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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 131 (2010) 326–342

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate / je thpharm

edicinal plants with bioprospecting potential used in semi-aridortheastern Brazil

arahbelle Leitte Cartaxoa, Marta Maria de Almeida Souzaa, Ulysses Paulino de Albuquerqueb,∗

Universidade Regional do Cariri, Mestrado em Bioprospeccão Molecular, Crato, Ceará, BrazilUniversidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Biologia, Laboratório de Etnobotânica Aplicada, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 19 March 2010eceived in revised form 30 June 2010ccepted 3 July 2010vailable online 17 July 2010

eywords:thnobotanythnopharmacologyemi-arideasonal dry forests

a b s t r a c t

Objectives: Many species of the Caatinga flora are used as medicines in local communities. In recentdecades, the knowledge and use of these species has been expanding within this region. We attemptedto record the local diversity of medicinal plants used to treat various diseases in a rural community inthe state of Ceará, Brazil, and to evaluate the promising medicinal species for bioprospecting studies.Methods: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted using free list and semi-structured interviews. To indi-cate medicinal plants that stood out, the relative importance (RI) of species mentioned by key-informants(20), by general informants in the community (71) and by all informants (91), was analyzed. The groupof species that stood out for human body systems based on the informant consensus factor (ICF) was alsoevaluated.Results: A total of 119 species were recorded that were associated with 92 health problems. Of thesespecies, 100 were cited by key-informants and 86 were cited by general informants. Nineteen speciesshowed a great versatility of use, including the following: Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão, Bauhiniacheilanta (Bong.) Steud., Hymenaea courbaril L., Mentha x villosa Huds., Ziziphus joazeiro Mart., and Rutagraveolens L. Key-informants cited 33 exclusive species, from which nine presented greater relativeimportance. General informants cited 19 exclusive species, 2 with greatest relative importance. The ther-

apeutic properties were grouped into 16 body system categories. These grouping categories included skindiseases and diseases of the subcutaneous tissue; sensory system (ears) disorders; respiratory disorders;and injuries, poisoning and other external symptoms.Conclusion: The great diversity of medicinal plants used in the community is evident. Some species hadboth high relative importance and high consensus factors among the informants; these particular species

prosp

are recommended for bio

. Introduction

In recent decades, the amount of information on the use of plantesources in tropical forests has increased (Bourdy et al., 2000;ussmann and Sharon, 2006; Lucena et al., 2007a; Teklehaymanotnd Giday, 2007). Ethnobotany is one of the fields that has pro-ressed significantly in terms of the recent research that is focusedn the plant species used (Oliveira et al., 2009).

Brazil possesses a large potential for biodiversity and has aealth of traditional knowledge accumulated by local people

ho have direct access to nature and the products of biodiver-

ity (Albagli, 2001). Traditional knowledge related to medicinallants is the basis of folk medicine in Brazil, which is derivedrom a mixture of Brazilian indigenous cultures and European and

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 81 3320 6350; fax: +55 81 3320 6360.E-mail addresses: upa677@hotmail.com, upa@db.ufrpe.br (U.P. de Albuquerque).

378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.003

ecting studies.© 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

African influences from the colonization period (Martins et al.,2000).

In this sense, the Caatinga represents the fourth largest area cov-ered by a single vegetation form in Brazil, accounting for about60% of the northeast territory and extending to a small part ofthe southeastern region of Minas Gerais (Sampaio et al., 2002).There has been increasing interest in acquiring knowledge regard-ing the medicinal plants within the Caatinga area (Albuquerqueet al., 2007a), and some publications describe the rich flora of thisregion as having many medicinal purposes (Agra et al., 2007b, 2008;Albuquerque et al., 2007a,b; Almeida et al., 2005a; Matos, 1989,2000).

In addition to being widely known and used by local com-

munities, many medicinal species in the Caatinga are sold asherbal products. A short list of these species includes Amburanacearensis (Arr. Cam.) A. C. Smith. (Cumaru), Anadenanthera colub-rina (Vell.) Brenan (Angico), Bauhinia cheilantha (Bongard) Steudel(pata-de-vaca or mororó), Cereus jamacaru D.C (mandacaru), Eryth-

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ina velutina Willd. (mulungu), Maytenus rigida Mart. (Bom-nome),yracrodruon urundeuva (Engl.) Fr. All. (Aroeira), and Sideroxylon

btusifolium (Roem. and Schult.) T.D. Penn., (quixaba) (Albuquerquet al., 2007a; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Alves et al., 2007;antas and Guimaraes, 2007). Some of these species have medic-

nal properties that have been proven scientifically. For example,he pharmacological evaluation of M. urundeuva revealed a heal-ng activity (Rodrigues et al., 2002). A bronchodilator effect wasbserved for Amburana cearensis (Leal et al., 2000). ResearchersAgra et al., 2007a,b, 2008; Albuquerque et al., 2007a; Almeida etl., 2005a,b; Silva et al., 2005) have mentioned many species thatight possess great phytochemical and pharmacological potential

or various medical purposes but that require studies to prove theircientific activities.

This study aimed to investigate the use of medicinal plants in aural community in the municipality of Aiuaba within the Cearatate. The goals were to record the local diversity of medicinallants in the community, evaluate the promising medicinal speciesor bioprospecting studies, indicate the most important medici-al species to the community, and highlight species that deserve

urther study.

. Methodology

.1. Study area

The survey was conducted in the Riacho Catingueira commu-ity located in the south-southeast city of Aiuaba in the Ceará State.he municipality is located in the southern portion of the micro-egion known as “Sertão de Inhamuns”, in the southwest portion ofhe state at coordinates 6◦34′25′′S and 40◦07′25′′W and is 415 kmrom Fortaleza (Lemos, 2006). The municipality borders the citiesf Arneiroz, Parambu, Catherine Saboeiro, Antonina do Norte, andampos Sales as well as the State of Piauí (IPECE, 2007) (Fig. 1). The

andscape is crystalline, presenting gently rolling topography withlevations ranging between 348 to 710 m and dissected slopes andat tops, reminiscent of old coatings (Lemos, 2006). Due to crys-alline material, the dominant soil classes are Bruno – non-calciumnd Red Yellow Latosol, which support the woody Caatinga vegeta-ion. According to the Köppen classification, the climate is defineds BShw’, hot and semi-arid (Jacomine et al., 1973), with an averagennual temperature between 24 and 26 ◦C and an average annualainfall of 562.4 mm (IPECE, 2007).

The city of Riacho Catingueira has an area of 2434.41 km2 (IPECE,007) and a population of 15,632 according to the most recent cen-us (IBGE, 2007). The population density was 5.87/km2 in 2000, andhe Human Development Index (HDI) calculated in the census yearas 0.566 (IPECE, 2007).

Riacho Catingueira is a rural community located 15 km from theity center, comprised of eight sites (Catingueira Site, Impueira Site,inador Site, Cajueiro Site 1, Cajueiro Site 2, Site Duros Site and

om Nome Site), which are relatively close and accessible to onenother. The sites are occupied by 235 people, of whom 143 aredults comprising 63 families. The families in the region are orga-ized into the Producers Association of Riacho da Caatingueira. Theommunity has electricity and running water, a public school andchapel. It does not have a clinic, and when people are sick, theyust go to a nearby village (St. Nicholas) to be treated at the clinic

y the FHP (Family Health Program) or go to the hospital in Aiuaba.

.2. Data collection

.2.1. Local diversity of medicinal plantsInformation on the knowledge that people possess about

edicinal plants was obtained after formal permission from theespondents. Interviews were conducted from May to July 2008,

rmacology 131 (2010) 326–342 327

and the household heads (men and women) were questioned. Atotal of 91 local people (64% of the total adults) represented by 52females and 39 males with ages ranging from 22 to 80 years weresurveyed. When a household head was not at home, a second visitwas performed. In cases when it was still not possible to interviewthe household head, an alternative adult household member whowas also a resident was interviewed.

The free list technique was used in the interviews in orderto make respondents cite all medicinal plants they know and/oruse. Each plant species had their condition classified as a nativespecies for the Caatinga region or as an exotic. The exotic specieswere also classified as cultivated, bought or spontaneous. Sponta-neous plants were those occurring naturally in the Caatinga butnot restricted to this region (Albuquerque et al., 2007a). To encour-age informants to remember other plants, non-specific induction,new reading and semantic suggestion were also used (Albuquerqueet al., 2008). Additionally, semi-structured interviews guided by aroadmap were performed to ask questions related to knowledgeand use, while also applying direct observation (Albuquerque etal., 2008). Socioeconomic data about the informants, such as name,sex, age, educational level and occupation, were also recorded.

