liu et al./2006 59

HCl (20 wt%)/+ [EMIM]Cl

Cellulose 378 K, 2–4 h Glucose B90.0 Binder et al./2010 68— HMF 5–7.0

CO2 + H2O(100% saturation)

Cellulose 533 K, B2 min Glucose B11.0 Rogalinski et al./2008 6420–25 MPa CO2,

p-toluenesulfonic acid+ C4MIMCl

Cellulose 373 K, 5 h Reducing sugar 35.0 Rinaldi et al./2008 90—

H3PO4 (10 wt%) Potato peel 408 K, 8 min Reducing sugar 82.5 Lenihan et al./2010 60—

Oxalic(0.1M) + NaCl Cellulose 403 K, 6 h Glucose 2.8–3.9 Vom Stein et al./2010 673 MPa CO2

5-HMF: 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural. Reducing sugar: mainly mono- and disaccharides with an aldehyde or a ketone group. [EMIM]Cl: 1-ethyl-3-

methylimidazolium chloride. C4MIMCl: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride.

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glucose could be obtained.58 It was suggested that the addition

of SO2 catalyst (0.9% w/w dry raw material) reduced the

degree of polymerization of the cellulose by an average of

50%. In addition to the catalytic performances, another

noteworthy feature is that SO2 is less corrosive than the

H2SO4 solution.

In addition to reaction parameters such as temperature,

pressure, time and the concentration of acids, the type of acid

catalysts is also an influential parameter for the distribution of

products in the catalytic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.

For example, in the presence of HCl acid in the hydrolysis

of walnut shells, the yield of levulinic acid could reach 12%.59

This result might indicate that HCl acid as a catalyst could

promote further catalytic dehydration of hydrolytic compounds,

thereby resulting in the remarkable generation of levulinic

acid. Dilute phosphoric acid is also an alternative catalyst.60

In a phosphate buffer solution at pH 2, the hydrolysis and

dissolution of Japanese red pine wood chips under subcritical

water conditions yielded hydrolytic saccharides and such further

dehydrated products as 5-HMF and furfural.61 It might indicate

that the presence of phosphate buffer could play a pivotal role in

deep degradation of such a lignocellulosic biomass. However, in

the absence of a catalyst, water-soluble saccharides can also be

directly produced from the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass,

for example sugi wood powder, in supercritical and subcritical

water.62

Despite the relatively high catalytic activity of H2SO4, HCl

and H3PO4 in the hydrolysis of cellulosic materials, by and large

their uses are still uneconomical because the process suffers from

severe corrosion, costly separation and neutralization of waste

acids. These problems could be significantly addressed provided

that carbonic acid (H2CO3), present in the form of a solution of

CO2 in water, can be used as a catalyst.63,64 First of all, carbonic

acid has little corrosive effect. Secondly, theoretically, it can be

Table 2 Typical hydrolysis of cellulose with H2O over solid acid catalysts

Catalyst Feedstock Reaction conditions Typical products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

AC–SO3H + COOH + OH Cellulose 373 K, 3 h Glucose 4.0a Suganuma et al./2008 82— b-1,4-glucan 64.0

AC–SO3H + COOH + OH Cellulose 373 K, 3 h Glucose B8.1b Yamaguchi et al./2009 78— b-1,4-glucan 0.93

AC–SO3H Cellulose 423 K, 24 h Glucose 40.5 Onda et al./2008 79(C-%)

AC–SO3H (Sulfonation T = 523 K) Cellulose 423 K, 24 h Glucose 61.0 Pang et al./2010 83—

BC–SO3H Cellulose MW (350 W),373 K, 1 h

Glucose 19.8 Wu et al./2010 81

HNbMoO6 Cellulose 403 K, 12 h Glucose 21.0 Takagaki et al./2008 88—

H3PW12O40 Cellulose 453 K, 2 h Glucose 50.5 Tian et al./2010 86— Levulinic acid 0.14

HMF 1.6H3PW12O40 Cellulose r473 K, 0.5 h Methyl Glucosides 50.0–60.0 Deng et al./2010 94

+CH3OH 3 MPaCrCl3/LiCl + [C4MIM]Cl Cellulose 433 K,10 min 5-HMF 62.3 Wang et al./2011 89

—Nafion/silica Cellulose 463 K, 24 h Glucose 9.0 Hegner et al./2010 76

— Levulinic acid 2.0Sulfonated silica/carbonnanocomposites

Cellouse 423 K, 24 h Glucose 50.0 Van de Vyver et al./2010 73—

AC: Active carbon. BC: Biomass char. [C4MIM]Cl: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. MW: Microwave-assisted. a catalyst: 0.300 g; cellulose:

0.025 g; distilled water: 0.7 g. b catalyst: 0.300 g; cellulose: 0.25 g; distilled water: 2.25 g.

Scheme 3 Possible products from acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose.90 Adapted and reprinted with permission from ref. 90. Copyright 2008

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

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5594 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

easily removed by depressurization and thus it does not

leave any waste acid catalysts after reaction. Therefore, such a

carbonic acid-catalyzed process is environmentally friendly.

Rogalinski et al.64 reported that for the hydrolysis of cellulose

in subcritical water with pressurized CO2 at 533 K, the yield of

glucose could be significantly increased by the acidification of

CO2 compared with that in pure water. Moreover, the onset of

the formation of glucose is shifted to a shorter residence time

due to the faster cleavage of 1,40-b-glycosidic bonds facilitated

by carbonic acid. As for the catalytic mechanism, CO2 is

believed to promote the hydrolysis reaction of cellulose by the

formation and then dissociation of carbonic acid in water to give

active H+ cations, which then attack and break 1,40-b-glycosidicbonds in cellulose (eqn (1)).63,64

CO2 + H2O ! H2CO3 ! H+ + HCO�3 ! 2H+ + CO2�3

(1)

The avoidance of the use of strong liquid acids offers an

alternative approach to develop a green acid-catalyzed pro-

cess. However, the insolubility of cellulose is another big

barrier that needs to be tackled. In this context, one possible

solution is to choose a suitable solvent. For instance, Recently

Lin et al.65 investigated the hydrolysis and degradation of

cotton cellulose treated with 1.39%HCl acid either in water or

in ethanol at 338 K for more than 1 h. A higher yield of

hydrolytic products was obtained in ethanol (2.44–5.04%)

than in water (1.12–1.50%). Moreover, the effect of the

reaction temperature on the yield of hydrolytic products in

ethanol was much greater than that in water. The phenomena

could be ascribed to the fact that the solubilization of cellulose

is enhanced by ethanol. This might well explain why cellulose

was more easily deconstructed in ethanol than in water.

The other alternative solution is to use a mixture of inorganic

and organic acids as catalysts.66 It has been found that

dicarboxylic acids, like oxalic and maleic acid, are able to

catalytically depolymerize cellulose, producing oligomers and

glucose.67 The third solution is to use ionic liquids as the

solvent and/or as the catalyst. Recently Binder and Raines68

reported a much effective process, in which water was gradu-

ally added to a catalytic system consisting of chloride ionic

liquid and acid catalysts (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride,

[EMIM]Cl + H2SO4 or HCl). This method led to a nearly 90%

yield of glucose from cellulose and 70–80% yield of sugars from

corn stover in a few hours. In comparison to other conventional

solvents and organic acids, however, the high cost of ionic

liquids and the problematic reusability might still hinder its

scale-up to commercial use.

Finally, in the liquid acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, besides acidic

catalysts, solvents and reaction variables, the source of ligno-

cellulosic biomass is also an important factor. Obviously, the

molecular composition and arrangements of cellulose, hemi-

cellulose and lignin in the plant cell wall changes throughout the

life of the plant. Moreover, they differ among plant species,

among tissues of a single species and even among geographical

regions of the plant. The differences of chain length and

hydrogen bonding pattern between amorphous hemicellulose

and crystalline cellulose, for example, greatly affected the

distribution of glucose and oligomers in the liquid products

after catalytic hydrolysis.69 In addition, even the size of biomass

feedstock particles may also be one of the important parameters.

These are also common points worth consideration in any other

processes discussed below.

2.2 Solid acid-catalyzed hydrolysis

Compared with homogeneous catalysts, heterogeneous solid

catalysts have several advantages. In particular, solid catalysts

can be easily separated from the liquid mixture after the

reaction, thereby allowing the possible reuse of catalysts,

along with the minimization of corrosion. Moreover, solid

acid catalysts have the potential to be easily applied to a

continuous flow fixed-bed reactor. These merits have stimu-

lated the research and development of recyclable solid acids as

replacements for the unrecyclable liquid acid catalysts in the

catalytic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.70–72

As such, several types of solid acids, such as Nafion,

Amberlyst, –SO3H functionalized amorphous carbon or

mesoporous silica, H-form zeolites like HZSM-5, hetero-

polyacids and even metal oxides (for example, g-Al2O3) have

been explored on their catalytic performances in the catalytic

hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. It has been shown that

solid Brønsted acid catalysts are indeed applicable for the

efficient hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.74,75 Over solid

acid catalysts, the typical hydrolytic products like glucose

and xylose were also obtained, together with other chemicals

such as b-1,4-glucan, furfural, 5-HMF, and levulinic acid.

Furthermore, solid surface supported Lewis acid catalysts,

for example FeCl3 supported onto amorphous silica, can also

catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose and then to

levulinic acid even under relatively mild conditions.76 How-

ever, in most cases, over solid catalysts the catalytic activity

and the selectivity to the desired products are quite low.

Therefore, a longer reaction time is needed to acquire the high

yield of glucose (Table 2), compared with liquid acid catalysts

(Table 1).

As shown in Scheme 4, a commonplace insight into the

hydrolysis reaction is that it involves the splitting of the

water molecule into hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxide

anions (OH�). In the presence of cellulose, the H+ attacks the

oxygen atom in the 1,40-b-glycosidic linkage. Thus the 1,40-b-glycosidic linkage is broken to form a cyclic carbonium cation

with a chair shape. This step is considered as the rate-

determining step.77 Finally, glucose is formed by rapid ion

transfer of OH� from the dissociation of water molecules to

the glucose unit-based carbonium cation. According to such a

reaction mechanism, that a solid acid catalyst and reaction

conditions favor the splitting of water will favor the hydrolysis

of cellulose. The splitting of a water molecule into hydrogen

cations (H+) and hydroxide anions (OH�) can be regarded as

deprotonation. It was discovered that the catalytic activity of a

catalyst in the hydrolysis of cellulose increases with a decrease

in the deprotonation enthalpy (DPE) of water on the surface

of the solid acid catalyst.85 These findings suggested that

stronger Brønsted acidity is more favorable to the catalytic

hydrolysis of cellulose. In addition, to some extent, an increase

in the amount of water had a positive effect on the breakage of

1,40-b-glycosidic bonds and intramolecular hydrogen bonds in

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insoluble cellulose, thereby leading to more hydrolytic products.

Clearly, the formation of glucose requires more water than

the formation of b-1,4-glucan. Yamaguchi and co-workers78

revealed that the amount of water comparable to the solid

catalyst weight could lead to a maximum yield of glucose in

the heterogeneous catalytic hydrolysis reaction of cellulose.

On the one hand, the conditions conducive to splitting of

water molecules are needed. On the other hand, the conditions

should help to avoid deep degradation. Therefore, mildly

hydrothermal conditions were found favorable to the produc-

tion of glucose from the hydrolysis of cellulose over solid acid

catalysts.78,79 Among a series of typical solid acid catalysts like

H-form zeolite, sulfated zirconia, sulfonated activated carbon

and Amberlyst polymer- based materials (Amberlyst, a com-

mercially available sulfonated resin), as reported by Onda and

co-workers,79 sulfonated activated carbon showed a remark-

ably high yield of 40.5% of glucose (Fig. 2). Over such

sulfonated activated carbon catalysts, a selectivity of higher

than 90% to glucose was obtained. The catalysts could act in a

way similar to sulfonic acids containing the group –SO3H,

which has fairly strong acidity. The remarkably catalytic

properties can be ascribed to the strong acidity of –SO3H

functional groups and the hydrophobic planes on the surfaces

of such a catalyst, as well as its high hydrothermal stability.

Such systematic evaluation of a series of catalysts provided

valuable information and clues for the design and preparation

of a class of effective solid acid catalyst for catalytic hydrolysis

of cellulose by adjusting its surface acidity and hydrophilicity/

hydrophobicity.

