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DOI: 10.1542/pir.33-1-4 2012;33;4 Pediatrics in Review Johanna B. Warren and Carrie A. Phillipi Care of the Well Newborn http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/33/1/4 located on the World Wide Web at: The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/suppl/2012/01/05/33.1.4.DC1.html Data Supplement at: Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0191-9601. Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright © 2012 by the American Academy of published, and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point publication, it has been published continuously since 1979. Pediatrics in Review is owned, Pediatrics in Review is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly by Micaela A Acosta Jimenez on February 21, 2014 http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/ Downloaded from by Micaela A Acosta Jimenez on February 21, 2014 http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/ Downloaded from

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Page 1: Care Newborn

DOI: 10.1542/pir.33-1-42012;33;4Pediatrics in Review 

Johanna B. Warren and Carrie A. PhillipiCare of the Well Newborn

http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/33/1/4located on the World Wide Web at:

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is

http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/suppl/2012/01/05/33.1.4.DC1.htmlData Supplement at:

Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0191-9601. Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright © 2012 by the American Academy of published, and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Pointpublication, it has been published continuously since 1979. Pediatrics in Review is owned, Pediatrics in Review is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly

by Micaela A Acosta Jimenez on February 21, 2014http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/Downloaded from by Micaela A Acosta Jimenez on February 21, 2014http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/Downloaded from

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Care of the Well NewbornJohanna B. Warren, MD,*

Carrie A. Phillipi, MD, PhD,

FAAP†

Author Disclosure

Drs Warren and

Phillipi have disclosed

no financial

relationships relevant

to this article. This

commentary does not

contain a discussion of

an unapproved/

investigative use of

a commercial product/

device.

Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to:

1. Understand the unique features of the physiology of the newborn and how care of the

infant addresses these elements.

2. Know the physical and behavioral characteristics of full-term and post-term infants.

3. Understand the elements involved in feeding the neonate, as well as ways

breastfeeding can be encouraged.

4. Be aware of optimal hospital policies in caring for newborns, including the concept of

family-centered care.

5. Understand the management of common problems encountered in care of the

newborn, such as jaundice, passage of meconium before birth, and respiratory

distress.

6. Be aware of preventive measures in care of the newborn: administration of vitamin K,

eye prophylaxis, anticipatory guidance.

IntroductionThe birth of an infant is a time of great joy but also a time of significant change for families.Typically, a large amount of historical information is collected, new data are integrated, andsynthesized knowledge is taught to parents during a brief hospitalization surrounding aninfant’s birth. Family routines are in flux and complex physiologic changes are occurring inboth the mother and infant. In the midst of this time of great transition, clinicians shouldremember that care of the family should be accessible, continuous, comprehensive, family-centered, coordinated, compassionate, and culturally effective. The concept of a medicalhome starts for the child at the prenatal visit and extends through the birth and beyond,when a clinician and family begin a relationship to promote healthy growth and develop-ment. The principles of the medical home are described in Fig 1. (1)

Antenatal CareStated simply, the goals of antenatal care are to prevent maternal and neonatal complica-tions associated with pregnancy and childbirth. This care should be cost-effective and ev-idence-based. Care should focus onmaternal risk factor identification and reduction, as wellas patient education. Finally, antenatal care should be available to all women, regardless of

their socioeconomic or insurance status.Ideally, antenatal care starts before conception, with

healthy lifestyle choices and guidance from primary care clini-cians regarding the importance of folic acid supplementation;smoking cessation; attention to and treatment of mentalhealth disorders; and importance of exercise, diet, and idealbody weight. Once pregnant, women seek care from a varietyof maternity care providers: nurse midwives, family physicians,obstetricians, and maternal-fetal medicine specialists. Regard-less of discipline, a chosen maternity care provider thenmeets a woman and her partner/family, establishes a rela-tionship, and sets expectations for the pregnancy and birth.

Abbreviations

GBS: group B streptococcalLGA: large for gestational ageSGA: small for gestational ageTdaP: tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and

acellular pertussis, adsorbedTTN: transient tachypnea of the newbornUSPSTF: US Preventive Services Task Force

*Assistant Professor of Family Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR.†Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR.

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The first few visits in early pregnancy should focus onestablishing early pregnancy dating (via last menstrual pe-riod or early ultrasound) as well as risk factor identifica-tion. Comprehensive review and documentation of thematernal medical history (including medication and sup-plement use), obstetric and gynecologic history, familyhistory, genetic history, and social/occupational historyare critical to providing comprehensive care. Screeningfor substance abuse, mental health disorders, and domesticviolence are just as important in the care of the maternal/fetal dyad as routine prenatal laboratory analysis.