This research complies with the standards and guidelines inforce for bioethical studies involving human beings (Resolution No.196/1996 of the National Health Council – CNS). Respondents wereassured anonymity and confidentiality of the information providedby them. In accordance with the bioethical standards, this projecthas been evaluated by the Ethics in Research Committee of the Fac-ulty of Medicine at Juazeiro do Norte and is approved under thenumber 2009 0219 FR 246,044.

2.2.2. HerborizationSpecies cited as medicinal that were presented in a reproduc-

tive stage were collected, with the help of the local informants,in duplicate for herborization. For each species collected, a fieldform with collector’s name, common name, flower and fruit col-ors was completed. The botanical material was packed in plasticbags for herborization according to the standard methods (Moriet al., 1989). Identification of the dried material was performedby specialists using comparisons with herbarium exsiccates and/orthe literature. These species were incorporated into the CaririenseHerbarium “Dardanus de Andrade Lima” at the Regional Universityof Cariri (HCDAL-URCA).

2.3. Data analysis

2.3.1. Evaluation of promising plants for bioprospecting studiesThe relative importance (RI), based on Bennett and Prance

(2000) and Silva et al. (2008), was calculated for each species.We calculated the RI of the species mentioned by all respondents(n = 91), species only mentioned by key-informants (n = 20) andspecies only mentioned by informants in the general community(n = 71). Key-informants were selected based on the snowball cri-teria (Bailey, 1994) and by taking into account the informationprovided about medicinal species in the interviews and living inthe community for at least 30 years. The key-informants are char-acterized as local experts, i.e., those who have greater knowledgeabout medicinal plants that can be used for the treatment of localdiseases. This separation of the informants into two groups wasused to optimize the study, allowing for specific features of thespecies listed by each group to be examined.

The RI is a quantitative method that demonstrates the impor-

tance of a species based on its versatility, i.e., the species is analyzedbased on the number of medical properties (uses) given by theinformants (Bennett and Prance, 2000). The RI was calculated usingthe following formula: RI = NBS + NP, where the following applies:RI is the relative importance; NBS is the number of body systems,

328 S.L. Cartaxo et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 131 (2010) 326–342

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Figure 1. Geographical location of study area in the Riacho da Cati

btained by calculating the ratio between the number of body sys-ems treated by a particular species (NBSS) and the total numberf body systems treated by the most versatile species (NBSSV); andP is the ratio between the number of properties assigned to a par-

icular species (NPS) and the total number of properties assignedo the most versatile species (NPSV) (Silva et al., 2008).

The maximum RI value that a species be allocated is “2”. This

echnique assumes that a species is more important when pre-enting a large number of properties, regardless of the numberf people who cited these uses (Silva et al., 2008). Therapeuticndications for each plant were divided into 16 categories of bodyystems as described by Rossato et al. (1999) and Almeida and

ra community in the municipality of Aiuaba, state of Ceará, Brazil.

Albuquerque (2002): diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue(DSST), respiratory system disorder (RSD), digestive system disor-der (DSD); injuries caused by poisoning and other consequencesor external causes (IPOCEC), genitourinary system disorder (GSD),undefined illness or pain (UIP); circulatory system disorder (CSD),infectious and parasitic diseases (IPD), diseases of the endocrineglands, nutrition and metabolism (DEGNM), nervous system disor-

ders (NSD), mental and behavioral disorders (MBD), diseases of themusculoskeletal system and connective tissue (DMSCT), diseasesof blood and hematopoietic organs (DBHO); neoplasia (N), sen-sory system disorders (eye) (DSSE), and sensory system disorders(hearing) (DSSH).

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The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated based onhe technique of Troter and Logan (1986), with the aim of identify-ng the body systems that have more knowledge consensus and/orse, and the groups of plants that require further study (Almeidat al., 2006). The following formula was used to calculate the ICF:CF = nur − nt/nur − 1, where: nur is the number of citations of usagen each category and nt is the number of species indicated in eachategory.

ICF values range from 0 to 1; if the value is “1”, this shows that aelatively low amount of medicinal plants are used for a large pro-ortion of diseases. Additionally, there is a well-defined selectionriterion for medicinal plants and/or usage and/or knowledge infor-ation is shared among people within the community. A low value

ndicates that informants do not agree with the use of the speciesn the treatment of diseases within a category, that the plants arehosen randomly, or that the informants do not exchange informa-ion about the use of certain species (Heinrich et al., 1998; Silva etl., 2008). The categories used for the calculation were the same ashose used to calculate the RI.

.3.2. Statistical analysisThe association of the RI with the species habit and/or their con-

ition was evaluated using the Kruskal–Wallis test (Sokal and Rholf,995). To assess whether the species mentioned by general infor-ants and by key-informants were given the same importance, the

ruskal–Wallis test was used (Sokal and Rholf, 1995), whereas thepearman correlation coefficient (Sokal and Rholf, 1995) was usedo evaluate whether the same species gained the highest RI valuesn both groups of informants.

. Results and discussion

.1. Local diversity of medicinal plants

We recorded 119 medicinal plants (one unidentified) belong-ng to 58 families and 104 genera (Table 1). This is a high numberf species compared to other areas of the Caatinga, where rich-ess ranges from 22 to 118 species (Albuquerque and Andrade,002; Albuquerque and Oliveira, 2007; Alcântara-Júnior et al.,005; Almeida et al., 2005a; Morais et al., 2005; Silva et al.,006). Among the families, five were the most represented andontributed the highest number of species; these families werenacardiaceae and Caesalpiniaceae, with eight species, followedy Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae, with seven. Theost common genera were Croton (Euphorbiaceae) and Spondias

Anacardiaceae), with three species in each (Table 1). Among theamilies that stood out in this work, Anacardiaceae, Caesalpini-ceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae are also contained the highestpecies numbers in other surveys of Caatinga areas (Albuquerquend Oliveira, 2007; Almeida et al., 2005a; Morais et al.,005).

.2. Condition, habit and used part of medicinal species

Among the species that were identified, 79 species were exotic.he prevailing condition for the exotic species was cultivation (59pecies); of the 79 species, 18 species were spontaneous and 2ere purchased. Only 39 species were native. This result coin-

ides with results of other studies of the Caatinga that indicate areat knowledge and use of exotic species (see: Albuquerque andliveira, 2007; Almeida et al., 2005a). Almeida et al. (2005a) com-

ented that despite the varied use of medicinal plants within the

egion, cultivated species are the most often used. The choice ofxotic species can be explained by the need to increase the “diver-ity of local pharmaceutical stock” (Albuquerque, 2006) in order toave a greater variety of available species, but not creat competition

rmacology 131 (2010) 326–342 329

with native species (Albuquerque, 2006; Alencar et al., 2010). Thatchoice may indicate that the exotic species have a higher amount ofsecondary compounds or greater variety of secondary compoundsthat are distinct from those found in native plants (Alencar et al.,2010), serving as an enrichment of the local pharmacopoeia. Manyexotic species remedy issues that would be solved with local nativespecies, but exotic species are used more commonly as they may beeasy to obtain. Exotic species are found near homes (spontaneousor cultivated plants to disturbed areas) and are used in food or asornamental, often after being introduced by other cultures (Bennettand Prance, 2000).

Tree species (48 spp.), shrubs (21 spp.), woody species (4 spp.)and herbs (45 spp.) were documented. Trees accounted for thegreatest number of species (40%) followed by herbaceous species(36%). This result shows that there is little difference between thenumber of tree and herbaceous species used. Other surveys alsofound no significant differences among the habits of the specieslisted as medicinal (Albuquerque, 2006; Almeida and Albuquerque,2002). Almeida et al. (2005a) investigated the relationship betweenspecies habit and classes of chemical compounds (phenol, tannins,alkaloids, triterpenes and quinones) and found that trees usuallybear greater quantities of such compounds than shrubs and herba-ceous species do, tendencies confirmed by Alencar et al. (2010).

The most used medicinal plant part was the leaf (30%), followedby the bark and the stem bark (28%). Leaf use was most often citedfor exotic species, whereas for the native species, the bark and stemwere cited as the most commonly used portion. The use of the stemis found for all native plants in the area of Caatinga (Albuquerqueand Andrade, 2002; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Lucena et al.,2007b; Silva and Albuquerque, 2005) due to greater availability atany time of year, without interference from the seasonal climate(see seasonality climatic hypothesis in Albuquerque, 2006). Culti-vated species have leaves continuously; therefore, the leaf is thepart of the plant that is most commonly chosen.