It is worth noting that lignocellulosic biomass itself can be

made into carbon materials by carbonization.80 Bio-char or

activated carbon from lignocellulosic biomass such as bamboo,

wood, and coconut shells are well-documented catalyst sup-

ports. Microwave-assisted hydrolysis of cellulose in water over a

sulfonated bio-char acid catalyst (BC-SO3H) even showed a

much higher turnover number (TON, 1.33–1.73) compared to

that in dilute H2SO4 solution (TON, 0.02).81 The results were

likely due to the strong affinity to 1,40-b-glycosidic bonds of

cellulose on the surfaces of such catalysts, thereby accelerating

the activation of cellulose molecules. Microwave irradiation

could strengthen the collision of cellulose particles in the

reaction system. In addition, the surface of carbon solids can

be functionalized with several functional groups. For example,

Suganuma et al.82 described that a modified amorphous carbon

material can simultaneously bear –SO3H, –COOH, and –OH

groups by means of partial carbonization of cellulose, followed

by sulfonation of the resulting amorphous carbon (Fig. 3).80

This strategy of catalyst preparation could efficiently enhance

the performance of catalysts. Over such a catalyst, for example,

when the hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose was conducted

in a Pyrex reactor (catalyst = 0.300 g; cellulose = 0.025 g;

distilled water = 0.700 g) at 373 K for 3 h, the yield of glucose

and b-1,4-glucan reached 4% and 64%, respectively.82 The yield

of glucose was increased to 8.08% under the optimized condi-

tions (catalyst = 0.300 g; cellulose = 0.25 g; distilled water =

2.25 g).78 The enhanced catalytic performance is attributed to

the good ability of such a material with a multi-functional

surface to adsorb b-1,4-glucan. This view might be partly

supported by the result that sulfonated silica/carbon nano-

composites exhibited high performance in the selective hydro-

lysis of cellulose into glucose.73 In this case, the hybrid surface

structure constituted interpenetrated silica and carbon components

which can greatly facilitate the adsorption of b-1,4-glucan on

the solid catalyst. More recently, it was suggested that elevating

the temperature of sulfonation during the preparation of

sulfonated carbon catalysts enhanced their catalytic properties

in the hydrolysis of cellulose.83 No matter what methods

were used, in essence, the presence of strong, accessible

Scheme 4 Schematic mechanism of breakage of 1,40-b-glycosidic bonds and formation of glucose in the hydrolysis of cellulose.

Fig. 2 Catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose over various solid acid cata-

lysts at 423 K. Reaction conditions: milled cellulose 45 mg, catalyst

50 mg, distilled water 5.0 mL, 24 h.79 Ref. 79–Reproduced by

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Brønsted acid sites on catalysts played a crucial role in the

catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose.

In addition to the surface-grafted or supported solid acids,

heteropolyacids such as tungstophosphoric acid H3PW12O4084–86

and HNbMoO687,88 can also be used as heterogeneous-like

catalysts for the catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose. For the hydro-

lysis of cellulose samples, H3PW12O40 and Sn0.75PW12O40

catalysts gave a higher yield of total reducing sugars than

H2SO4. A 50.5% yield of glucose with a selectivity higher than

90% were achieved over H3PW12O40 catalysts at 453 K for 2 h

with a mass ratio of 0.42 of cellulose to H3PW12O4086 Over a

series of catalysts like H3PW12O40, H4SiW12O40 and polyvalent

transition metal salts of PW12O403� (Ag+, Ca2+, Co2+, Y3+,

Sn4+, Sc3+, Ru3+, Fe3+, Hf4+, Ga3+ and Al3+), the highest

reaction rates were observed for the catalysts with moderate

Lewis acidity, such as Sn4+ and Ru3+-containing catalysts.86

In addition, layered transition metal oxides, for example

HNbMoO6, have also been found to be a class of effectively solid

acid catalyst for the hydrolysis of cellulosic materials to glucose.88

A 21% of the yield of glucose was obtained over layered

HNbMoO6 catalysts, even higher than that over Amberlyst-15

(3.4%) under the same reaction conditions (Table 2). The peculiar

layered structure might make facile the accessibility of saccharides

into the interlayer gallery of HNbMoO6, where the strong acidic

sites are located. Notably, such a layered structure exhibited good

properties of water tolerance, which is of particular importance in

a hydrolysis reaction.

Nevertheless, in the case of solid acid catalysts, there is a

significantly poorer solid–solid reaction contact between

catalysts and lignocellulosic biomass as both lignocellulosic

biomass and solid cannot be dissolved in water. As such, either

the H+ ions from solid Brønsted acids or the active sites from

solid Lewis acid are difficult to access by reactants. Therefore,

the 1,40-b-glycosidic bonds suffer from difficulty to be acti-

vated, attacked and then opened. Consequently, it results in a

low reaction activity. Moreover, in practice, there is another

difficulty in the use of solid catalysts. To determine the true

conversion of lignocellulosic biomass remains an essential task

because it is not easy to separate unreacted cellulose from

sticky residues and various insoluble products that might

readily be adsorbed onto the solid acid catalysts.79 To tackle

these challenges, integrating the use of ionic liquids for

dissolving microcrystalline cellulose along with solid acids

for catalytic splitting of cellulose into sugars may provide a

possible solution.89 For example, Rinaldi et al.90 showed

that the cellulose biopolymers were broken down into oligo-

mers in the form of averaging ten glucose units catalyzed by

Amberlyst catalysts in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride

(C4MIMCl) ionic liquid after 5 h. It was postulated that the

easy release of H+ ions into the solvent, the high surface area

and large pores in Amberlyst catalysts were probably crucial

factors to enable the long cellulose chains to be approached

and activated, thereby increasing the reactivity.

Furthermore, to further convert in situ hydrolytic glucose

to value-added commodity chemicals in a one-pot reaction

system is promising. So far the acidic solids have proved

to be effective in many reactions in organic synthesis. For

example, alkylation is also an acid-catalyzed reaction.91

After acidic resin Amberlyst catalyzed the hydrolysis of the

1,40-b-glycosidic linkages in the cellulose polymeric chain to

give glucose, such acid catalysts could further catalyzed the

in situ alkylation of the hydroxyl groups at the C1 position of

the glucose as an intermediate. Consequently, cellulose

was directly converted into an environmentally friendly alkyl

glycoside surfactant in a one pot transformation.92 This state-

of-the-art integration of consecutive reactions has also been

demonstrated in a recent work by Ignatyev et al.93 that

cellulose was fully converted into alkylglycosides under mild

conditions in the C4MIMCl ionic liquid in the presence of an

acidic catalyst. Primary alcohols like n-butanol and n-octanol

were used as alkylating reagents. In the reaction with n-butanol,

the yield of butylglucopyranoside isomers reached 86%. Accord-

ing to a well-established concept, the removal of intermediate

glucose by such alkylation can facilitate chemical equilibrium

to move forward, thereby leading to a higher conversion of

cellulose.

3 Catalytic solvolysis of lignocellulosic biomass

Apart from organic ionic liquid, certain organic reagents can

also physically and chemically modify cellulosic materials by

means of solvolysis, thereby promoting the contact between

cellulose molecules and surfaces of a solid acid catalyst. In this

context, the organic molecules act both as the solvents and as

the reactants. Consequently, they can significantly facilitate

the catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass over a solid

catalyst. Clearly, there is a chemical interaction between the

solvent and the solute lignocellulosic biomass. Therefore, the

inherent properties of solvents have a significant effect on

products distribution. Moreover, it is also possible that

organic solvents react with intermediates, for example oligo-

saccharides or monomers, to yield secondary products. Deng

et al.94 reported that for the conversion of cellulose, the use

of methanol as a solvent led to the formation of methyl

glucosides in the presence of dilute H2SO4, heteropolyacids

or sulfonated solid acid catalysts under mild conditions

(r473 K). H3PW12O40 catalysts gave the highest TON

(B73 in 0.5 h) to methyl glucosides. Additionally, methyl

glucosides formed in methanol are more stable against

further degradation than glucose in water. Recently, it was

revealed that alcohol (methanol or ethanol) and water

showed a synergistic effect on direct liquefaction of biomass.95

Fig. 3 Proposed schematic structure of the prepared carbon material

bearing SO3H, COOH, and OH functions.82 Reprinted with permis-

sion from ref. 82. Copyright 2008 American Chemical Society.

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The 50 wt% co-solvent of either methanol-water or ethanol-

water was found to be an effective mixed solvent for the

liquefaction of eastern white pine sawdust.

Comparatively, the dissolution of lignin and hemicellulose is

easier than that of cellulose owing to the abovementioned

differences in their chemical structure. Therefore, the solvo-

lysis and degradation of cellulose might be worth being

emphasized in the catalytic solvolysis of lignocellulosic bio-

mass. Yamada et al.96 conducted the acid-catalyzed solvolysis

of cellulose using ethylene carbonate (EC) as an organic

reagent and 97% H2SO4 as catalyst. In comparison with

solvolysis by using polyethylene glycol (PEG), using EC as

a solvolysis reagent lead to a faster reaction rate. It was

suggested that cellulose with EC led first to the formation of

glucosides, which then decomposed to form HMF derivatives

or levulinic acid as intermediates.96 In particular, HMF

derivatives could be either decomposed or polymerized to

form an insoluble fraction of products. Thereby, to obtain a

desired levulinic acid, how to control the formation of HMF

derivatives might be a critical issue. The solvolysis of ligno-

cellulosic biomass can even proceed in the absence of catalyst

under hydrothermal conditions. The results showed that the

solvent such as acetone, ethylene glycol and toluene have a

profound effect on solvolytic product.97 In addition, solvolysis

can also be used to deal with intermediates from deploymer-

ization or degradation of lignocellulosic biomass, for example

5-HMF, and levulinic acid.98 Thereby it might be applied to

acceleration of a catalytic solvolysis process mainly through

the solvolysis of intermediates.

Recently, Liu et al.99 investigated microwave-assisted orga-

nosolvolysis by a pretreatment of recalcitrant softwood in

aqueous glycerol with a series of organic and inorganic acids

with different pKa values including sulfuric, hydrochloric acid,

phosphoric, malonic, acetic, citric and lactic acids. It was

found that the efficiency of pretreatment correlated linearly

with the pKa of the acids except malonic and phosphoric acids.

Noticeably, the organic acids, for example carboxylic acids,

could act simultaneously as the solvent, the reactant and the

catalyst. Moreover, organic acids can be possibly recovered

and reused by distillation or extraction. In addition to com-

mon organic acids like the carboxylic acids and sulfonic acids,

organic compounds bearing an –OH or –SH group might also

have certain acidity. Thus specific organic compounds can be

judiciously selected for both catalysis and solvolysis of ligno-

cellulosic biomass. The method could provide an economical

alternative route to the selective conversion of cellulose to

small organic molecules.

4 Catalytically hydrothermal liquefaction of

lignocellulosic biomass

As discussed above, over certain acid catalysts, longer reaction

time, higher reaction temperature and pressure can readily

lead to deep degradation and decomposition of glucose,

xylose, arabinose and cellobiose and oligosaccharides which

are yielded from the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.

Thereby a liquid mixture product mainly consisting of

C2–C6 organic compounds are obtained. In this respect, such

a process is usually called the liquefaction of lignocellulosic

materials instead. Clearly, the objective of the liquefaction of

lignocellulosic materials is to produce low molecular-weight

liquid products, instead of glucose and xylose by hydrolysis.100

The catalytic liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass is

generally performed in hydrothermal water similar to conditions

for hydrolysis at the temperature of 393–653 K (Table 3).

An obvious advantage of the hydrothermal liquefaction process

is that it does not require the lignocellulosic biomass feedstock

to be pre-dried. Different from catalytic hydrolysis, however,

the liquefaction process of lignocellulosic biomass targets deep

degradation and decomposition of glucose through dehydration,

isomerization, decomposition and rearrangement, and so forth.101

The products are greatly changed when the type of catalyst is

substantially changed. For example, over halide catalysts, as

shown in Scheme 5, glucose, 5-HMF and furfural could respec-

tively decompose to liquid products, such as levulinic acid,

5-HMF, furan and formic acid, in a parallel reaction.102 However,

over alkaline catalysts bio-oils and phenolic compounds are

dominantly produced (Table 3).

4.1 Hydrothermal liquefaction over halide and sulfate

catalysts

Recent literature reports that catalytic liquefaction of ligno-

cellulosic biomass was often carried out over sulfate, halide

and oxide-based catalysts. Lewis acid catalysts could exhibit

good catalytic properties in hydrothermal liquefaction of

lignocellulosic biomass while catalytic hydrolysis is frequently

conducted in the presence of Brønsted acid catalysts (Table 3).

Several studies suggested, for example, that alkali and alkaline

earth metal chlorides were not effective in the conversion of

cellulose, while transition metal chlorides such as CrCl3,

FeCl3, CuCl2 and AlCl3,105,106 including a pair of these metal

chlorides (for example CuCl2 and CrCl2),107 exhibited high

catalytic activity. In particular, CrCl3 was found to be highly

active in the conversion of cellulose to levulinic acid, reaching

a yield of 67 mol% after 180 min at 473 K with a catalyst

dosage of 0.02 M and substrate concentration of 50 wt%.104 In

particular, the use of ionic liquids such as [C4MIM]Cl105,106

and [EMIM]Cl107 can effectively promote cellulose depolymer-

ization, thereby quickening the hydrothermal liquefaction.