3.3. Medicinal species with great use versatility

Among the species listed, 40 species (33.61%) had only oneuse, while the majority of medicinal plants, 79 species (66, 39%),were used for more than one health problem (Table 1). Of these79 species, 19 (almost 16%) showed great versatility with regardto their use, possessing high RI (RI > 1). The most versatile speciesare presented in Table 1 with their respective body systems andmedicinal properties also listed. The species that showed the high-est RI were Ruta graveolens L. (rue) (IR = 2.00) and Mentha x villosaHuds. (“Mint leaf girl”) (RI = 1.95) (exotic plants), and Myracrodruonurundeuva (RI = 1.94) (native plant).

Many of the most versatile species examined in this workwas also similar for other surveys (e.g., Myracrodruon urundeuva,Hymenaea sp., Anacardium occidentale, Bauhinia cheilantha, Zizyphusjoazeiro, Tabebuia impetiginosa, Schinopsis brasiliensis, Anadenan-thera colubrina, Caesalpinia pyramidalis, Amburana cerarensis, Aloevera, and Ruta graveolens (see Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002;Almeida et al., 2005a; Albuquerque et al., 2006). Albuquerque et al.(2007a) evaluated several works on medicinal plants in the areas ofCaatinga in northeastern Brazil and obtained 10 species with highRI scores, including the following: A. cerarensis (RI = 2.00), M. urun-deuva (RI = 2.00), B. cheilantha (RI = 1.70) and A. colubrina (RI = 1.60).A study by Albuquerque et al. (2007b) conducted in the public mar-kets of Recife-PE in 1995 and 2002 found M. urundeuva (RI = 2.00and 1.91 in 1995 and 2002, respectively) and A. vera (RI = 1.82 in

2002) to be among species with high RI scores. In summary, thenative species that showed higher RI in this study and in otherworks conducted in the Caatinga area were as follows: M. urun-deuva, B. cheilantha and Z. joazeir. In addition, M. urundeuva prevailsin most surveys with a maximum RI value. Mentha x villosa, Plectran-

330S.L.Cartaxo

etal./JournalofEthnopharm

acology131 (2010) 326–342

Table 1List of the medicinal species indicated by the residents of the Riacho da Catingueira Community in the municipality of Aiuaba, state of Ceará (NE Brazil).

Family/scientific name Popular name Status Habit Part used Preparation Uses forms Therapeutic indication RI total RI GR RI KI Herbariumnumber

AcanthaceaeJusticia sp. Anador Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Pains in general, headache 0.37 0.20 0.27 nc

AnacardiaceaeAnacardium occidentale L. Caju Ex-Es Tr Sb Decoction or infusion Drink or wash the

affected siteAntiseptic, throat problems,healing, toothache, femininehygiene, gingivitis, gingivitis,cancer, inflammation of internalorgans

1.22 0.79 1.20 4578

Astronium fraxinifoliumSchott ex Spreng.

Goncalo-alves Na Tr Le Decoction Drink Fever, dysentery 0.37 – 0.54 nc

Mangifera indica L. Manga Ex-Cu Tr Le Decoction Drink Fever 0.20 0.38 – 4582Myracrodruon urundeuva

AllemãoAroeira Na Tr Le, Sb Decoction, infusion,

leave soaking, lickingDrink or wash theaffected site

Headache, toothache, antiseptic,infections in general, healing,influenza, expectorant,inflammation of female organs,inflammation of the ovaries,inflammation of internal organs,inflammation of external organs,cancer, inflammation in general,hepatic problems, renal problems,intestinal problems

1.94 1.88 1.45 nc

Spondias cytherea Sonn. Cajarana Ex-Cu Tr Le, Fr, Sb Decoction, leavesoaking, licking or juice

Drink, bath, wash theaffected site

Antiseptic, bronchitis,stomachache, diarrhea, influenza,healing

0.91 0.86 – nc

Spondias mombin L. Cajazeira Ex-Cu Tr Sb Leave soaking Drink Anemia 0.20 0.20 0.54 ncSpondias purpurea L. Seriguela Ex-Cu Tr Le (and

bud)Decoction Drink Stomachache 0.20 0.20 – nc

AnnonaceaeAnnona muricata L. Graviola Ex-Cu Tr Le Decoction Drink Sfflictions urinary 0.20 – 0.27 4598Annona crotonifolia Mart. Pinha Ex-Cu Tr Le (and

bud)Decoction or leavesoaking

Drink Indigestion 0.20 0.20 0.27 nc

Guatteria australis A. St.-Hil. Imbiriba Ex-Pu Tr Se Decoction or zest andleave soaking

Drink Pains in general, stroke 0.37 – 0.54 nc

ApiaceaeAnethum graveolens L. Endro Ex-Cu He Se Decoction Drink Indigestion, pains in general,

calmative0.55 0.39 0.54 4567

Coriandrum sativum L. Coentro Ex-Cu He Se Decoction Drink Colic in children, menstrual colic 0.37 0.39 – 4597Pimpinella anisum L. Erva-doce Ex-Cu He Le, Se Decoction Drink Calmative, indigestion, stomach

problems, constipation, colic inchildren

0.67 0.73 0.54 nc

ArecaceaeMauritia flexuosa L. Buriti Na Tr Ae Decoction Drink Appendicitis 0.20 0.20 – nc

AsteraceaeAcanthospermum hispidum

DC.Boticú (Retirante) Ex-Es He Ae

(withoutthorns)

Infusion Wash the affected site Inflammations in general, sinusitis,toothache

0.55 – 0.80 4569

Achillea millefolium L. Novalgina Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Headache, pains in general 0.37 – 0.54 ncArtemisia absinthium L. Losna Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Indigestion 0.20 – 0.27 ncBidens pilosa L. Carrapicho-de-

agulhaEx-Es He Ae, Ro Decoction, infusion Drink or wash the

affected siteAppendicitis, inflammation ingeneral

0.37 0.20 0.27 nc

Chamomilla recutita (L.)Rauschert.

Camomila Ex-Cu He Fl, Se Decoction Drink Calmative 0.20 – 0.27 nc

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131 (2010) 326–342331

Egletes viscosa (L.) Less. Macela Ex-Es He Le, Fl Decoction, infusion,leave soaking or juice

Drink Ulcer, stomachache, indigestion,flatulence, dysentery, intestinalproblems, stomach problems,diarrhea, renal problems

0.90 1.02 0.64 nc

Helianthus annuus L. Girassol Ex-Cu He Le, Se Decoction or extractseed oil

Drink Headache, thrombosis, stroke,blood thinner

0.49 0.34 0.54 4607

BignoniaceaeClytostoma ramentaceum

(Mart. ex DC.) Bureau &K. Schum.

Banheira Ex-Es Sh Sb Decoction Gargle Cough 0.20 – 0.27 nc

Tabebuia impetiginosaMart. et DC.

Pau-d’árco-roxo Na Tr Sb Decoction, leavesoaking

Drink or wash theaffected site

Pains in general, stomachproblems, influenza, conjunctivitis,blood thinner, healing, nasalcongestion

1.30 1.18 0.66 nc

BixaceaeBixa orellana L. Urucum Ex-Cu Sh Le, Se Decoction, leave

soaking, licking orextract the oil seed

Drink Influenza, throat problems,bronchitis, diabetes

0.49 0.54 0.27 4576

BombacaceaeCeiba glaziovii (Kuntze) K.

Schum.Barriguda Na Tr Sb Leave soaking Drink Anemia 0.20 0.20 – nc

BoraginaceaeCordia trichotoma (Vell.)

Arráb. ex Steud.Frei-jorge Na Tr Sb Decoction or leave

soakingDrink Ulcer, stomach ache, blood thinner 0.43 0.28 0.27 nc

Heliotropium sp. Crista de galo Ex-Es He Fl, Ro Decoction, leavesoaking or licking

Drink Influenza, fever, inflammation ofthe ovaries, renal problems

0.43 0.46 0.27 4594

BrassicaceaeBrassica integrifolia (H.