Recently, a one-step process for the conversion of lignocellulosic

biomass into valuable furanic compounds in ionic liquids

over CrCl3 under microwave irradiation was reported.105

The results showed that CrCl3 could effectively catalytically

convert lignocellulosic biomass into 5-HMF and furfural with

yields up to 52% and 31%, respectively, within a few minutes

without any pretreatment. It was postulated that CrCl3 in

[C4MIM]Cl might form complexes [C4MIM]n[CrCl3+n]. Thus,

in the presence of ionic liquid, the 1,4-glucosidic bonds were

weakened partially at the cellulose hydrolysis step under

microwave irradiation (400 W) because of coordination with

[CrCl3+n]n�. As a result, it was more easily attacked by water

to form glucose and oligomers (Scheme 6).106 This coordina-

tion then promoted rapid mutarotation of the a-glucopyranoseanomer of glucose to the b- glucopyranose anomer of glucose

through hydrogen bonds of chloride anions with the hydroxyl

groups of glucose. The hemiacetal portion of b-glucopyranosewith [CrCl4]

� then formed a Cr3+ enolate anion complex and

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it aroused the isomerization of glucose into fructose. Finally,

fructose is dehydrated to 5-HMF.106 Nonetheless, the heating

by microwave irradiation could also have an effect on cellulose

decomposition and 5-HMF formation. Though microwave

irradiation is facile at the laboratory scale, it might still be

difficult at large scale-up in industry. Furthermore, it cannot

be ignored that ionic liquids may also play a role in catalysis,

in addition to their role in facilitating the dissolution of

cellulose.107

Rare-earth metal salts or ions, for example lanthanum(III)

ions, which retain Lewis acid reactivity even in aqueous

solutions, have been used to catalyze the degradation of ligno-

cellulosic biomass, typically cellulose.103 Earlier, Seri et al.108

showed that the conversion of cellulose degradation in water at

523 K in the presence of LaCl3 reached 80.3% after 180 s.

A 54.2 wt% yield of a water-soluble product mainly containing

5-HMF glucose and levulinic acid was obtained. In addition to

metal halides, sulfates can also be used as catalysts for the

catalytic liquefaction of cellulose. Furthermore, the reaction can

be directed towards a specific target product other than 5-HMF,

glucose and levulinic acid. Kong et al.109 revealed, for example,

that lactic acid can be produced from the catalytic hydrothermal

liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass in the presence of different

transition metal ions like ZnSO4, NiSO4, CoSO4 or Cr2(SO4)3.

In comparison to a non-catalytic process, the addition of 400 ppm

Ni2+ catalyst evidently increased the yield of lactic acid

from 3.25% to 6.62% at 573 K for 120 s in the hydrothermal

liquefaction microcrystalline cellulose samples in subcritical

water. It is noteworthy that lactic acid can also act as a platform

chemical from which lots of fine chemicals can be obtained.6

4.2 Hydrothermal liquefaction over alkaline catalysts

One of the important features of lignocellulosic biomass is that

it mainly contains two types of biopolymers, namely cellulosic

polymer and lignin polymer. Relatively speaking, the former

readily interacts with acid while the latter is apt to interact

with alkali. Therefore, in the presence of alkaline catalysts,

liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass mainly leads to oil-like

products, although this process is usually conducted thermally

in an aqueous medium.110,111 In a sense, this process mimics

the conversion of ancient plant material into the crude oil.112

So far, various carbonates like Na2CO3, K2CO3, and hydroxides

such as KOH or Ca(OH)2 as catalysts have been evaluated

in the hydrothermal liquefaction for wood, agricultural

and civic wastes such as sugar cane bagasse and corn stalk

as sources of lignocellulosic biomass (Table 3). The so-called

bio-oil product is actually a complicated liquid mixture with a

wide range of compositions. It typically consists of glycoalde-

hyde dimers, 1,3-dihydroxyacetone dimers, anhydroglucose,

Table 3 Catalytically hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass or pure cellulose in an aqueous medium

Catalyst Feedstock Reaction conditions Main products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

NiSO4 (400 ppm) Cellulose 573 K, 120 s Lactic acid B6.6 Kong et al./2008 109—

LaCl3 (0.01 M) Cellulose 523 K, 180 s (in N2) Glucose 5.8 (wt%) Seri et al./2002 1085-HMF 19.2 (wt%)Levulinic acid 2.3 (wt%)

La/Al2O3 (0.34 wt%) Cellulose 423 K, 5 h Acetic Acid 4.0 (wt%) Schutt et al./2002 103— Malic Acid 8.0 (wt%)

CoSO4 (400 ppm) Cellulose 573 K, 120 s Lactic Acid B9.5 Kong et al./2008 109—

CrCl3 (3.6 wt%) + [C4MIM]Cl Cellulose MW (400 W) 5-HMF 62.0 Li et al./2009 1062 min, 0.1 MPa Reducing sugar 20.0

CrCl3�6H2O+ [C4MIM]Cl Pine wood MW (400 W) 5-HMF 52.0 Zhang et al./2010 1053 min, 0.1 MPa Furfural 31.0

CuCl2/CrCl2 + EMIM]Cl Cellulose 393 K, 8 min 5-HMF 57.5 Su et al./2010 107— Sorbitol 1.27

CrCl3 (0.02 M) Cellulose 473 K, 3 h Levulinic acid 67.0 Peng et al./2011 104—

K2CO3 (0.5 wt%) Cellulose 608 K, 4.7 s bio-oil N/a Kumar et al./2008 12427.6 MPa

K2CO3 (1.0 M) Empty palmfruit bunch

543 K, 20 min Phenolic compounds N/a Akhtar et al./2008 1192 MPa (H2O)

Na2CO3 (1.0 wt%) Corn stalk 647 K bio-oil 47.2 (wt%) Song et al./2004 12325 MPa (H2O)

Na2CO3 Woody biomass 653 K, 16–20 min Heavy oil 53.3 Qian et al./2007 1228 MPa (H2)

Ca(OH)2 (0.0243 M) Sawdust 553 K, 15 min Oil 9.3 (wt%) Karagoz et al./2004 115KOH (0.5 M) Walnut shells 523 K, 430 min, Phenolic compounds N/a Liu et al./2006 59

1.5–8.6 MPaBa(OH)2 or Rb2CO3 Lignin 573 K, 1 h Phenolic compounds

and oilsB53 Tymchyshyn et al./2010 126

2 MPa, H2

Ba(OH)2 or Rb2CO3 Sawdust/cornstalks 573 K, 1 h Phenolic compoundsand oils

B32a + 30/ Tymchyshyn et al./2010 1262 MPa, H2 32a + 25

K2CO3 + ZrO2 Waste biomass 673 K, 10 min Oil 9–13% Hammerschmidtet al. /2011

12522.1 MPa

[EMIM]Cl: 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. [C4MIM]Cl: 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. N/a: not available. MW: Microwave

irradiation. a data from reaction without catalysts, and the sum is the data with addition of catalysts.

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soluble polyols, 5-HMF, furfural, organic acids, phenolic

compounds and even hydrocarbons. Therefore, an efficient

hydrothermal liquefaction process of lignocellulosic biomass

over alkaline catalysts offers remarkable potential for

simultaneously producing biofuels and value-added chemicals

by integrating it with proper separation and extraction

techniques.

Clearly, the reaction temperature and time and the type of

alkaline medium have a significant effect on the reaction rate

and product distribution.113,128 As for the effect of tempera-

ture on the reaction rate and the product distribution, for

example, earlier Minowa and co-workers114 showed that in the

presence of 0.826 wt% Na2CO3 under 3 MPa, the decomposi-

tion of cellulose started at a reaction temperature lower

than 453 K. Only water-soluble products were obtained at

temperatures below 533 K. The cellulose decomposed quickly

at 533–573 K. Bio-oil was formed at temperatures above

533 K and its yield reached the highest values at 593–613 K.

Scheme 5 Main reaction pathways of degradation of major product, glucose, from cellulose hydrolysis over different catalysts.90,102 Adapted and

reprinted with permission from ref. 90. Copyright 2008 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim; Adapted and reprinted from ref. 102,

Copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.

Scheme 6 Direct conversion of cellulose to 5-HMF catalyzed with CrCl3 in [C4MIM]Cl (n = 1–3).106 [C4MIM]Cl: 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazo-

lium chloride. Reprinted from ref. 106, Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier.

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No cellulose remained after reaction at temperatures greater

than 573 K. Later, Karagoz and colleagues115 used a 0.0243 M

Ca(OH)2 solution as a solvent instead of pure water a in

liquefaction reaction of wood biomass. The results also

revealed that increasing the reaction temperature increased

the conversion of wood biomass and the total bio-oil yield.

Maximum bio-oil yield was found to be 8.5 wt% for a reaction

at 553 K for 15 min. Regarding these findings, in general, an

obvious reason is that decomposition temperature for cellulose

and lignin is inherently different. Moreover, decomposition of

cellulose tends to yield polyols, alcohols and carboxylic acids

while decomposition of lignin principally leads to phenolic

compounds.

However, at elevated temperatures or over longer reaction

times, the occurrence of secondary reactions of bio-oil

products is increased so much that the yield of the bio-oil

decreases. In particular, for most of the lignocellulosic bio-

mass treated at a temperature higher than 573 K a carboniza-

tion process tends to readily take place.116 The carbonization

could be effectively avoided at lower reaction temperature

in the presence of an appropriate catalyst. With regard to

low-temperature catalytic hydrothermal treatment of wood

biomass, several studies showed that the use of alkaline

catalysts increased the formation of the compounds such as

4-methyl-2-methoxy-phenol, 4-ethyl-2-methoxy-phenol and

benzenediol derivatives and decreased the solid residues, tar

and biochar.117,118 The role of catalysts in directing product

distribution is clearly proved by the observation that the furan

derivatives obtained from the thermal run were not observed

for the catalytic run. Moreover, the conversion and yield of

liquid products decreases in the following order: K2CO3 4KOH 4 Na2CO3 4 NaOH.117–119

It is most likely that the decomposition of lignocellulosic

biomass in water inhibits char formation. In particular, such a

process is conducted under subcritical or supercritical water

conditions. It is well-documented that near the critical point of

water (647 K, 22.1 MPa), the ionic concentration (Kw = [H+] �[OH�]; [H+] = [OH�]) increases and water behaves as a

weakly polar solvent. Therefore, subcritical and supercritical

water conditions are often considered to be applied to the

liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass. Earlier, Demirbas120

found that the yield of bio-oil from catalytic supercritical fluid

extraction of oriental beech reached 68.6% at 573 K after

30 min in the presence of 20% wt NaOH. However, there are

also disadvantages in the use of subcritical or supercritical

water. Typically, the equipment corrosion by caustic hydroxides

is severely enhanced under subcritical and supercritical

water conditions. Therefore, in this aspect, alkali and alkaline

earth carbonate salts are favorable for use as catalysts. When

cellulose liquefaction is carried out in the presence of Na2CO3

under subcritical water and at a reaction temperature of 623 K,

bio-oil and gas were the main products, with little solid residue

formed.121 Qian et al.122 reported that when woody biomass

was liquefied at 653 K in the presence of Na2CO3 as a catalyst,

a yield of 53.3% of bio-oil, mainly composed of hydrocarbon,

aldehyde, ketone, hydroxybenzene and ester, was obtained.

However, Song et al.123 showed that in the case of isothermal

liquefaction of corn stalks in water without a catalyst, the

conversion was also very high, reaching 95.4 wt% with a liquid

yield of 77.6% and gas production of 17.9%. When 1.0 wt%

Na2CO3 was added as a catalyst, the conversion rate remained

unchanged (95.7%), but the catalytic reaction favored the yield

of liquid products which increased to 88.0% and the gas

production decreased to 6.8%. Moreover, in the presence of a

catalyst, the bio-oil content in the liquid products sharply

increased from 33.4 wt% to 47.2 wt%. Clearly, not only does

the catalyst change the rate of the liquefaction reaction, but it

can also change the direction of the liquefaction reaction

towards different types of products.

The hydrothermal liquefaction is almost all conducted in a

batch reactor. However, it can be carried out in a continuous

flow reactor. For example, Kumar et al.124 revealed that when

using K2CO3 as a catalyst in a continuous flow reactor,

increasing the reaction temperature to the supercritical region,

or increasing the reaction time, hydrolytic oligomers and

monomers of cellulose samples were further degraded into

glycoaldehyde dimer, D-fructose, 1,3-dihydroxyacetone dimer,

anhydroglucose, 5-HMF, and furfural, thereby yielding bio-

oils. To improve the selectivity to target compounds in the

bio-oil, Hammerschmidt and co-workers125 recently described

a continuous one-step process making use of two kinds of

catalysts, a homogeneous K2CO3 catalyst and a heterogeneous

ZrO2 catalyst. Such combination of a homogeneous system

with a heterogeneous system provides new ways to realize a

more efficient continuous process.