West.) Rupr.Mostarda Ex-Cu He Se Decoction of the seeds

raw or roasted, leavesoaking or extract theoil

Drink Headache, stroke, thrombosis 0.37 0.20 0.54 nc

Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Agrião Ex-Cu He Se Decoction or leavesoaking

Drink Throat problems 0.24 0.28 0.27 nc

BromeliaceaeAnanas sativums L. Abacaxi Ex-Cu He Fr Decoction or licking Drink Influenza expectorant 0.24 0.20 0.27 nc

BurseraceaeCommiphora leptophloeos

(Mart.) J. B. GillettImburana-de-espinho

Na Tr Sb Decoction or leavesoaking

Drink or wash theaffected site

Influenza, stomachache, healing 0.55 0.60 0.27 nc

CactaceaeCereus jamacaru DC. Mandacaru Na Tr Ro Decoction, infusion Drink Uterine inflammation, healing,

antiseptic, expectorant, influenza0.98 0.39 0.80 nc

CaesalpiniaceaeBauhinia sp. Mororó Na Tr Le, Sb Decoction, infusion,

leave soaking, poulticeor juice

Drink, wash theaffected site

Influenza, cough, pains in general,diabetes, column pain, hemostatic,intestinal problems, renalproblems, stomach problems

1.40 0.73 1.60 nc

Caesalpinia sp. Pau-ferro Na Tr Le, Fr, Sb Decoction, leavesoaking or licking

Drink or wash theaffected site

Gastritis, influenza, healing,heartburn, kidney problems

0.79 0.86 0.80 4565

Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. Catingueira Na Tr Fl, Sb Decoction, leavesoaking, juice orpoultice

Drink, wash theaffected site

Influenza, stomachache, diarrhea,healing, hemostatic, expectorant,stomach problems, indigestion

1.25 1.05 1.05 nc

332S.L.Cartaxo

etal./JournalofEthnopharm

acology131 (2010) 326–342

Table 1 (Continued )

Family/scientific name Popular name Status Habit Part used Preparation Uses forms Therapeutic indication RI total RI GR RI KI Herbariumnumber

Hymenaea courbaril L. Jatobá Na Tr Fr, Se, Sb Decoction, infusion,tincture, leave soaking,licking or juice

Drink, bath Anemia, prostate problems, kidneyproblems, blood thinner stomachproblems, influenza, bronchitis,expectorant, cancer (leukemia),lice, lung problems, throatinflammation, herpes labialis

1.64 1.46 1.32 nc

Senna alexandrina Mill. Sena Ex-Cu Sh Le Decoction or leavesoaking

Drink Emmenagogue, influenza 0.37 0.2 0.27 nc

Senna spectabilis (DC.) H. S.Irwin & Barneby

Canafístula Ex-Es Tr Sb Decoction Wash the affected site Healing 0.20 0.20 – 4591

Tamarindus indicus L. Tamarindo Ex-Cu Tr Fr Licking Drink Influenza, cough 0.24 – 0.39 nc

CaprifoliaceaeSambucus australis Cham. et

Schlecht.Sabugo Ex-Pu Sh Fl Poultice Wash the affected site Healing 0.20 0.20 – nc

CaricaceaeCarica papaya L. Mamão Ex-Cu Sh Fl, Le (and

bud), FrDecoction, leavesoaking or licking

Drink Stomach problems, indigestion,expectorant, influenza, cough,bronchitis

0.60 0.61 0.66 4602

CelastraceaeMaytenus cf. distichophylla

Mart. ex ReissekPau-colher Na Tr Le, Sb Infusion Drink Kidney problems 0.20 0.20 – 4562

Maytenus rigida Mart. Bom-nome Na Tr Se, Sb Tincture Drink Kenal problems 0.20 0.20 – nc

ChenopodiaceaeChenopodium ambrosioides

L.Mastruz Ex-Es He Le, Se, Ro Decoction, leave

soaking, juice, poulticeor liquid with water ormilk, infusion

Drink, wash theaffected site

Gastritis, ulcer, worm, intestinalproblems, stomach problems,gallbladder problems, healing,hematoma, fractures, expectorant,inflammtion in general, colic

1.39 1.21 1.43 4585

ChrysobalanaceaeLicania rigida Benth. Oiticica Na Tr Sb Decoction or leave

soakingDrink Stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery 0.43 0.39 0.27 nc

CombretaceaeTerminalia catappa L. Castanhola Ex-Cu Tr Le Leave soaking Drink Renal problems 0.20 – 0.27 nc

ConvolvulaceaeIpomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Batata-doce Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Diabetes, hypercholesterolemia 0.24 – 0.39 ncOperculina macrocarpa

(Linn) Urb.Batata-de-purga Na Sh Rt Decoction or leave

soakingDrink Inflammation in general, worm,

blood thinner0.55 0.20 0.54 nc

CrassulaceaeKalanchoe brasiliensis

Cambess.Malva-corona Ex-Cu He Le, Ro Decoction, tincture,

leave soaking,refreshment, licking,poultice, warm in oil orinfusion

Drink, wash theaffected site

Depurative, blood thinner, uterineinflammation, cough, influenza,expectorant, healing, pains ingeneral, inflammation in general

1.20 1.07 1.71 4560

CucurbitaceaeCitrullus vulgaris L. Melancia Ex − Cu He Se Decoction of

macerated seedDrink Fever, influenza 0.37 0.39 0.27 4604

EuphorbiaceaeCnidosculus phyllacanthus

(Muell. Arg.) Pax etK.Hoffm.

Favela Na Tr La, Sb Decoction, leavesoaking, latex extract(can add water)

Drink or put on theaffected site

Toothache, ulcer, gastritis,antiseptic, indigestion

0.49 – 0.79 nc

Croton sp. Velame Na Sh Le Leave soaking Drink or wash theaffected site

Hemorrhoid, healing 0.37 – 0.54 4590

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Croton conduplicatus Baill. Quebra-faca Na Sh Le, Sb Decoction or put incoffee

Drink Influenza, headache, indigestion,stomach problems, stomachache

0.79 0.86 – nc

Croton blanchetianus Baill. Marmeleiro-preto Na Tr Le, Sb Decoction, scrape thestem and put leavesoaking or licking

Drink Stomachache, depurative,indigestion, diarrhea, dysentery,stomach problems

0.73 0.61 0.66 4595

Euphorbia phosphorea Mart. Pau-de-leite Na Sh Sb Decoction or leavesoaking

Drink Blood thinner, inflammation ingeneral

0.37 – 0.54 nc

Jatropha sp. Pinhão-roxo Ex − Cu Sh Le, (andbud), La

Decoction or infusion Drink or massaging theaffected site with latex

Stroke, thrombosis, toothache,pains in general, healing,hemostatic

0.85 0.86 0.93 4573

Manihot esculenta Crantz. Mandioca Ex-Cu Tr Le Decoction Bath Inflammation in general 0.20 – 0.26 nc

FabaceaeAmburana cearensis

(Allemão) A. C. Sm.Imburana-de-cheiro

Na Tr Fr, Se, Sb Decoction, infusion,leave soaking, chewingthe seeds

Bath, wash the affectedsite or inhale

Nasal congestion, sinusitis,respiratory problems in general(rhinitis), influenza, cough,expectorant, thrombosis,hypertension, inflammations ingeneral, healing

1.09 1.14 0.93 nc

Myroxylon peruierum L. Balso Na Tr Sb Decoction Wash the affected site Antiseptic 0.20 0.20 – nc

LamiaceaeLeonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. Cordão-de-são-

franciscoEx-Es Sh Fr Leave soaking Drink Indigestion 0.20 – 0.27 4603

Mentha x piperita L. Hortelã-pimenta Ex − Cu He Le Decoction Drink Pains in general 0.20 – 0.27 ncMentha x villosa Huds. Hortelã (folha

miúda)Ex-Cu He Le Decoction, infusion,

leave soaking or lickingDrink Worm, menstrual colic, otalgia,

influenza, headache, migraine,inflammtion in general, intestinalinfection, indigestion, fever,ophthalmic problems, stroke,sinusitis, pains in general

1.95 1.93 0.93 nc

Ocimum campechianumMill.

Alfavaca Ex-Cu He Le, Wp Leave soaking Drink, inhale, wash theaffected site

Influenza, sinusitis, antiseptic 0.43 0.39 0.27 4568

Plectranthus amboinicus(Lour.) Spreng.