It should be noted that thermal liquefaction in an aqueous

solution might also undergo hydrolysis, pyrolysis and steam

gasification, in particular in super- or subcritical water. Such

complex reaction networks for cellulose decomposition in

homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction conditions under

subcritical water using Na2CO3, and Ni as catalysts and with-

out catalysts, have been proposed by Fang and co-workers, as

shown in Scheme 7.121 In the course of the reaction, dissolved

compounds, for example part of cellulose, oligomers, glucose,

and levoglucosan and non-dissolved feedstock cellulose and

compounds, might undergo different reaction mechanisms,

thereby resulting in different intermediates and final products.

At a high heating rate, a Na2CO3 catalyst resulted in more oil

while a Ni catalyst produced more gas. The dissolved reaction

paths in the homogenous phase were homogeneously hydro-

lyzed to glucose and other soluble pyrolytic products (e.g.

levoglucosan), which then further decomposed to acids, alde-

hydes, and alcohols of C1–C3. Part of the glucose degraded to

furfurals and 5-HMF, which ultimately condensed to phenols

and dehydrated to levulinic and formic acids. The non-

dissolved reaction fraction in the heterogeneous phase possibly

underwent pyrolysis to yield a mixture of hydrocarbons,

aromatic derivatives and tar, randomly linked oligosaccharides,

light volatiles and gases via dehydration, cracking and fission,

and rearrangement of the sugar units. Even for single cellulose as

a feedstock, the reaction mechanism is extraordinarily compli-

cated. For lignocellulosic biomass, the presence of lignin and

hemicellulose certainly make it much more perplexing.

Among the components in bio-oils, phenolic compounds are

one type of typical, important product from the liquefaction

of lignocellulosic biomass after treatment with alkali. It is well-

documented that alkalis are exceptionally effective to extract and

convert lignin lignocellulosic biomass. Liu et al.59 showed that

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the products from the hydrothermal conversion of walnut shells

catalyzed by 0.5 M KOH at 573 K were mainly phenol

derivatives, especially the methoxy phenolic compounds.

Clearly, these chemicals are readily derived from lignin. Owing

to the inherent multicomponent plant cells, small amounts

of cyclopentene derivatives and C12–18 fatty acids were also

detected. Recently Tymchyshyn and colleagues126 described a

series of direct liquefaction of lignocellulosic wastes like sawdust

and cornstalks, and model biomass compounds like lignin and

cellulose in hot-compressed water at temperatures from 523 to

623 K in the presence of 2 MPa H2, with the addition of

Ba(OH)2 and Rb2CO3 catalysts. Significant quantities of

phenolic compounds such as 2-methoxy-phenol, 4-ethyl-2-

methoxyphenol, and 2,6-dimethoxy-phenol were obtained from

the two lignocellulosic wastes and pure lignin. Yet the liquid

products from cellulose contained essentially carboxylic acids

and neutral compounds. Such experimental data evidently

revealed that lignin and cellulose inherently tend to result in

different categories of products. To bear this in mind is of much

importance in designing and developing a catalytic system for

hydrothermal liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass to the

target products based on different goals.

As discussed above, catalytically hydrothermal liquefaction

of lignocellulosic biomass produces a very complex mixture of

liquid products along with some gases and solid residues and

tars. It makes the production of bio-oil from hydrothermal

liquefaction of lignocellulosic biomass very uneconomical at

present when compared to the costs of diesel or gasoline

production from fossil oils. Scheme 8 shows the separation

and extraction procedure proposed by Karagoz et al.117

It involves the complicated multistep extraction by several

types of solvents. Moreover it needs inorganic acids for

neutralization and the separation of water-soluble organic

compounds in the water phase. Therefore, in addition to the

technical need for the improvement of the activity and selectivity

of catalysts, the novel technology for separation and extraction

of downstream products from hydrothermal liquefaction of

lignocellulosic biomass need to be developed.127,128 On the other

hand, such complexity in products is a reflection of the complex

reaction mechanism in catalytic liquefaction of lignocellulosic

biomass. Thus far, researchers have not acquired in-depth

understanding of the reaction mechanism yet. To disclose it

certainly is conducive to developing such a process for the

commercial use. Finally, generally speaking, hydrothermal

liquefaction is relatively time-consuming and energy-intensive.

In this context, comparatively, fast pyrolysis, as discussed below,

is more promising.

5 Catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass

Pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass is generally a process of

thermal chemical decomposition in the absence of oxygen to

convert biomass into liquid products (bio-oils) together with

some gases and solid chars. Such a thermolysis process

simultaneously involves various reactions such as depolymer-

ization, dehydration, decarboxylation, esterification,

condensation, cyclization, and so forth.27,129,130 However,

different from catalytic liquefaction at lower temperature in

the aqueous phase, pyrolysis is usually conducted at tempera-

tures greater than 773 K (Table 4). The liquid products are

commonly referred to as pyrolysis oils, which have been

identified as promising alternative renewable liquid fuels.131,132

Scheme 7 Mechanism of cellulose decomposition promoted in homogeneous and heterogeneous environments in subcritical water. High heating

rates result in ‘glucose char’ without catalyst, but more oil with Na2CO3 catalyst, and more gas with Ni catalyst.121 Reprinted with permission from

ref. 121. Copyright 2004 American Chemical Society.

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Similar to the liquid products from thermal liquefaction, the

pyrolysis oil is a complicated mixture of oxygenated and

deoxygenated compounds, typically consisting of organic

acids, aldehydes, ketones, esters, aromatic and phenolic deri-

vatives, and even hydrocarbons. Accordingly, liquid pyrolysis

oils are normally acidic and emulsion-like fluids containing

both aqueous phases and phenolic phases. Thus it is impera-

tive to further upgrade pyrolysis oil so as to get useful liquid

hydrocarbon-like fuels and fuel additives.

Pyrolytic processing of lignocellulosic biomass can be

roughly classified into steam pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis in the

flow of an inert gas and vacuum pyrolysis. For all of these

approaches, a major, common objective is to improve the

selectivity of low molecular-weight substances with great

potential as fuels. As seen in Table 4, fast pyrolysis has been

the attractive subject of a lot of research over the past decade

because it is proven to be two to three times more economical

than liquefaction and gasification processes.133 Generally, four

parameters play a pivotal role in the catalytic activity and

selectivity of targeted pyrolysis oils. They are (1) the catalysts,

(2) heating rate of lignocellulosic biomass, (3) residence time of

reactants and the products inside the reactor, and (4) reaction

temperature.130 In addition, the atmosphere in the reactor is

influential. For example, if the pyrolysis is conducted in the

presence of hydrogen, more hydrogenated products will be

obtained. Such an integrated pyrolysis with hydrogenation

process will be discussed in detail in Section 7.

5.1 Fast pyrolysis mechanism

The fast pyrolysis reaction of lignocellulosic biomass under-

goes a complex mechanism in oxygen-deficient conditions at

high temperature, even though the reaction is conducted in an

inert atmosphere. Therefore, presently the investigation into

the mechanism could be simplified through the single use of

cellulose or lignin in a non-catalytic system. As shown in

Scheme 9, earlier Luo et al.137 proposed a fast pyrolysis

model of cellulose in an inert nitrogen atmosphere. Hydroxy-

acetaldehyde and 1-hydroxy-2-propanone was thought to

be produced from the decomposed fragments of activated

cellulose by competing against levoglucosan formation.

Meanwhile, the intermediate fragments might also decompose

to yield gases (COx). At low temperature, activated cellulose

would also directly decompose to produce char, CO2, and

H2O. A long residence time of intermediates like levoglucosan

in the reactor could lead to the secondary cracking reaction,

thereby leading to the formation of methanol, aldehyde, allyl

alcohol, glyoxal, furfural, 5-HMF and gases.

Regarding the gas products, a possible mechanism for fast

pyrolysis of cellulose in an inert gaseous atmosphere was

proposed by Lanza and co-workers recently,138 with the

following simplified decomposition sequence:

Cellulose - Gm, H2O (2)

where Gm = short oligomers.

Gm, H2O - Cn, CO, H2O (+CO2, H2), with n r 4 (3)

Cn - CH4 (4)

CH4 + H2O - CO + 3H2 (5)

As depicted by the reaction paths in eqn (2)–(5), cellulose

decomposes primarily to H2O and short oligomers (Gm),

which is then broken down to levoglucosan. The levoglucosan

easily breaks down to mainly form CO, H2O and hydro-

carbons up to C4, along with minor CO2 and H2. In these

sequential reactions, butadiene was identified as a key inter-

mediate. The hydrocarbons undergo further thermal cracking

reactions to yield CH4. The presence of H2O steam and

hydrocarbons results in a reforming reaction, finally leading

to chemical equilibrium composition among syngas and CH4.

According to this mechanism, H2 and CO can form in two

different reaction routes in eqn (2) and (5), respectively. And

the different pathways and rates in the formation of CO and

H2 explain why the ratio of CO to H2 is not constant under

different conditions, particularly at short residence time.

Therefore, it could be reasonably deduced that a longer

contact time is required if the aim is to produce syngas from

the fast pyrolysis of cellulose.

Although all of the abovementioned mechanisms have

proposed relatively simple reaction routes and identified key

intermediates in the non-catalyst system,137,138 it is evident

that fast pyrolysis involves a series of consecutive and parallel

reactions competing against each other among liquid products

and gaseous products. Nevertheless, as such reactions are

frequently conducted either in the gas or liquid phase in the

presence of homogenous and heterogeneous catalysts,139,140

the reaction mechanism might undergo far more complicated

Scheme 8 Separation and extraction procedure.117 Reprinted with

permission from ref. 117, Copyright 2005, with permission from

Elsevier. WSH: Water soluble hydrocarbons (WSH and others in

wt% = 100 � (oil1 + oil2 + oil3 + solid + gas). (Typical products

in oil 1: 2-Furancarboxaldehyd, 2-Methoxy-phenol, 4-Methyl-phenol,

4-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzeneacetic acid, 2-Hydroxy-3-methyl-2-

cyclopenten-1-one and Butylated hydroxytoluene; oil 2: 3-Methoxy-1-

propene, 4-oxo-Pentanoic acid, 5-Ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone;

oil 3: 2-Furancarboxaldehyde,2-Methoxy-phenol, 3-Methyl-phenol or

4-methyl-phenol, Eugenol, 4-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzeneaceticacid-

methyl ester, 3-Acetyl-7,8-dimethoxy-2-methyl-1H-naptho[2,1-b]pyran-1-

one.

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steps and reaction networks. Furthermore, many intermediate

products are more active than cellulose itself and polyols,

thereby making the reaction more perplexing. Such complex

reaction networks are still a puzzle and a barrier on the way to

understanding and utilizing cellulose by pyrolysis conversion

in a more efficient, economical way.

5.2 Catalytic fast pyrolysis

To increase the pyrolysis efficiency and the content of the target

compounds in bio-oils, liquid acid such as H2SO4, hydrochloric

acid, phosphoric acid and Lewis acids can be used as a specific

pretreatment for pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.141

For example, Dobele et al.142 reported that the pretreatment

of pine wood sawdust and microcrystalline cellulose samples

with phosphoric acid or iron(III) sulfate drastically increased

the contents of levoglucosenone and levoglucosane in volatile

products obtained by a subsequent fast pyrolysis (Table 4).

These results were attributed to the catalysis of the cellulose

depolymerization and dehydration in the presence of acids

from the pretreatment. As for the use of iron ions, possibly

the cleavage of glycoside bonds were catalyzed by iron

oxihydroxide which formed during pretreatment of ligno-

cellulosic biomass. As a result, such a pretreatment had a

positive effect on the yield of 1,6-anhydrosaccharides. With

regards to lignocellulosic biomass with a higher content of

Table 4 Typical pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass in the presence or absence of catalysts

Feedstock Catalyst Reaction conditions Typical products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

Softwood bark andHardwood

No Vacuum pyrolysis Paraffins, sterols N/a Garcia-Perez et al./2007 134773 K Fatty acid methyl

estersCellulose No Flash pyrolysis Soluble solids 20.0–45.9 Piskorz et al./2000 135

1123–1473 K, 35–75 ms. Liquid product 12.5-27.4Soybean oil cake No Pyrolysis, 773 K Liquid product 60 Karagoz/2009 136

Under N2 flowCellulose No Fast pyrolysis CO, H2, CH4,

hydrocarbonsN/a Lanza et al./2009 138

1173 K, Z 3 hCellulose 0.1wt% sulfuric or

polyphosphoric acidPyrolysis in tetramethylenesulfone, 473 K, 6 min,Under N2 flow

Levoglucosenone,furfural

42.2 Kawamoto et al./2007 14426.9

5-HMF 8.8Wood Pretreated by 1wt%

phosphoric acidFast pyrolysis, 773 K Levoglucosane 33.6 Dobele et al./2005 142Under He flow Levoglucosenone 14.1

Cellulose Pretreated by 1%phosphoric acid

Fast pyrolysis, 773 K Levoglucosane 25.2 Dobele et al./2005 142Under He flow Levoglucosenone 29.8

Pine wood sawdust NaOH Fast pyrolysis, 773 K Acetol 53.3 Chen et al./2008 146Microwave heating Furfural 0

2-furanmethanol 2.08(area%)Pine wood sawdust Na2CO3 Fast pyrolysis, 773 K Acetol 45.28 Chen et al./2008 146

Microwave heating Furfural 1.032-furanmethanol 2.58

Pine wood sawdust Fe2(SO4)3 Fast pyrolysis, 773 K Acetol 0 Chen et al./2008 146Microwave heating Furfural 50

2-furanmethano 0Cellulose ZSM-5 Fast Pyrolysis, 873 K,

240 sAromaticcompounds

31.1 (C%) Carlson et al./2008 152

Under He flow CO 15.2 (C%)Pine sawdust H-ZSM-5 Flash pyrolysis, 673–773 K,

50 ms, under N2 flowC4-hydrocarbons 15.9 Olazar et al./2000 150

Wood Ni-ZSM-5 Fast pyrolysis, 873 K Hydrocarbons 16 French et al./2009 151Under He flow Toluene 3.5

n/a: no available. No. without catalyst.