Malva-do-reino Ex-Cu He Le Decoction, licking orjuice

Drink or bath Influenza, cough, expectorant,bronchitis, headache, stomachproblems, uterine inflammation,blood thinner, inflammation ofinternal organs, inflammation ingeneral, throat problems

1.40 0.95 1.73 4596

Plectranthus sp. Boldo(malva-santa,malva-sete dores)

Ex-Cu Sl Le Decoction, infusion orleave soaking

Drink, wash theaffected site

Headache, pains in general,indigestion, heartburn, stomachproblems, intestinal problems,healing

1.00 0.88 0.91 nc

Rosmarinus officinalis L. Alecrim Ex-Cu Sl Le, Sb Decoction Drink or wash yourface

Headache, indigestion, sinusitis,pains in general

0.74 0.59 0.54 nc

LauraceaePersea americana Mill. Abacate Ex-Cu Tr Le Decoction Drink Kidney pain 0.20 – 0.27 nc

LiliaceaeAllium cepa L. Cebola-branca Ex-Cu He Le, Fl Decoction or licking Drink Influenza, colic in children,

flatulence, constipation,hypertension

0.79 0.86 0.27 nc

Allium sativum L. Alho Ex-Cu He Fr Decoction Drink Menstrual colic, hypertension,indigestion, asthma, bronchitis,influenza, sinusitis

0.91 0.86 0.52 nc

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acology131 (2010) 326–342

Table 1 (Continued )

Family/scientific name Popular name Status Habit Part used Preparation Uses forms Therapeutic indication RI total RI GR RI KI Herbariumnumber

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. Babosa Ex-Cu He Le Take mucus Drink or put on theaffected site

Inappetence, hypertension,healing, hemorrhoid, ulcer, cancer

1.04 0.63 0.54 nc

MalpighiaceaeMalpighia glabra L. Acerola Ex − Cu Sh Fr Juice Drink Dengue (infections) 0.20 0.20 – 4601

MalvaceaeGossypium hirsutum L. Algodão-preto Ex-Cu Sh Le, Fr Juice or macerated

with waterDrink Uterine inflammation,

inflammation in general0.37 – 0.54 4579

MenispermaceaeCissampelos glaberrima

A.St.-Hil.Milona Na He Ro Decoction Drink Expectorant 0.20 – 0.27 4566

MimosaceaeAcacia paniculata (L.) Willd. Unha-de-gato Na Tr Le (and

bud), RoDecoction, leavesoaking or licking

Drink Column pain, influenza, healing 0.55 0.2 0.54 4564

Anadenanthera colubrina(Vell.) Brenan var.colubrina

Angico-preto Na Tr Re, Sb Decoction, poultice,infusion, leave soakingor licking

Drink, wash theaffected site

Influenza, nasal congestion, cough,throat inflammation, expectorant,stomachache, healing, cancer, lungproblems, antiseptic, infection ingeneral

1.33 1.21 1.45 4563

Enterolobiumcontortisiliquum (Vell.)Morong

Tamburil Ex-Es Tr Se, Sb Leave soaking Drink or inhale Prostate problems, sinusitis,respiratory problems in general(rhinitis)

0.43 0.46 – nc

Mimosa caesalpinifoliaBenth.

Sabiá Na Tr – – – Inflammations in general 0.20 – 0.27 nc

Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.)Poir.

Jurema-preta Na Sh Sb Decoction, infusion,maceration, leavesoaking or poultice

Drink, wash theaffected site, bath

Tooth inflammation, toothache,healing, antiseptic, inflammationin general

0.73 0.80 1.05 nc

MusaceaeMusa paradisiaca L. Banana Ex-Cu Sh Fl, Fr Decoction, leave

soaking or lickingDrink Influenza, afflictions urinary,

asthma0.43 0.28 0.27 nc

MyrtaceaeEucalyptus globulus Labill. Eucalipto Ex − Cu Tr Le Decoction, infusion Drink or inhale Influenza, nasal congestion,

respiratory problems in general,asthma, sinusitis, headache, fever

0.73 0.73 0.52 nc

Eugenia caryophyllus Spreg. Cravo-da-índia Ex-Cu Tr Fl (buds) Chewing Drink Halitosis 0.20 0.20 – ncPsidium guajava L. var

pomiferaGoiaba vermelha Ex-Cu Tr Le (and

bud)Decoction, infusion Drink Stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery,

intestinal problems0.49 0.54 0.39 4589

MyristicaceaeMyristica fragrans Houtt. Nós-moscada Ex-Cu Tr Fr Decoction or zest and

leave soaking in waterDrink Circulatory problems, stroke,

calmative, headache0.61 0.46 0.27 nc

NyctaginaceaeBoerhavia cf. diffusa Willd. Pega-pinto Ex-Es He Ro Decoction, infusion

leave soakingDrink Uterine inflammation,

inflammation of the ovaries,indigestion, kidney problems,influenza, inflammation in general

0.85 0.54 0.54 4608

OlacaceaeXimenia americana L. Ameixa Na Sh Le, Sb Decoction, infusion,

leave soaking orpoultice

Drink, bath, wash theaffected site

Healing, antiseptic, inflammationin general, inflammation of internalorgans, toothache, menstrual colic

0.91 1.00 0.66 nc

PapaveraceaeArgemone mexicana L. Carro-santo Ex-Es He Ro Decoction or roasting

and makes infusionDrink Expectorant, cough 0.24 – 0.39 4570

PassifloraceaePassiflora edulis Sims. Maracujá Ex-Cu Tr Le Decoction Drink Calmative, hypertension 0.37 0.28 0.54 ncPassiflora cincinnata Mast. Maracujá-do-mato Na He Le Decoction Drink Calmative 0.20 – 0.27 nc

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PedaliaceaeSesamum indicum L. Gergelim Ex − Cu He Se Decoction of the seed

toast, macera and putleave soaking, extractseed oil

Drink or puts the eye Stroke, headache, allergy,ophthalmia, fever

0.92 0.39 0.80 nc

PhyllanthaceaePhyllanthus amarus Shum.

et Torn.Quebra-pedra Ex-Es He Ro Decoction or leave

soakingDrink Kidney problems 0.20 0.20 – 4605

PiperaceaePiper aduncum L. Pimenta-de-

macacoEx − Cu Sh Fr Decoction, infusion Drink Menstrual colic, headache 0.37 0.20 0.27 nc

PoaceaeCenchrus spinosus L. Carrapicho-de-

rosetaEx-Es He Fr Infusion Drink Diuretic 0.20 – 0.27 nc

Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.)Stapf.

Capim-santo Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Calmative, influenza, hypertension,headache, stomachache,inappetence, indigestion, fever

1.35 1.25 1.07 nc

Saccharum officinarum L. Cana-de-acúcar-roxa

Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Hypertension 0.20 – 0.27 nc

Zea mays L. Milho-roxo Ex-Cu He Sg Decoction Drink Hypertension 0.20 – 0.27 nc

PolygalaceaeBredemeyera brevifolia

Klotzk.Laca-vaqueiro Na He Sb Leave soaking Drink Influenza 0.20 – 0.27 nc

PolygonaceaeTriplaris gardneriana

(Wedd.)Pajaú Na Tr Sb Leave soaking Drink Inflammation of internal organs 0.20 – 0.27 4571

PunicaceaePunica granatum L. Romã Ex-Cu Sh Le, Fp, Se Decoction, infusion,

poultice, chewing seedDrink, gargle or appliedto the affected site

Gastritis, throat problems, throatinflammation, influenza

0.73 0.54 0.79 4600

RhamnaceaeZiziphus joazeiro Mart. Juazeiro Na Tr Le, Fr, Sb Decoction, infusion,

leave soaking or juiceDrink, bath, wash theaffected site

Dandruff, rheumatism, teethcleaning, influenza, fever, stomachproblems, healing, antiseptic, hairtonic, heartburn, indigestion

1.46 1.39 1.30 4580

RubiaceaeChiococca alba (L.) Hitchc. Caninana Na Sh Ro Infusion Drink Rheumatism 0.20 0.20 – ncCoffea arabica L. Café Ex − Cu Sh Se Decoction, infusion Drink Fever 0.20 0.20 0.27 ncCoutarea hexandra (Jacq.) K.