Scheme 9 Modified model of fast pyrolysis of cellulose.137 Adapted and reprinted with permission from ref. 137. Copyright 2004 American

Chemical Society.

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lignin, higher concentration of phosphoric acid or iron(III)

sulfate was needed for pretreatment. Clearly, directly employ-

ing catalysts in the fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass can

remarkably improve the conversion and selectivity to targeted

products. As for the catalytic fast pyrolysis of microcrystalline

cellulose at 773–1073 K by on-line analysis of the pyrolysis

vapors, Lu et al.143 revealed that SO42�/SnO2 was the most

effective catalyst to yield 5-methyl furfural. The selectivity was

evidently changed with the change of catalyst support. For

example, the SO42�/TiO2 catalyst favored the formation of

furfural, while SO42�/ZrO2 favored the formation of furan.143

In addition, it is noteworthy that the type of solvent used

during the pyrolysis reaction also has a significant impact on

the distribution of products. Kawamoto et al.144 depicted

the catalytic pyrolysis of cellulose catalyzed by H2SO4 in

tetramethylene sulfone (C4H8O2S) and found that the yield

of levoglucosenone, furfural, and 5-HMF reached up to 42.2%,

26.9%, and 8.8% (as mol% yield based on the glucose unit),

respectively, at 473 K for 6 min.144 Remarkably, the cellulose

pyrolysis in tetramethylene sulfone suffered so little from carbo-

nization reactions that the residues obtained from pyrolysis in

sulfolane were colorless. There, levoglucosan was identified as

the major anhydromonosaccharide formed during the pyrolysis

of cellulose.145 Tetramethylene sulfone is an aprotic polar solvent

and it could dissolve anhydromonosaccharides, therefore it could

prevent the polymerization and carbonization reaction. As such,

cellulose completely decomposed into soluble products in tetra-

methylene sulfone.145 In contrast, pyrolysis under nitrogen or in

dioctyl phthalate (a poor solvent for levoglucosan) produced

brown/black solid residues. The findings indicated that the solvent

is also influential in pyrolysis and it can be properly selected in

view of promoting dissolution of lignocellulosic biomass and/or

intermediates.

At present, the catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass

is often conducted in the presence of acid or alkaline catalysts

such as carbonates and hydroxides. Because the pyrolysis oils

yield various organic acids, the presence of alkaline species in

the reaction system has an important effect on the stability of

bio-oil. Phosphates, sulfates and chlorides also have certain

catalytic activity in the catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic

biomass. With regard to the catalytic fast pyrolysis of pine

wood sawdust by microwave heating in a fluidized reactor,

alkaline sodium compounds like NaOH, Na2CO3 and Na2SiO3

catalytically resulted in bio-oils rich in acetol, and to some

extent favored H2 formation while the use of the Fe2(SO4)3catalyst favored the formation of fufural and 4-methyl-2-

methoxy-phenol.146 In addition, phosphates, sulfates and

chlorides could be used to replace corrosive alkaline catalysts

or corresponding acid catalysts. Other than catalysis, diammonium

phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and diammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

could act as dehydrating agents upon heating during pyrolysis.

Therefore, at reaction temperatures of about 650–750 K, a

pretreatment of water-extracted fire wood by the impregnation

in about 1% of (NH4)2HPO4 or (NH4)2SO4 solution before

pyrolysis is able to increase the yields of levoglucosan,

5-methyl-2-furaldehyde and 2-acetylfuran in the range of

2–5%.147 Furthermore, alkali and alkaline earth metal

chlorides have also been investigated as catalysts. Shimada

and co-workers148 showed that the use of alkaline earth metal

chlorides could substantially reduce the reaction temperature

from 673 to 423 K.

Recently, the catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass

over zeolites and supported solid catalysts have received

serious attention. In particular, it is attractive to employ

continuous fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass catalyzed

by solid catalysts which has obvious advantages over the use

of liquid acid catalysts in a batch reactor. More importantly,

the most desired product from the catalytic pyrolysis of

lignocellulosic biomass should be directed to hydrocarbons-

containing pyrolysis oils with high yield, similar to petrol

presently in use with easy storage and transportation. In

response, recent advances have shown that hydrocarbons

can indeed be produced in considerable quantities by fast

pyrolysis of biomass over zeolite and mesoporous catalysts

such as ZSM-5, Al-MCM-41.149 Such a catalytic fast pyrolysis

demonstrated an optimistic prospect for direct production of

high-octane pyrolysis oils from biomass for practical applica-

tions. For instance, Olazar et al.150 studied the fast pyrolysis of

pine sawdust with ZSM-5 in a spouted-bed reactor using

nitrogen as the carrier gas and observed a yield of aromatic

compounds of 12% (carbon). By using a semi-continuous flow

reactor with helium as carrier gas, French et al.151 revealed

that lignocellulosic biomass could be pyrolyzed at tempera-

tures ranging from 673 to 873 K with a catalyst-to-biomass

ratio of 5–10 by weight over nickel, cobalt, iron, or gallium-

substituted ZSM-5, leading to an approximately 16 wt% yield

of hydrocarbons. Aromatic compounds like toluene151 and

even gasoline-like products152 can be obtained in remarkable

quantities even without using the hydrogen. However, over

solid catalysts at high temperature, the cracking and deoxygen-

ating activity might decrease with time because of the coke

deposits formed on the solid catalyst.152 Finally, it should be

noted that the distribution of the pyrolysis products such as

charcoal, liquids and gaseous products are also strongly

influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of

the raw materials of lignocellulosic biomass. Therefore, the

cellulosic sources with adequate chemical composition should

be selected for the specific desired product, together with the

search for optimal reaction conditions and the catalysts. In this

context, the growth and productivity, ecological influence and

cost of plant sources of lignocellulosic biomass should be taken

into consideration.

6 Catalytic gasification of lignocellulosic biomass

Gasification is usually referred to as a process of oxygen-

deficient thermal decomposition of carbonaceous matter such

as coal, petroleum, biofuel, or lignocellulosic biomass with a

major objective to produce valuable gaseous products like

hydrogen or syngas.153–155 In particular, the production of

hydrogen, an environmentally clean fuel, from cellulosic

biomass gasification is of much interest to scientists and

engineers. Through Fischer–Tropsch synthesis techniques,

bio-syngas can also be converted into synthetic liquid fuels

and classified as clean and renewable transportation fuels.156

In this context, gasification plus Fischer–Tropsch synthesis are

denoted as indirect liquefaction processes of ignocellulosic

biomass. Gasification of lignocellulosic biomass can also be

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performed at high temperatures with a controlled amount of

oxygen like catalytic partial oxidation.157 Provided that air is

used, the resultant products will contain nitrogen, thereby

leading to an additional problem of separation and purifica-

tion. In many instances, gasification also produces small

amounts of tar, mainly composed of highly condensed poly-

aromatic hydrocarbons.158,159 To avoid such a problem and to

increase the efficiency, biomass gasification in supercritical

water is of growing scientific and technical interest.160–162 This

so-called steam gasification of cellulose, can be described by

the following reaction (eqn (6)).163–165

0.59C6H12O6 + 0.7H2O - 1.42CH4 + 2.12CO2 + 1.4H2

(6)

Table 5 lists some typical reaction conditions and results in

catalytic gasification of lignocellulosic biomass in the presence

of steam. The possibly improved solubility of cellulosic mate-

rials in the supercritical water employed can greatly reduce

mass-transfer limitation. In addition, it can prevent catalyst

deactivation due to coke deposition by means of extracting the

coke precursor from the catalyst surface in the supercritical

water.166 Moreover, the use of supercritical water might

improve the hydrolysis and saccharization of cellulose in

extremely short residence times. Furthermore, Fushimi et al.

recently revealed that the evolutions of water-soluble tar and

gaseous products (CO, H2, CH4 and C2H4) are significantly

suppressed by the interaction between cellulose and lignin.167

6.1 Gasification over supported noble metal catalysts

Supported Ru, Pt or Pd catalysts appear promising in

the catalytic gasification of lignocellulosic biomass under

supercritical conditions (Table 5). In addition, these catalysts

are commonly active for hydrogenation. Therefore, the H2

produced from gasification in turn might be a reactant for

in situ consecutive hydrogenation.

Various Ru-based catalysts such as RuO2, Ru/TiO2 and

Ru/C have been explored as catalysts in the catalytic gasifica-

tion of lignocellulosic biomass. Earlier, Park et al.169 reported

the production of hydrogen from sewage disposals in super-

critical water using RuO2 as the catalyst. The reaction was

more effective than conventional steam reforming to produce

hydrogen. Izumizaki and co-workers170 chose RuO2 as a

catalyst for the production of hydrogen from biomass in

supercritical water under argon atmosphere of 44 MPa at

723 K for 120 min. The amount of hydrogen in gaseous

mixtures was 15.0% from cellulose, 14.1% from pulp, 21.0%

from the mixture of cellulose and lignin, 16% from waste

paper and 27% from paper sludge, respectively. RuO2

evidently accelerated the thermal decomposition for cellulose

and pulp. However, for lignin, the catalytic performance could

be greatly suppressed because of the quick deactivation of the

RuO2 catalyst by coke and char formation.

A possible reaction model over such a RuO2 catalyst is

proposed as below.170

RuO2 + Org - Ru2+ + Org+ + 2CO (7)

Ru2+ + 2H2O - RuO2 + 2H+ + H2 (8)

Org+ refers to an intermediate from the decomposed ligno-

cellulosic biomass. According to such a proposition, CO was

formed through the cyclic oxidation-reduction reaction of

RuO2 with intermediate organics compounds (Org) and then

hydrogen was generated from the reduction of water by Ru2+

(eqn (7) and (8)). The hydrogen and CO could reacted to form

methane (eqn (9) and (10)).

CO + 3H2 - CH4 + H2O (9)

2CO + 2H2 - CH4 + CO2 (10)

According to this reaction mechanism, a higher hydrogen ratio

in the product stream is subject to low methane formation. In

this case, the desired catalyst is the one which can significantly

enhance the overall conversion of lignocellulosic biomass

whilst hindering reduced methane formation so that the yield

of hydrogen can be increased. Osada et al.171 showed that the

gasification of cellulose over Ru/TiO2 in supercritical water

conducted at 673 K for 15 min led to a high gas yield of

74.4 C% (calculation based on the carbon balance). Never-

theless, using the same reaction conditions without the pre-

sence of a catalyst, the gas yield and the water-soluble yield

were 11.3 C% and 39.0 C%, respectively. In this case, it is

reported that in the catalytic reaction no solid product was

formed.

In addition to the use of supercritical water conditions, to

tackle the insolubility of cellulosic materials in gasification,

there are a few reports suggesting that the derivative of

cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and acetyl cellulose,

can be mixed with particulate biomass and water to form a

uniform and stable viscous paste. Such a mixture can then be

gasified in a continuous flow system more efficiently.172,173

Hao et al.173 found that the 10 wt% cellulose or sawdust

sample mixed with CMC (2–3 wt%) can be completely gasified

in supercritical water at 773 K, 27 MPa and for 20 min

residence time in the presence of a Ru/C catalyst. And the

experimental results suggested the catalytic activities in the

order as follows: Ru/C 4 Pd/C 4 nano-(CeZr)xO2 4 nano-

CeO2 4 CeO2.