Schum.Quina-quina Na Tr Ro, Sb Decoction, infusion Drink or bath Lung problems, expectorant,

influenza, headache0.49 0.27 0.66 nc

Genipa americana L. Jenipapo Ex-Cu Tr Fr, Sb Decoction of bark toastor poultice

Putting on the affectedsite

Hematoma, fractures, tortion,healing

0.36 0.20 0.52 nc

RutaceaeCitrus aurantifolia

(Christm.) SwingleLimão Ex − Cu Tr Fr Decoction, juice with

salt, licking or juiceDrink Diarrhea, teething in children,

influenza0.43 0.20 0.66 nc

Citrus sinensis Osbeck. Laranja Ex-Cu Tr Le, Sb Decoction, infusion,leave soaking

Drink Calmative, insomnia, influenza,indigestion, intestinal problem,fever, inappetence

1.20 0.86 1.34 nc

Cleome spinosa Jacq. Mussambê Ex-Es Sl Le, Fl, Ro Decoction, infusion,licking, or leavesoaking

Drink Influenza, healing, tuberculosis 0.55 0.60 0.54 4575

336S.L.Cartaxo

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acology131 (2010) 326–342

Table 1 (Continued )

Family/scientific name Popular name Status Habit Part used Preparation Uses forms Therapeutic indication RI total RI GR RI KI Herbariumnumber

Ruta graveolens L. Arruda Ex-Cu He Le Decoction, infusion,poultice, juice or juicewith milk

Drink, wash theaffected site, put dropsin the ear

Emmenagogue, menstrual colic,colic, intestinal infection, stomachproblems, renal problems,headache, otalgia, pains in general(including diverted pain),hematoma, fever, indigestion,thrombosis, healing, anti-tetanus(infections), antiseptic

2.00 2.00 2.00 nc

ScrophulariaceaeScoparia dulcis L. Vassourinha Ex-Es He Ro Decoction, leave

soaking or maceratedwith water

Drink Influenza, cough, teething inchildren, afflictions urinary, kidneyproblems, diuretic

0.73 0.66 0.66 4584

SolanaceaeSolanum ambrosiacum Vell. Melancia-da-praia Na He Ro Decoction Drink Renal problems 0.20 – 0.27 4606

TurneraceaeTurnera ulmifolia L. Chanana Ex-Es He Ro Decoction Drink Inflammation of female organs,

Uterine inflammation, influenza0.43 – 0.66 nc

VerbenaceaeLippia alba (Mill) N. E.

Brown.Erva-cidreira Ex-Cu Sl Le, Se Decoction (may add

gum), infusionDrink Calmative, indigestion,

stomachache, diarrhea, intestinalproblem, inappetence

0.85 0.93 0.54 4586

ViolaceaeHybanthus ipecacuanha (L.)

Baill.Pepaconha Na He Ro Decoction Drink Teething in children 0.20 0.20 0.27 nc

ViscaceaePhoradendron mucronatum

(DC.). Krug & Urb.Enxerto Na He Wp Decoction, infusion Drink or bath Rheumatism 0.20 0.20 – 4577

VitaceaeCissus simsiana Schult &

Schult f.Insulina Ex-Es Sh Le Infusion Drink Diabetes 0.20 – 0.27 nc

ZingiberaceaeAlpinia speciosa Schum. Colônia Ex-Cu He Le Decoction Drink Hypertension 0.20 – 0.27 ncCurcuma longa L. Acafrão Ex-Cu He Fr, Ro Decoction juice Drink Throat problems 0.20 0.20 – ncNo identified 1 Jatobatinga – – Sb Leave soaking Drink Anemia 0.20 – 0.27 nc

Na: native; Ex: exotic (Cu: cultivated; Pu: purchased; Es: spontaneous); Tr: tree; Sh: Shrub; Sl: Shrublet; He: Herb; Le: leaf; Fl: flower; Ro: root; Rt: root-tuber; Se: seed; Sb: stem bark; Fr: fruit; Fp: fruit peel; Wp: whole plant;La: latex; Re: resin; Ae: aerial parts; Sg: stigma; RI total: relative importance of the species mentioned by all respondents; RI KI: relative importance of the species only mentioned by key-informants; RI GR: relative importanceof the species only mentioned by respondents in the general community; nc: number of collection in process by Herbaria.

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hus amboinicus, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon citrates,itrus sinensi and Kalanchoe brasiliensis only stood out with high RIalues in this study and were not identified in other studies.

Despite the higher number of citations for exotic species, thereere no significant differences in the RI values in relation to

pecies origin (H = 0.65, p = 0.42); however, native species, on aver-ge, had a higher RI (mean = 0.64, S = 0. 49) than the exotic speciesmean = 0.53, SD = 0.41). Regarding the species habits, the tree classhowed, on average, a higher RI (mean = 0.62, SD = 0.48) than thehrub-subshrub class (mean = 0.49, SD = 0.26) and the herbaceouslass (mean = 0.56, SD = 0.48), though no significant differencesere seen (trees and shrubs-subshrub: H = 0.26, p = 0.61/woody

nd herbaceous: H = 0.29, p = 0.59). Similar results were found bylmeida and Albuquerque (2002) and Almeida et al. (2005a). Thereat importance of tree species in this area can be related to theeasonal nature of this region, which allows the availability of treepecies throughout the year. The opposite is true for the herba-eous species, which have their time of availability limited to rainyeriods (Albuquerque and Andrade, 2002; Almeida et al., 2006).

.4. Comparison between key-informants and generalespondents

The key-informants (KI) indicated more medicinal species (100)

han the general respondents (GR) (86) (Table 1). The vast major-ty of species were common to both groups (67), with 33 specieseing exclusive to the key-informants. A total of 19 species wereited exclusively by the general informants. There were statisticallyignificant differences among species with the highest RI indicated

able 2nformant consensus factor (ICF) by body systems based on the use citations of medicinal peará (NE Brazil).

Categories: medicinal properties ICF

DSST: dandruff, hair tonic 1.0DSSH: otalgia 0.8RSD: asthma, bronchitis, nasal congestion, expectorant, influenza,

throat inflammation, throat problems, lung problems,respiratory problems in general (rhinitis), sinusitis, cough

0.8

IPOCEC: healing, hematoma, fractures, depurative, allergy, tortion 0.8UIP: pains in general, colic in children, stomachache, fever,

inflammation of internal organs, inflammation in general,halitosis, antiseptic, colic

0.7

DSD: Appendicitis, heartburn, teething in children, diarrhea,dysentery, toothache, tooth inflammation, teeth cleaning,flatulence, gastritis, indigestion, stomach problems, intestinalproblems, ulcer, hepatic problems, gingivitis, constipation,gallbladder problems

0.7

MBD: calmative 0.7NSD: headache, insomnia, migraine 0.6DEGNM: hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, inappetence 0.5GSD: prostate problems, kidney problems, kidney pain, afflictions

urinary, menstrual colic, diuretic, feminine hygiene,inflammation of the ovaries, uterine inflammation,inflammation of female organs, emmenagogue

0.5

CSD: blood thinner, stroke, hemorrhoid, hypertension, thrombosis,circulatory problems, hemostatic

0.5

DBHO: anemia 0.5IPD: conjunctivitis, worm, intestinal infection, infections in

general, herpes labialis, infections (dengue, anti-tetanus), lice,tuberculosis

0.3

DMSCT: column pain, column problems, rheumatism. 0N: leukemia e cancer in general 0DSSE: conjunctivitis, ophthalmia, ophthalmic problems 0

SD: digestive system disorder; DEGNM: diseases of the endocrine glands, nutrition and mIP: undefined illness or pain is; NSD: nervous system disorders; DSSH: sensory systemusculoskeletal system and connective tissue; DBHO: diseases of blood and hematopoiet

oisoning and other consequences of external causes; IPD: infectious and parasitic diseasissue.

rmacology 131 (2010) 326–342 337

by the KI and the GR (rs = 0.72, t = 8.42, p < 0.0001), suggesting thateach group tends to value different species. For the KI group, therewere generally more species with higher RI values (KI: mean = 0.70,SD = 0.43) than for the Gr group (GR: mean = 0.67, SD = 0.45), butthese overall means did not differ statistically (rs = 0.28, p = 0.59),demonstrating that both groups tend to value species in the sameway. For species listed exclusively by each group, there were morespecies listed exclusively with higher RI values (nine) by key-informants than by the general community respondents (two).

3.5. Informant’s consensus factor for therapeuric purposes

The medicinal plants mentioned were nominated for 92 ther-apeutic purposes and grouped into 16 body systems categories(Table 2). In general, categories showed great agreement amongthe informants when the value ranged from 0.3 to 1.0; for somecategories, there was no consensus among the informants.