When acidic solid support, for example in a Pt/Al2O3

catalyst, was used, the catalytic gasification of lignocellulosic

biomass could consist of two main steps: (1) Al2O3 with

surface acidity could effectively act as a catalyst in the first

step for the depolymerization of a lignocellulosic biomass

feedstock, similar to acid-catalyzed hydrolysis. As mentioned

previously, in supercritical water this depolymerization can

also occur to some extent even without catalysts. (2) The next

step is the gasification of water-soluble depolymerized pro-

ducts over Pt/Al2O3 in a catalytic reactor, producing H2, CO2,

and CH4 (eqn (11)).174,175 Similarly, in the case of Pt/C

catalyst in conversion of cellulose into hydrogen by aqueous

phase reforming process, it was proposed that this process

might involve slow hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose which

was catalyzed by the H+ reversibly formed in water during the

reaction and followed by rapid reforming of glucose to H2.176

Cellulose�!H2O

C6H12O6 ���!3nH2O

6nC3nðH2OÞ ð11Þ

Gasification of cellulose by the reforming reaction with H2O under

high temperature can be regarded as catalytic wet oxidation.103,177

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Usui et al.178 studied how cellulose is gasified in hot-compressed

water at 623 K in the presence of a series of supported catalysts

(2 wt% loading) using Zr(OH)4, (CH3COCHQC(O–)CH3)3Fe,

ferrocene, Ru3(CO)12, (CH3COCHQC(O–)CH3)2Co, NiC2O4,

NiO, Ni(OH)2, 2NiCO3�3Ni(OH)2, PdI2, CuCO3�Cu(OH)2,

(CH3CO2)2Cu�H2O, (CH3COCHQC(O–)CH3)2Cu, and

Cu(OH)2. Among these catalysts, after reaction for 3 h,

5 wt% Pd supported on Al2O3 particularly showed the highest

catalytic activity, leading to a yield of H2 at 42.3 vol% and

CH4 at 7.7 vol%, respectively (Table 5). A possible two-step

mechanism is also proposed. Namely, first the C2–C10 unit

aldehydes, ketones, and organic acids were formed from

cellulose in hot compressed water and then these intermediates

were catalytically decomposed to give gaseous products mainly

consisting of H2, CH4, CO, and CO2. It is noteworthy that

using transition metal complexes as catalysts for the gasifica-

tion of cellulose, oil and char were mainly produced with few

gaseous products.

Many studies have shown that the deactivation of a catalyst

in gasification of lignocellulosic biomass is often related to

the amount of coke deposition.179 In addition to catalyst

deactivation, the formation of tar readily causes trouble in

downstream equipment such as blocking and fouling. There-

fore, a good catalyst should be multifunctional, including the

conducive roles in further catalytic steam reforming tar to

syngas and in the removal of the inactive biochar by catalytic

combustion. For example, Miyazawa et al.180 demonstrated

catalytic partial oxidation of tar over a multicomponent

Rh/CeO2/SiO2 catalyst for syngas production from ligno-

cellulosic biomass. In addition, Asadullah and coworkers181

conducted a series of experiments on Rh-based catalysts

for gasification of cellulose and found that the Rh loading of

1.2 � 10�4 mol g�1 catalyst supported on CeO2 exhibited

multiple functions during the gasification of microcrystalline

cellulose. The Rh/CeO2 catalysts remarkably increased the

conversion and inhibited the formation of methane, thereby

enhancing the yields of CO and H2, compared to Ru/CeO2,

Pd/CeO2, Ni/CeO2, Rh/Al2O3 and Rh/TiO2. These studies

suggested that Rh/CeO2 has great potential to be developed

as a catalyst for complete gasification of cellulose.

Finally, in addition to the catalysts and reaction variables,

the reactor also plays a role in gasification efficiency and

product distribution.182–186 Kaewluan et al.187 depicted a

bubbling fluidized bed gasifier having a high carbon conver-

sion efficiency (97.3%) and gasification efficiency (80.2%) to

syngas from rubber wood chip. Dauenhauer and co-workers188

reported millisecond reforming, by which cellulose particles can

be converted extremely quickly into syngas on a hot Rh surface

without detectable deactivation from carbon formation.

6.2 Gasification over non-noble metal catalysts

It is well-documented that Ni, Fe, Co, and Cu-based catalysts

are effective for the water-gas shift reaction in which carbon

monoxide reacts with water to form CO2 and hydrogen

(eqn (12)).189 Therefore, when such kinds of solid catalysts

exist in the gasification of cellulose in the presence of steam,

the yield of hydrogen can be increased (eqn (13)), possibly

following a model involving in the water–gas shift reaction

(eqn (12)).190

CO + H2O - CO2 + H2 (12)

Cellulose �������!decompositionwater-soluble products

�����!gasfication

NigasesðH2 þ COÞ

�������!methanation

NigasesðCH4 þ CO2Þ

ð13Þ

However, the H2 is readily released from the liquid phase to

the gas phase. As a result, the catalyst cannot be in contact

with a large concentration of hydrogen. This might prevent the

methanation reaction from occurrence although methanation

is readily catalyzed by such types of catalysts (eqn (9) and

(10)). Recently, Sinag et al.191 compared the effect of nano-

sized and bulky ZnO and SnO2 on the water-gas shift reaction

in gasification of cellulose. The results showed that at 573 K

the water–gas shift reaction proceeded faster over ZnO

catalysts than that over SnO2 catalysts. Therefore, a higher

yield of hydrogen was obtained in the presence of ZnO.

Table 5 Some typical reaction conditions and results in catalytic gasification of cellulose or lignocellulosic biomass in the presence of steam

Catalyst Reactants Reaction conditions Typical products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

Ru/TiO2 (2 wt%) Cellulose + H2O 673 K, 15 min CH4 44.0 Osada et al./2004 1711 MPa (argon gas) H2 9.0

Ru/C (5 wt%) Sawdust + H2O 773 K, 20 min H2 2–4.0 (wt%) Hao et al./2005 17327 MPa (N2)

RuO2 Cellulose + H2O 723 K, 2 h CH4 32.1b Izumizaki et al./2005 17044 MPa (argon gas) H2 13.7b

Pt/Al2O3 (5 wt%) Cellulose + H2O 623 K, 10 min H2 31.3 Usui et al./2000 17830 MPa (N2) CH4 9.2 (vol%)

Pd/Al2O3 (5 wt%) Cellulose + H2O 623 K, 3 h H2 42.3 Usui et al./2000 17830 MPa (N2) CH4 7.7 (vol%)

Rh catalysts Cellulose + H2O 1106 Ka, 60 ms H2 B52.0 Dauenhauer et al./2007 1880.1 MPa (N2/O2 = 3.76) CO B49.0

Ni/SiO2–Al2O3

(50 wt%)Cellulose + H2O 623 K, 30 min or 1 h CO2 + H2 + CH4 88.1 Minowa et al./1999 192

18 MPa (N2)Ni NP Wood 973 K, in N2 H2-rich gas N/a Richardson et al./2010 168— Palm empty fruit

bunch1023–1063 K Gas 1.76 m3 gas kg�1

biomassLahijani et al./2011 155

Air-blown bubbling

a Temperature measured at 10 mm from the top of the catalytic bed. b L/per 100 g feedstock. NP: nanoparticles.

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The methanation reaction could be also suppressed under

subcritical and supercritical conditions. Minowa et al.192

reported that cellulose was gasified to hydrogen-rich gas over

a nickel catalyst supported on kieselguhr in hot-compressed

water at around 623 K and 18 MPa (subcritical conditions).

During gasification, the steam reforming reaction and metha-

nation reaction both occurred. The gas phase equilibrium

composition was 41–46 mol% CH4, 47–49 mol% CO2 and

6–11 mol% H2. Recently, a series of catalysts such as nickel,

iron, copper, zinc, zirconium, ruthenium and RANEYs nickel

slurry were evaluated by Resende and Savage in the gasifica-

tion of cellulose and lignin in supercritical water.193 The results

revealed that the metallic catalysts played a critical role in the

formation of gaseous product and the selectivity. The yield of

hydrogen gas could be increased to some degree over nickel or

copper by optimizing catalyst loading and the catalyst surface

area/biomass weight ratio. However, it is worth noting that, in

addition to the active component in a catalyst, usually the

acidity and basicity of a support is also an influential factor

on product distribution and coke formation. Interestingly,

Tasaka and co-workers disclosed that steam reforming of tar

derived from cellulose gasification was efficiently catalyzed

by 12 wt% Co/MgO catalyst at 873 K in a fluidized bed

reactor. Over such a type of MgO supported catalysts, the

conversion of tar was found to increase with the amount of

Co loading.194,195 Those findings indicate that the efficiency

of gasification of lignocellulosic biomass could be greatly

enhanced by endowing the catalysts an additional function

of in situ removal of tar by catalytic steam reforming.

7 Integrated hydroprocessing

Because the dominant components in lignocellulosic biomass

are oxygen-rich cellulosic carbohydrates, the deploymerization

and degradation of lignocellulosic biomass by catalytic hydro-

lysis, solvolysis, liquefaction and pyrolysis primarily leads to

oxygenated molecules with carboxyl, keto, and/or hydroxyl

groups. Therefore, to yield targeted value-added chemicals

and liquid hydrocarbons as transportation fuels, most oxygen-

ated molecules should be further deoxygenated along with

the formation of new C–C bonds. In other words, an addi-

tional hydrogenation or hydroprocessing is needed.196 When

hydrogen is present in the reaction system over multi-

functional catalysts, the partial or thorough removal of

oxygen from the oxygenated molecules and the formation

of C–C bonds by hydrogenation and aldol condensation,

alkylation, or ketonization could occur simultaneously or

in situ consecutively.197 In addition, the catalytic hydrogeno-

lysis of the glucosic carbon–oxygen (C–O and CQO) bonds in

cellulose and hemicelluloses and aromatic carbon–oxygen

(C–O) bonds in lignin may also take place in the presence

of hydrogen.198 Therefore, the technology of integrating

hydroprocessing with hydrolysis, solvolysis, liquefaction and

pyrolysis has increasingly received attention over the past decade.

And it has shown great potential for the production of the

commodity chemicals and fuels from lignocellulosic biomass.199

In the context of catalytic hydrogenation, supported metal

catalysts, for example Pt, Ru, Pd or Ni catalysts convention-

ally possess superior catalytic properties. Moreover, these

supported metal catalysts have relatively large surface areas

with well-dispersed active metal sites. In addition, metal-

support interactions might significantly contribute to the

activity, selectivity and stability of a catalyst. The introduction

of metal ions to a catalyst support can also modulate the

acidity/basicity on the surfaces, thereby possibly facilitating

the degradation of lignocellulosic biomass and reducing

carbon deposition by both the support and the active metal sites.

Over these supported catalytic metal catalysts, the efficiency of

converting lignocellulosic biomass into hydrogenated products

can be greatly enhanced through complicated reaction networks

consisting of dehydration, dehydrogenation, hydrogenation,

isomerization, oligomerization, decarbonylation and decarboxy-

lation, and so forth.

7.1 Integrated hydroprocessing to produce commodity

chemicals

As summarized in Table 6, presently many researchers use

cellulose as a model of lignocellulosic biomass for investigation

of the integrated hydroprocessing with hydrolysis to produce

commodity chemicals. A typical method is the combination of

supported Pt, Pd or Ru catalysts for hydrogenation with liquid

acid catalysts for hydrolysis. It offers a more efficient route to the

conversion of cellulose in a one-pot process reaction in the

aqueous phase to form C4 to C6 sugar alcohols, in particular

sorbitol, mannitol, and even ethylene glycol (Scheme 10, Table 6).

In particular, sorbitol can be transformed to fuels (hydrogen, light

alkanes and liquid alkanes) by aqueous-phase reforming or

to a number of high value-added chemicals by aqueous-phase

hydrodeoxygenation.200

The type of noble metal and support, the type of acid, acid

concentration and reaction time significantly influence cellu-

lose conversion, carbon efficiency and product distribution.201

Notably, the breakage of cellulose involves the cleavage of two

types of C–O–C bonds: the 1,4-b-glycosidic bond connecting

two adjacent glucose monomers and the C–O–C bond within

the glucose ring. Scheme 11 illustrates that over a ruthenium

nanocluster catalyst the cleavage of the 1,40-b-glycosidic bondat a different position will result in two different products:202

Cleavage at the C1–O bond (position a) leads to dehydrated

sorbitol, while cleavage at the position b gives dehydroxyed

glucose. Therefore, to design a catalyst for a precise C–O–C

cleavage is much conducive to the selectivity of the desired

product.