The highest value for the informant’s consensus factor (ICF) wasfor: skin and subcutaneous tissue (DSST), Sensory system disorders(ear) (SSDE), respiratory system disorders (RSD) and injuries, poi-soning and other consequences of external causes (IPOCEC) showedhigh IFC values (0.8). The RSD category, which had the largest num-ber of use citations (335), corresponded to 28.44% of total citations(1178). This category also had a large number of species listed

(50) corresponding to 42.02% of the total, demonstrating the broadknowledge of the community regarding medicinal plants that treatrespiratory problems. Flu, including fever, was responsible for ahigh number of usage citations for this category, receiving 242citations and for 41 plant species.

lants by the ranchers of the Riacho da Catingueira Community in the city of Aiuaba,

Number ofuse citations

(%) All usecitations

Number allspecies – species

(%) Allspecies

3 0.25% 1 0.84%8 0.68% 2 1.68%

335 28.44% 50 42.02%

155 13.16% 29 24.37%239 20.29% 58 48.74%

179 15.19% 47 39.50%

32 2.72% 9 7.56%55 4.67% 18 15.13%17 1.44% 8 6.72%64 5.43% 31 26.05%

54 4.58% 27 22.69%

7 0.59% 4. 3.36%16 1.36% 11 9.24%

6 0.51% 6 5.04%5 0.42% 5 4.20%3 0.25% 3 2.52%

etabolism; GSD: genitourinary system disorder; RSD: respiratory system disorder;disorders (hearing); DSSE: sensory system disorders (eye); DMSCT: diseases of theic organs; N: Neoplasia; MBD: mental and behavioral disorders; IPOCEC: injuries byes; CSD: circulatory system disorder; DSST: diseases of the skin and subcutaneous

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38 S.L. Cartaxo et al. / Journal of Eth

The DUF category presented the highest number of species listed58), representing 48.74% of the total (119). These species are beingsed to solve all health problems without a definite cause. This cate-ory also had the second highest number of citations (239 citations)orresponding to 20.29% of the total. The use of this species forntiseptic purposes received the highest number of citations (74),ith the most representative species for this category M. urundeuva

Aroeira) and X. American (Plum) receiving 27 and 19 citations,espectively. The same species were also the most mentioned foreneral inflammations with 12 and 11 indications, respectively.

The categories DTPCS, SSD (H), RSD and IPOEC showed the high-st IFC, providing evidence of greater cultural importance of theseategories for the community studied. The DTPSC, which reachedhe highest IFC in this work, also stood out in other studies beingmong the categories of greatest consensus among informants (e.g.,einrich et al., 1998; Gazzaneo et al., 2005; Andrade-Cetto, 2009)nd grouping many species listed (Andrade-Cetto, 2009; Inta et al.,008). For semi-arid regions, it is common to find the RSD categorymong those of greatest consensus among informants (Almeida andlbuquerque, 2002; Almeida et al., 2006).

A wide diversity of species are used to treat RSD, DSD andDDN in Caatinga, as is found in the large number of species

isted for this category in many other ethnobotanical surveysAlbuquerque and Andrade, 2002; Albuquerque et al., 2007b;lmeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Almeida et al., 2006; Franco andarros, 2006). This result might be due to prevalence of diseaseselated to poor sanitary conditions and low socioeconomic condi-ions that are common in populations inhabiting the semi-arid areaAlmeida et al., 2006). Give these community characteristics, treat-

ents for RSD, DSD and DDDN condition are routinely found toominate the local pharmacopoeia.

Sixteen plant species showed high use agreement for 18 medic-nal purposes. The high value of agreement on the therapeutic usef a plant can result in a more effective result against the diseaseFriedman et al., 1986). The agreement factor helps in the selec-ion of highlight species for pharmacological tests to prove theirffectiveness by emphasizing the most indicated species used for apecific purpose. Of the 16 species recorded, the most cited speciesor the categories with the greatest consensus (i.e., DTPCS, SST (H),ST and DPOEC) were Ziziphus joazeiro, Ruta graveolens, Mentha xillosa, Amburana cearensis, Plectranthus amboinicus, Anadenantheraolubrina, Ximenia americana and Myracrodruon urundeuva. Phyto-hemical and pharmacological information needs to be verified forhese species to justify their medicinal use.

Pharmacological analyses conducted on Ziziphus joazeirohowed antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus and Staphylo-occus epidermidis (Schuhly et al., 1999); antifungal activity againstandida albicans, Candida guilliermondii, Trichophyton rubrum, Fon-ecaea pedrosoi and Cryptococcus neoformans (Cruz et al., 2007);nd antimicrobial activity against oral microorganisms (More etl., 2008). Kato et al. (1998) found low antimicrobial activity inheir experiments, but commented that the widespread use of thepecies against dandruff and as an anti-seborrheic is due to its effi-acy in cleaning the scalp. The activity against oral microorganismsossessed by Ziziphus joazeiro is consistent with the use mentionedy community informants that indicate its use for cleaning teeth asell as its antiseptic effect.

The extract of Ruta graveolens inhibits pregnancy in rats (Prakasht al., 1985) or may cause malformations in rat embryos, whichndicates a toxic effect (Benavides et al., 2000). The tincture andintment made from the leaves of R. graveolens showed antimi-

robial and cytotoxic activity (Ivanova et al., 2005); the extractas an antimicrobial effect on infected wounds in dogs (Mendest al., 2008) and also possesses fungicidal (Oliva et al., 2003) andnti-inflammatory activities (Raghav et al., 2006). Atta and Alkofahi1998) reported an antinociceptive effect for the ethanol extract

rmacology 131 (2010) 326–342

of Ruta graveolens. The essential oil of this plant displays antimi-crobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans andCandida kruse, bacteria and fungi commonly associated with sec-ondary infections of the external earache (Nogueira et al., 2008).These effects corroborate the popular use of Ruta graveolens againstpain, such as earache and menstrual colic, but more specific studyis required to evaluate menstrual colic and possible toxicity. Stud-ies regarding the effect of Ruta graveolens against tetanus are alsorequired.

The essential oil of Mentha x villosa showed potential antibac-terial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and antifungal activityagainst Candida albicans (Arruda et al., 2006), in addition to an anal-gesic effect (Sousa et al., 2009). Nedorostova et al. (2009) tried toidentify the antibacterial properties of essential oils in the vapor ofsome plants with in vitro tests and found M. villosa to be highlyeffective to control foodborne pathogenic bacteria in the vaporphase. The essential oil causes a hypotensive effect (Guedes etal., 2004; Lahlou et al., 2001, 2002) and bradicardia in rats, whichare attributed to piperitenone oxide (Lahlou et al., 2001). Furtherstudies on the antinociceptive effect attributed to this species areneeded to evaluate its effectiveness against headache, migraine andearache.

Some of the compounds that were isolated from the stembark of Amburana cearensis included coumarin, flavonols, glyco-sides and amburosides A and B. (Bravo and Sauvain, 1999; Canutoand Silveira, 2006; Lorenzi and Matos, 2002). Coumarin has aninhibitory activity against Leishmania amazonensis, L. brazilien-sis and L. donovani; antibacterial and antifungal activity againstEscherichia coli, Shigella exneri and Trichophyton mentagrophytes(Bravo and Sauvain, 1999); antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory andbronchodilator effects (Leal et al., 2000; Lorenzi and Matos, 2002);and helps with immune processes controlling antibody production(Marinho et al., 2004). Leal et al. (2006) found that isocampheridewith amburoside A have anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxant andantioxidant activities. Most of the uses mentioned by the com-munity studied in this work relate to problems related to therespiratory system for which, according to Leal et al. (2006), thephysiophatological characteristics include inflammation, oxidativestress and bronchoconstriction.

Studies show that the essential oil of Plectranthus amboinicushas thymol and carvacrol, with antimicrobial properties that maycontribute to the improvement of hoarseness, sore throat, coughand bronchitis (Matos, 2000; Tôrres et al., 2005). Pushpa et al.(2009) found antifungal activity in the oil of P. amboinicus. Theseauthors suggest the plant be used against fungi in stored foods.The crude extract of P. amboinicus presented activity against Leish-mania chagasi (Tempone et al., 2008) and antimicrobial activityagainst Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterium frequently associatedwith secondary infections in the external ear (Nogueira et al., 2008).Coinciding with the use consensus found in this work, the presenceof substances effective against some flu symptoms has already beenestablished; there is, however, a need for more studies focusing onthe flu and treatments with local and exotic plant species.

Anadenanthera colubrina has a higher total concentration of phe-nols and tannins in stem bark than in the leaves (Monteiro et al.,2006). The stem bark extract sequesters free radicals and exhibitedantioxidant activity (Desmarchelier et al., 1999); it has been sug-gested that the antioxidant activity may play an important role inthe anti-inflammatory activity of this species. A unique flavonoidthat inhibits lipoxygenasewas was isolated from A. colubrinacalled anadantoflavonoid that contains 11 different compounds:

alnusenol, lupenone, lupeol, betulinic acid, alpha-amyrin, beta-amyrim, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, apigenin, 4-hydroxibenzóicoacid and cinnamic acid (Gutierrez-Lugo et al., 2004). The resin of thisspecies contains an acid heteropolysaccharide composed mainlyof galactose and arabinose, with immunomodulatory and antitu-

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or effects in sarcoma-18-inoculated rats (Moretão et al., 2004).are should be taken with the use of leaves from this species,s Brito et al. (2000) found that rabbits show intoxication fromhe consumption of A. colubrina leaves. The use of this speciesor sore throats, throat inflammation and for general healing cane linked to the anti-inflammatory activity that is related to thenti-oxidative activity. Desmarchelier et al. (1999) explained thathe antiseptic may be due to the presence of tannins, which haventimicrobial activity. A. colubrina’s use in the community to treatgainst cancer can be related to heteropolysaccharide acid foundn the species.

Phytochemical investigations regarding Ximenia americanaevealed the presence of saponins, carbohydrates, glycosides,avonols, tannins, alkaloids, anthraquinones and terpenesOgunleye and Ibitoye, 2003; James et al., 2007; Maikai et al.,008). Carbohydrates, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonols and tan-ins have bacterial activity, which validates the use of this plant

n the control of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniaend Shigella flexineri, and therefore implies a healing propertyor food poisoning, skin infections, ulcers, eczema, diarrhea andneumonia (James et al., 2007). These authors also found thathe species has antimicrobial action. An acute test of the aqueousxtract of the stem bark in rats did not show toxicity (see Maikait al., 2008). A complex mixture of 33 constituencies comprised of9% aromatics, 12.5% lipid compounds and 13% terpenoids withenzoaldeide (63.5%) as dominant molecule was determined fromn analysis of the volatile oils compounds in the leaves of Ximeniamericana (Mevy et al., 2006). In pharmacological conducted byenoit-Vical et al. (1996) confirmed the anti-malarial activity.mer and Elnima (2003) showed that the methanol extracts andqueous extracts from of the parts of X. americana contain antibac-erial and antifungal activity. Diallo et al. (2002) performed an initro chemical evaluation of aqueous extract for the 15 most citedound-plants and showed X. americana to be among the top five

n terms of healing potential. Koné et al. (2004) investigated thentibacterial activity of the crude ethanol extract of 50 medicinallants and found X. americana again to be among those with mostotent activity. The aqueous extract of this species has a potentialnticancer activity in mice (Voss et al., 2006). Quintans-Júniort al. (2002) tested for anticonvulsant activity in 17 plants fromortheastern Brazil; three species were found with such activity,ith X. americana among them. Soro et al. (2009) observed that

he aqueous stem bark extract of X. americana has analgesicroperties that are probably related to flavonoids. Further studiesre necessary to accurately identify the compounds responsibleor the analgesic activity and to understand the action mechanism.he study by James et al. (2008) showed that the aqueous extractf the leaves, the stem bark and especially the root caused hepato-ellular damage, affected the synthesis of albumin and promotedeight loss in mice. The authors indicated that the root is theost toxic part of the plant due to the great concentrations of

ydrogen cyanide, oxalates and saponins in these tissues; theseompounds are known to cause gastrointestinal inflammation,ave hemolytic properties and the ability to reduce cholesterol,nd cause gastroenteritis, respectively. Wurochekke et al. (2008)nvestigated the effects of the aqueous extract of the stem barkn the liver and kidneys in rats and also found hepatic damage,ut with no effects in the kidneys. An analgesic activity in thequeous extract was also found by Soro et al. (2009). Among theffects caused by X. americana mentioned by the community, theealing and antiseptic actions for toothache and menstrual colic

re consistent with some effects and/or compounds that havelready been scientifically proven for this species.

In addition to the total phenol content (Monteiro et al., 2006;iana et al., 2003), there is predominance of chalcone and tannins

Monteiro et al., 2006; Viana et al., 1997) in the crude stem bark

rmacology 131 (2010) 326–342 339

extract of Myracrodruon urundeuva. In tests on rats, the tanninswere observed to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-ulcerogenic effects (Souza et al., 2007; Viana et al., 1997), and theflavonoids and dimeric chalcones had analgesic and healing activi-ties (Viana et al., 2003). Rodrigues et al. (2002) observed completewound healing using the ethanol extract of M. urundeuva for skinlesions in rats. The neuroprotective effect in the mesoencephaliccells in rats has been demonstrated by the chalcone and tanninisolated from the crude extract of the stem bark of this plant aswell (Nobre-Junior et al., 2008, 2009). A gel made from a mixture ofM. urundeuva and Lippia sidoides showed preservation of alveolarbone resorption, anti-inflammatory effect and antibacterial activ-ity (Botelho et al., 2007, 2008) in rats with periodontitis, with theeffect exerted by M. urundeuva assigned to the dimeric chalcone.Lectin was isolated from the crude extract of the stem core of M.urundeuva and showed antibacterial and antifungal activity (Sá etal., 2009a,b); this was the first bioactive peptide found in the core,and its chemical protection is evident in the core durability of thisspecies. Lectin has also been shown to act as an effective insecticidefor termite activity, as a larvicidal agent against the transmitters ofyellow fever and dengue (Aedes aegypti), and to possess an antioxi-dant action (Sá et al., 2009b,c). Alves et al. (2009) observed that thehydroalcoholic extract of M. urundeuva presents potential antimi-crobial and anti-adherent activity on the microorganisms that formdental biofilm in in vitro tests, as well as show antifungal activityagainst Candida strains isolated from the oral cavity. This speciesseems to be effective for the many uses mentioned by commu-nity members, including the following: function against toothacheand headache by presenting proven analgesic effect; as an anti-septic due antibacterial and antifungal activity; and for genital,ovarian, internal organ or general organ inflammation, by havinganti-inflammatory activity.

4. Conclusions

4.1. Local diversity of medicinal plants in the community – themost important medicinal species to the community

Many medicinal plants are used by informants from the Riachoda Catingueira community located in the municipality of Aiuaba-Ceará to treat a wide spectrum of condition from diseases to generalpain or palliative care. This diversity of medicinal species representsthe high overall species richness in the Caatinga. Among the usefulspecies, R. graveolens and M. villosa, which are exotic and cultivated,and M. urundeuva Allemao, which is native, are presented as beingvery important to the community due to be very versatile withregard to their uses.

4.2. Promising medicinal species for bioprospecting studies –species that deserve further study

Many species have been highlighted for further study. The plantspecies that had higher consensus factors among the informantsrequire further study to determine their therapeutic applicability,as many have yet to be proven scientifically.

There were many uses indicated for native species from theCaatinga, some of which still do not have scientific studies prov-ing effectiveness for a given disease. Z. joazeiro requires studiesto prove why it can be used to combat dandruff and seborrheicdermatitis, rheumatism, flu, fever, stomach problems such as indi-

gestion and its general use a healing. A. cearensis needs morespecific attention directed to the respiratory system, especially inthe treatment of nasal congestion, sinusitis, rhinitis and cough,and also needs to be researched concerning to the treatment ofstroke, hypertension and general healing. Studies on A. colubrina

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eed to focus on the use for symptoms related to the respira-ory system, specifically concerning to nasal congestion, cough,xpectorant and lung diseases. Other interesting investigationsnclude the activities of A. colubrina against diarrhea, inflamma-ion, against general infections and against cancer, as well as itsealing and antiseptic activities. X. americana required further inivo examination related to its anti-septic and healing actions,ince these effects have been demonstrated in vitro, as well asts analgesic effect against toothache, menstrual colic and generalnflammation. M. urundeuva showed anti-ulcerogenic, antibacterialnd healing (epithelium) activities in rats that need to be tested inumans. Studies of M. urundeuva are needed in relation to the anal-esic activity, specifically against headache and toothache, activitygainst inflammation in the genitals and other organs, the effectgainst influenza, cancer, and the function as an expectorant forepatic, kidney and intestinal problems.

These species, together with A. cearensis, A. colubrina, C. papaya,. sinensis, C. citratus, E. viscosa, L. alba, P. amboinicus, P. barbatus, X.mericana, and Z. joazeiro, formed a group of species that deservesurther attention and study.

cknowledgements

We thank FUNCAP for the bursary given to first author; CNPqor its financial support and grants to U.P. Albuquerque; the com-

unities’ informants, for providing information and friendship.

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