In addition, when noble metals are supported onto acidic

solids, possibly there is no need for the use of liquid acid. For

example, over Pt/g-Al2O3 catalysts, the surfaces of g-Al2O3

support have acidic sites, which can catalyze the hydrolysis of

cellulose to glucose, and then the CQO group in the glucose

molecule can be catalytically reduced by H2 over Pt species on

the surface of g-Al2O3, thereby leading to the formation

of hydrogenated products like sorbitol or mannitol.203,204

Nevertheless, g-Al2O3 itself is not acidic enough to efficiently

hydrolyze cellulose.118 The additional acidity can be produced

from the interaction between Pt/Al2O3 and hydrogen.28 Under

the reaction conditions H2 may undergo heterolytic dissocia-

tive chemisorption of hydrogen on platinum atoms. Moreover,

hydrogen molecules activated on the platinum surface are able

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to exchange with protons of the hydroxy groups on the surface

of support Al2O3.203 These resultant H+ species can reversibly

spill over onto the surface of the catalyst support.203,204

Consequently, more Brønsted acid sites formed on the support

which can then catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose,

followed by metal-catalyzed hydrogenation. This is part of the

reasons that the presence of Pt/g-Al2O3 was found to signifi-

cantly increase the initial rate of dissolution-conversion as well

Table 6 Integrated hydrolysis with hydroprocessing in the conversion of cellulose over supported catalysts

Catalyst Reactants Reaction conditions Main products Yield (%) Researchers/Year Ref.

Ru/HUSY (2.5 wt%) Cellulose + H2O + H2 463 K, 24 h Sorbitol 0.7 Fukuoka et al./2006 2055 MPa (H2)

Ru/PVP (1 wt%) Cellobiose + H2O + H2 393 K, 12 h Sorbitol 23.18 Yan et al./2006 2024 MPa (H2) Glucose 1.4

Ru/C (4 wt%) Cellulose + H2O + H2 518 K, 30 min Hexitols 39.3 Luo et al./2007 2066 MPa (H2)

Ru/C Cellulose + H2O + H2 498 K, 5 min EG 15% Deng et al./2010 2116 MPa (H2) + CH3OH 1,2-PD 14%

H4SiW12O40 and Ru/Ccatalysts

Cellulose + H2O + H2 463 K Polyol 65 Geboers et al./2010 2095MPa (H2) Sorbitol 27

Pt/g-Al2O3 (2.5 wt%) Cellulose + H2O + H2 463 K, 24 h Sorbitol 25 Fukuoka et al./2006 2055 MPa (H2) Mannitol 6

Pt/PVPb (1 wt%) Cellobiose + H2O + H2 393 K, 12 h Sorbitol 18.5 Yan et al./2006 2024 MPa (H2) Glucose 42.6

Pt/Al2O3 (2.5 wt%) Cellulose + H2O + H2 518 K, 30 min Sorbitol 9.5 Ji et al./2008 2146 MPa (H2) Mannitol 6.0

EG 14.2Pt/g-Al2O3 Cellulose + H2O + H2 463 K, 24 h Sorbitol 15 Jolle et al./2009 204

5 MPa (H2) Glucose o1HRuCl(CO)(PPh3)3, Rh/C Cellulose + H2O + H2 423 K, 48 h Glucose 26 Ignatyev et al./2010 208

3.5 MPa (H2) + C4MIMCl Sorbitol 742%Ni–30%W2C/AC Cellulose + H2O + H2 518 K, 30 min Sorbitol 3.9 Ji et al./2008 214

6 MPa (H2) Mannitol 1.9EG 61.0

Ni/carbon fiber Cellulose + H2O + H2 463 K, 24 h Sorbitol 50.0 de Vyver et al./2010 2126 MPa (H2) Mannitol 6.2

Erythritol 12.8EG 2.5

HUSY: H form of ultrastable Y zeolite. PVP: poly(Nvinyl-2-pyrrolidone). EG: ethylene glycol. PD: propanediol.

Scheme 10 Catalytic conversion of cellulose into polyols by integrated hydrolysis and hydrogenation.206,214 Adapted and reprinted with

permission from ref. 206. Copyright 2007 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim; Adapted and reprinted with permission from

ref. 214. Copyright 2008 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

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as the selectivity to polyols, especially sorbitol.203,204 More-

over, in most cases, the hydrolysis reaction could be a

rate-determining step.203–207 Thus an efficient conversion of

cellulose into polyols can be realized through a combination of

hydrolysis and hydrogenation over such a class of bifunctional

supported metal catalysts.

In addition to Pt/g-Al2O3, on the surface of a carbon-

supported Ru cluster (Ru/C) catalyst, H+ ions could also be

reversibly formed in situ in hot water, thereby resulting in both

catalytic hydrolysis and instantaneous hydrogenation.205,206

Moreover, integrated depolymerization of cellulose and

hydrogenation can be carried out using ionic liquid C4MIMCl

as a solvent in the presence of hydrogen.207 For example,

Ignatyev et al.208 recently discovered that the combination of a

heterogeneous metal catalyst and a homogeneous Ru catalyst

proved to be effective in such a process in the ionic liquid,

possibly because the Ru compound can enhance the transfer of

hydrogen to the metallic surface.

In addition, heteropoly acids together with supported noble

metal catalysts exhibit good performances in the conversion of

lignocellulosic biomass into valuable platform chemicals via

combined hydrolysis and hydrogenation.209 More recently,

Palkovits et al.210 showed that heteropoly acids together with

supported Ru catalysts show not only high activity but also

remarkable selectivity for sugar alcohols reaching up to 81%

yield of C4 to C6 sugar alcohols at 433 K for 7 h. Noticeably,

over supported Ru catalysts in the presence of basic solution,

an integrated one-pot conversion of cellulose could be devel-

oped to produce valuable specific polyols such as ethylene

glycol(EG), 1,2-propanediol, and 1,2,5-pentanetriol.211

Ni supported onto carbon is also an alternative catalyst

for a one-pot process of catalytic cellulose to polyols.212

Interestingly, a series of bimetallic catalysts including Ru-W/

AC, Ir-W/AC, Pd-W/AC, Pt-W/AC, Ni-W/SiC, and Ni-W/

TiO2 proved to be highly active and selective for the formation

of EG from cellulose.213 W was considered as a key compo-

nent for degradation of cellulose, namely, the C–C cracking

reactions, while the transition metals were mainly responsible

for the hydrogenation reactions of unsaturated intermediates.

Recently, Ji et al.214 demonstrated that supported tungsten

carbide catalysts can replace supported noble metal-based

catalysts to catalyze the degradation of cellulose. Moreover,

the use of Ni-W2C/AC catalysts showed remarkable selec-

tivity towards EG with a yield up to 61 wt% after 30 min at

518 K and 6 MPa H2. In addition to integrated hydrolysis and

hydrogenation, integrated aldol-condensation and hydro-

genation of lignocellulosic biomass (corncobs) to produce

water-soluble C5–C15 compounds was recently developed in

a single reactor system over Pd/WO3–ZrO2 catalysts.215 The

promising progress means that there is still plenty of scope

to design more efficient catalysts for the one-pot catalytic

conversion of cellulose into value-added polyols and other

fine chemicals.

7.2 Integrated hydroprocessing to produce fuels

Another major objective of integrating hydroprocessing is to

convert lignocellulosic biomass to liquid hydrocarbons so that

they can directly replace the present gasoline or diesel fuels in

transportation applications. In this context, the processes of

hydrogenating hydrolytic compounds and hydrogenating

pyrolysis oil have been intensively investigated. Moreover,

lignocellulosic biomass is used more often as a starting

material, rather than pure cellulose model samples.

Studies have shown the possibilities for yielding diesel

and gasoline from lignocellulosic biomass by integrated

hydrogenation with acid-catalyzed hydrolysis. Recently it was

revealed, for example, that an integrated process can produce

gasoline with high octane numbers from maple wood.216

Such a process involves dilute acid-catalyzed (H2SO4, oxalic

acid) hydrolysis of maple wood into aqueous carbohydrate

solutions at 433 K, followed by aqueous phase hydro-

deoxygenation of the resulting sugar solutions. Thus it led to

a product similar to gasoline with a carbon yield of up to 57%

and an estimated octane number of 96.5. Because of the compli-

cated compositions of hydrolytic products, hydrogenation–

deoxygenation of aqueous carbohydrate stream was realized

by a two-stage selectively catalytic process: first the catalyst bed

contained a Ru/C catalyst at 393 K and the second catalyst

bed contained a Pt/zirconium phosphate catalyst at 518 K.

As discussed previously, pretreatment by organic solvent can

be significantly helpful to dissolve or solvolyze lignin, cellulose

or hemicellulose in lignocellulosic biomass. Clearly, it is also

conducive to the integrated process of hydrolysis and hydro-

genation. It was demonstrated that the pretreatment of cellu-

lose in 1-hexanol at 623 K, followed by hydrocracking catalyzed

by Pt/HZSM-5(23) at 673 K in the presence of hydrogen,

produced C2–C9 alkanes with a remarkable yield up to 89%.217

Compounds other than hydrocarbons from lignocellulosic

materials also have potential for use as fuels. For example,

Lange and co-workers218 reported that over bifunctional

Scheme 11 Cellulose structure and the potential monomers formed following cleavage of the C–O–C bonds at positions a or b.202 Reprinted with

permission from ref. 202. Copyright 2006 American Chemical Society.

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catalysts Pt/TiO2 and Pt/ZSM-5 valeric esters as biofuels were

produced from lignocellulosic materials. The synthesis of

valeric biofuels consisted of acid hydrolysis of lignocellulosic

materials to levulinic acid, hydrogenation of the levulinic

acid to g-valerolactone (gVL) and valeric acid (VA), and its

subsequent esterification to valeric biofuels (Scheme 12A).

According to the proposed mechanism for the conversion of

gVL to VA over bifunctional catalysts (Scheme 12B), the

optimal production of VA requires a balancing of the acidic

and hydrogenation functionalities of the bifunctional metal/

zeolite catalyst. Therefore, changing the ratio of metal to

zeolite led to different intermediates and products. Low metal

loading onto zeolite resulted in an increase in the coproduction

of pentenoic acid. High metal loading favored the formation

of methyl tetrahydrofuran (MTHF), pentanal/pentanol,

and/or pentane/butane. In particular, it is noteworthy that

valeric biofuels were found to be fully compatible for blending

with gasoline or diesel. More recently, Serrano-Ruiz et al.

described219,220 that the deconstruction of cellulose in an

aqueous solution of H2SO4 yielded an equimolar mixture of

levulinic acid and formic acid. The formic acid could then be

decomposed into H2 and CO2 and thus H2 was consumed

to reduce levulinic acid to GVL in the H2SO4 solution over a

Ru/C catalyst. Moreover, the formation of GVL brought

about easy separation and recycling of the used H2SO4 in

the cellulose deconstruction reactor. Remarkably, in a single

reactor by means of a dual catalyst bed of Pd/Nb2O5 and

ceria-zirconia; levulinic acid and GVL could be catalytically

upgraded to 5-nonanone and then liquid hydrocarbon fuels

similar to diesel and gasoline.

In addition to hydrotreating hydrolytic products, hydro-

processing of the pyrolysis oil of lignocellulosic biomass is also

a promising option for the production of C–H-rich fuels from

lignocellulosic biomass. One example is the extraordinary find-

ing by Vispute and co-workers documenting that the further

hydroprocessing of the pyrolysis oil greatly increased its intrinsic

hydrogen content, thereby leading to light olefins and aromatic

hydrocarbons.221 Over zeolite catalyst, the yield of aromatic

hydrocarbons and light olefins could be tuned through the

amount of hydrogen added to the biomass feedstock during

hydroprocessing. As discussed, fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic

biomass is a relatively economical way to produce pyrolysis

oil. As such, an efficient integrated hydrotreating definitely

offers remarkable potential for production of renewable liquid

bio-based diesel and gasoline from lignocellulosic biomass.

8 Prospects and concluding remarks

The limitation in the availability and sustainability of fossil

fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, along with the

negative ecological and environmental impacts of their uses

compel many researchers to develop new environmentally

friendly processes on the basis of renewable feedstocks.222

Lignocellulosic biomass, in particular plant cell wall-based

cellulose, is the most abundant and bio-renewable resource

on earth. It has been considered as one of the most attractive

alternatives to replace fossil resources for the production of

fuels, fuel additives and fine chemicals.

Over the past decades, several catalytic systems, namely

hydrolysis, liquefaction, gasification, pyrolysis and deoxy-

genation/hydrogenation for the catalytic conversion of ligno-

cellulosic biomass have increasingly received attention.

Generally, acid catalysts are primarily used in the catalytic

hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass to produce glucose and

xylose; metal supported catalysts and zeolites are primarily

evaluated in the gasification of lignocellulosic biomass to

produce H2 or syngas; and alkaline catalysts are dominantly

investigated in the fast pyrolysis. Over multifunctional

catalysts, the integrated hydroprocessing of lignocellulosic

biomass specifically lead to sorbitol and mannitol, EG or

hydrocarbon-based diesel and gasoline.

Theoretically, the scale-up of a chemocatalytic process of

lignocellulosic biomass can produce fuels and chemicals in

large quantities in a short reaction period. However, no matter

what type of catalytic processes employed, present techniques

have not yet met the required level for commercialization in an

economical and environmentally stable fashion. The present

liquefaction, gasification and pyrolysis of lignocellulosic

biomass yield very complicated products in most cases. The

upgrading and separation of products requires high energy

consumption. The invention of a heterogeneously solid

catalyst with extraordinary activity and selectivity remains

an essential task of paramount importance. A paradoxical,

challenging issue is that the heterogeneous reaction over solid

catalysts commonly suffers from low catalytic activity due to

the solid–solid contact between the insoluble lignocellulosic

biomass and solid catalyst. The utilization of ionic liquids as

solvents and/or as catalysts provides an alternative solution.

However, the use of the ionic liquids might bring about new

problems such as separation and extraction of the targeted

products and increased cost.

Fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass has proven to be

more efficient than liquefaction and gasification. It is expected

that upgraded pyrolysis oils can act as fuels directly. However,

provided that gasification processes can selectively produce

syngas with cost-effective cleaning technology, it is also

certainly of great commercial value because syngas can be

converted to clean fuels and fine chemicals by currently

available catalytic technologies, for example syngas to methanol

and ethanol and then to hydrocarbons and olefins.223 Also, it

is much desired to directly gasify and pyrolyze wet ligno-

cellulosic biomass because drying lignocellulosic biomass is an

energy-intensive and time-consuming operation.224

In the short term, fossil crude oils are still available in large

quantities. Therefore, the overall costs for production of

commodity fuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass

processes by the present catalytic techniques are indeed

less competitive in comparison with large-scales petroleum

industries. In the long run, integrated production of fuels

and fine commodity chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass

feedstocks could be the most economical and renewable alter-

native in a sustainable society. To put the catalytic processes

of lignocellulosic biomass into use, some key points to be

addressed in the years ahead include:

(1) In-depth understanding of the mechanism of the hetero-

geneously catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass. It is

necessary to identify the specific features of each component

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such as cellulose, lignocelluloses and lignin in the reaction

networks. It includes the interrelationship among the feed-

stock, the catalyst, the reaction conditions and the product

distribution. In addition, the specific sources of lignocellulosic

biomass to the desired products should also be established

more clearly in each process.225 In-depth insights into the

structure of cellulose and lignin biopolymers from the inter-

disciplinary sciences of plant and chemistry are surely useful to

develop a strategy to convert it.226,227

(2) Strategic design and preparation of multifunctional cata-

lysts for highly active and selective conversion of lignocellulosic

biomass. This involves acidity, basicity, metal-support interac-

tions, the shape of catalyst particles, mechanical and chemical

stability, deactivation and reusability. Because of the peculiar

features of lignocellulosic biomass and its degraded products,

novel reactors and separation systems, including process intensi-

fication, for continuous one-pass or one-pot operation should be

developed so as to reduce the cost, minimize waste disposal and

energy consumption, and maximize the productivity.

(3) Efficient production of liquid hydrocarbons from ligno-

cellulosic biomass. Firstly, because liquid hydrocarbons can be

directly used in current engines, there is no need for building new

infrastructure for distribution. Secondly, if lignocellulosic biomass

is to replace fossil oils mostly or even completely, similar to

current petroleum industry, the large-scale process of ligno-

cellulosic biomass should, for the most part, produce hydro-

carbon-based liquid fuels. In addition to platform chemicals

and fine chemicals, the identification of certain specific chemicals

in the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass as a new type of fuels

or fuel additives is also of much significance.228,229

All in all, to make the catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic

biomass into valuable products practicable is one of the most

important topics in chemistry. It involves many challenges and

opportunities. Though the studies on the chemocatalytic con-

version of cellulose have received intensive attention over the

past few decades and many breakthroughs have been achieved

therein. A noteworthy thing is that besides cellulose, ligno-

cellulosic biomass contains hemicellulose and lignin which are

Scheme 12 (A) Reaction scheme and key performance factors for the individual process steps in the formation of valeric biofuels (S: selectivity,

[mol%]; P: productivity, [tproductm�3

reactorh�1]; and C: concentration, [wt%]). LA: levulinic acid; gVL: g-valerolactone; VA: valeric acid; EV: ethyl

valerate; EG: ethylene glycol; PG: propylene glycol; IER: acidic ion-exchange resin. (B) Probable reaction mechanism for the conversion of gVL to

VA over bifunctional catalysts. MTHF: methyl tetrahydrofuran; Pe: 1-pentanol; PV: Pentyl valerate; PeOH: 1-pentanol.218 Adapted and reprinted

with permission from ref. 218. Copyright 2010 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

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5612 Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40, 5588–5617 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011

still less investigated. Moreover, the most workable and

economical way could be to use lignocellulosic biomass

directly, rather than pure cellulose. It might be right to say

that the technology of catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic

biomass to fuels and chemicals remains in its infancy. Recent

advances have shown an exciting prospect of putting catalytic

conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to good use. The next

decades will certainly witness the use and growth of catalytic

production of fuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic

biomass with continual technological innovations.

Acknowledgements

We thank anonymous reviewers for thoroughly reading the

manuscript, providing thoughtful, valuable suggestions and

comments on the early version of this manuscript, which

almost lead to a new version. We would like to thank the

Publishers for granting permissions to reproduce copyright

materials cited or adapted in this manuscript. The results and

illustrations are credited to the original researchers to whom

we would like to express our gratitude. The authors wish to

acknowledge the financial support from the Distinguished

Young Scholar Grants from the Natural Scientific Foundation

of Zhejiang Province (R4100436), the National Natural

Scientific Foundation of China (20773110, 20541002), Zhejiang

‘‘151’’ talents project, and Project (2009C14G2020021) from

Science and Technology Department of Zhejiang Provincial

Government for the related research and development. The

authors wish to acknowledge the support of the School

of Chemical Engineering and ARC Centre of Excellence

for Functional Nanomaterials, AIBN in the University of

Queensland during the preparation of this work.

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79 A. Onda, T. Ochi and K. Yanagisawa, Selective hydrolysis ofcellulose into glucose over solid acid catalysts, Green Chem., 2008,10(10), 1033–1037.

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81 Y. Y. Wu, Z. H. Fu, D. L. Yin, Q. Xu, F. L. Liu, C. L. Lu andL. Q. Mao, Microwave-assisted hydrolysis of crystalline cellulosecatalyzed by biomass char sulfonic acids, Green Chem., 2010,12(4), 696–700.

82 S. Suganuma, K. Nakajima, M. Kitano, D. Yamaguchi, H. Kato,S. Hayashi and M. Hara, Hydrolysis of cellulose by amorphouscarbon bearing SO3H, COOH, and OH groups, J. Am. Chem.Soc., 2008, 130(38), 12787–12793.

83 J. Pang, A. Wang, M. Zheng and T. Zhang, Hydrolysis ofcellulose into glucose over carbons sulfonated at elevatedtemperatures, Chem. Commun., 2010, 46(37), 6935–6937.

84 A. Chareonlimkun, V. Champreda, A. Shotipruk andN. Laosiripojana, Reactions of C5 and C6-sugars, cellulose, andlignocellulose under hot compressed water (HCW) in the presenceof heterogeneous acid catalysts, Fuel, 2010, 89(10), 2873–2880.

85 K. Shimizu, H. Furukawa, N. Kobayashi, Y. Itaya andA. Satsuma, Effects of Brønsted and Lewis acidities on activityand selectivity of heteropolyacid-based catalysts for hydrolysis ofcellobiose and cellulose, Green Chem., 2009, 11(10), 1627–1632.

86 J. Tian, J. H. Wang, S. Zhao, C. Y. Jiang, X. Zhang andX. H. Wang, Hydrolysis of cellulose by the heteropoly acidH3PW12O40, Cellulose, 2010, 17(3), 587–594.

87 C. Tagusagawa, A. Takagaki, S. Hayashi and K. Domen,Efficient Utilization of nanospace of layered transition metaloxide HNbMoO6 as a strong, water-tolerant solid acid catalyst,J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2008, 130(23), 7230–7231.

88 A. Takagaki, C. Tagusagawa and K. Domen, Glucose productionfrom saccharides using layered transition metal oxide andexfoliated nanosheets as a water-tolerant solid acid catalyst,Chem. Commun., 2008, 42, 5363–5365.

89 P. Wang, H. B. Yu, S. H. Zhan and S. Q. Wang, Catalytic hydrolysisof lignocellulosic biomass into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionicliquid, Bioresour. Technol., 2011, 102(5), 4179–4183.

90 R. Rinaldi, R. Palkovits and F. Schuth, Depolymerization ofcellulose using solid catalysts in ionic liquids, Angew. Chem., Int.Ed., 2008, 47(42), 8047–8050.

91 C. H. Zhou, Emerging trends and challenges in synthetic clay-based materials and layered double hydroxides, Appl. Clay Sci.,2010, 48(1–2), 1–4.

92 N. Villandier and A. Corma, One pot catalytic conversion ofcellulose into biodegradable surfactants, Chem. Commun., 2010,46(24), 4408–4410.

93 I. A. Ignatyev, P. G. N. Mertens, C. Van Doorslaer,K. Binnemans and D. E. de Vos, Cellulose conversion intoalkylglycosides in the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumchloride, Green Chem., 2010, 12(10), 1790–1795.

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95 S. Cheng, I. Dcruz, M. Wang, M. Leitch and C. Xu, Highlyefficient liquefaction of woody biomass in hot-compressedalcohol-water co-solvents, Energy Fuels, 2010, 24, 4659–4667.

96 T. Yamada, M. Aratani, S. Kubo and H. Ono, Chemical analysis ofthe product in acid-catalyzed solvolysis of cellulose using polyethyleneglycol and ethylene carbonate, J. Wood Sci., 2007, 53(6), 487–493.

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98 M.Mascal and E. B. Nikitin, High-yield conversion of plant biomassinto the key value-added feedstocks 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural,levulinic acid, and levulinic esters via 5-(chloromethyl)furfural, GreenChem., 2010, 12(3), 370–373.

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104 L. Peng, L. Lin, J. Zhang, J. Zhuang, B. Zhang and Y. Gong,Catalytic Conversion of cellulose to levulinic acid by metalchlorides, Molecules, 2010, 15, 5258–5272.

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106 C. Z. Li, Z. H. Zhang and Z. B. Zhao, Direct conversion ofglucose and cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquidunder microwave irradiation, Tetrahedron Lett., 2009, 50(38),5403–5405.

107 Y. Su, H. M. Brown, X. W. Huang, X. D. Zhou, J. E. Amonetteand Z. C. Zhang, Single-step conversion of cellulose to 5-hydroxy-methylfurfural (HMF), a versatile platform chemical,Appl. Catal., A,2009, 361(1–2), 117–122.

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121 Z. Fang, T. Minowa, R. L. Smith, T. Ogi and J. A. Kozinski,Liquefaction and gasification of cellulose with Na2CO3 and Ni insubcritical water at 350 1C, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2004, 43(10),2454–2463.

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123 C. C. Song, H. Q. Hu, S. W. Zhu, G. Wang and G. H. Chen,Nonisothermal catalytic liquefaction of corn stalk in subcriticaland supercritical water, Energy Fuels, 2004, 18(1), 90–96.

124 S. Kumar and R. B. Gupta, Hydrolysis of microcrystallinecellulose in subcritical and supercritical water in a continuousflow reactor, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2008, 47(23), 9321–9329.

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129 A. E. Putun, N. Ozbay, E. A. Varol, B. B. Uzun and F. Ates,Rapid and slow pyrolysis of pistachio shell:effect of pyrolysisconditions on the product yields and characterization of the liquidproduct, Int. J. Energy Res., 2007, 31(5), 506–514.

130 C. Di Blasi, C. Branca and A. Galgano, Biomass screening forthe production of furfural via thermal decomposition, Ind. Eng.Chem. Res., 2010, 49(6), 2658–2671.

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132 M. W. Nolte and M. W. Liberatore, Viscosity of BiomassPyrolysis Oils from Various Feedstocks, Energy Fuels, 2010, 24,6601–6608.

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140 D. Lv, M. Xu, X. Liu, Z. Zhan, Z. Li and H. Yao, Effect ofcellulose, lignin, alkali and alkaline earth metallic species onbiomass pyrolysis and gasification, Fuel Process. Technol., 2010,91(8), 903–909.

141 Q. A. Lu, C. Q. Dong, X. M. Zhang, H. Y. Tian, Y. P. Yang andX. F. Zhu, Selective fast pyrolysis of biomass impregnated withZnCl2 to produce furfural: Analytical Py-GC/MS study, J. Anal.Appl. Pyrolysis, 2011, 90(2), 204–212.

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165 Y. Izumizaki, K. C. Park, T. Yamamura, H. Tomiyasu, B. Godaand Y. Fujii, Exothermic hydrogen production system in super-critical water from biomass and usual domestic wastes with anexploitation of RuO2 catalyst, Prog. Nucl. Energy, 2008, 50(2–6),438–442.

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