Many women (now regardless of age) opt for earlygenetic screening in the first trimester of pregnancy withblood testing (maternal serum pregnancy-associated plasmaprotein A and b-human chorionic gonadotropin) coupledwith ultrasound to measure the nuchal translucency ofthe fetus. In the second trimester, a maternal blood testfor alpha fetoprotein is added, and the results are integratedfrom both tests, giving pregnant women a numerical risk ofcarrying a fetus with aneuploidy or open spina bifida. In ad-dition, nearly all women are offered a detailed anatomyscreening ultrasound in their second trimester of pregnancy.

Given the explosion of use and the increasing sensitivityof these technologies, antenatal visits may be used to discuss

and plan for necessary follow-up ofsuspicious prenatal ultrasound find-ings, such as prenatal hydronephro-sis, single umbilical arteries, or otherabnormalities. In these and morecomplicated situations, it may benecessary for the maternity careand pediatric provider to communi-cate and coordinate a variety of spe-cialists before birth and develop aneonatal care plan both for the birthand immediately thereafter.

Integration of the ElectronicHealth RecordThe infant’s primary care providerafter hospital discharge will not al-ways care for the neonate duringthe birth hospitalization. Increas-ingly, hospital-based clinicians carefor newborns during this period,then transition care to outpatientpediatric care providers.

Given the myriad disciplines thatprovide antenatal outpatient mater-nity care, as well as the variety andscope of intrapartum care clinicians,

obtaining an accurate and comprehensive maternal andfamily history to guide neonatal care can be an incrediblechallenge. Electronic health records afford the opportunityto link maternal and infant records and integrate medicalcare. Currently, these electronic health record systemsare largely still a work in progress at many institutionsand linking office-based systems with hospital-based sys-tems still may pose challenges.

Robust maternal risk factor identification and documen-tation, laboratory and imaging data during pregnancy, andcomprehensive documentation of labor course and deliveryin a linked electronic medical record provides the essentialinformation needed for neonatal clinicians to determine theinfant’s appropriate medical care after birth.

Early Postpartum Period TransitioningLabor and delivery is a physiologically stressful environ-ment for both the mother and neonate. Maternity careproviders commonly use electronic fetal monitoring asa tool when evaluating fetal well being during the laborprocess; however, there is little evidence that continuouselectronic fetal monitoring in low-risk pregnancies im-proves outcomes. Uterine contractions decrease bloodflow to the fetus. A healthy fetal-placental unit will allow

Figure 1. Principles of the patient-centered medical home. Issued jointly by the AmericanAcademy of Family Physicians, the AAP, the American College of Physicians, and theAmerican Osteopathic Association, 2007. Adapted from Kellerman R, Kirk L. Principles ofthe patient-centered medical home. Am Fam Physician. 2007;76:774–775.

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the fetus to maintain a normal heart rate though this uter-ine contraction. If there is uteroplacental insufficiency,however, the fetal heart rate often shows characteristicchanges (eg, late decelerations) that may prompt an ex-pedited vaginal delivery or cesarean delivery.

Both the timing and mode of deliveries are changing. In1996, the cesarean birth rate in the United States was 20.7%;in 2006, this rate was 31.1%. Much of this increase reflectsa decrease in the rate of attempted vaginal birth after cesareandelivery, with an increase in either primary elective or sched-uled repeat cesarean deliveries. Infants born before 39 weeksof gestation in general are at risk for adverse outcomes, par-ticularly transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN).

Tita et al (2) showed elective cesarean deliveries before 39weeks’ gestation (but>37 weeks’ gestation) were associatedwith increased rates of adverse respiratory outcomes, me-chanical ventilation, newborn sepsis, hypoglycemia, NICUadmissions, and hospitalizations at birth for more than5 days. Tutdibi et al (3) confirmed the strong associationbetween TTN and elective cesarean delivery and furtherdemonstrated elective cesarean delivery at term gestation(>37 weeks) in the absence of fetal exposure to labor con-tractions is associated with an increased risk of and moresevere course of TTN. In this same group, infants bornvaginally or via cesarean after a labor course showed no in-creased risk for TTN. For these reasons, and for infant neu-rodevelopment, the March of Dimes Healthy Babies areWorth theWaitTM (http://marchofdimes.com/pregnancy/getready_atleast39weeks.html) campaign encourages wait-ing until at least 39 0/7 weeks’ gestation for elective laborinduction or cesarean.

Obstetric analgesia and anesthesia are other importantconsiderations for the neonatal care clinician. Optionsfor pain control during labor and delivery include localanesthesia, parenteral analgesia (usually in the form offentanyl, morphine, or nalbuphine), inhaled anesthetics(nitrous oxide), regional analgesia/anesthesia (epidural,spinal, combined spinal/epidural), and general anesthe-sia. Each has its own risks and benefits. Labor epiduralshave become more common, and trials randomizingwomen to epidural analgesia or parenteral medications

have shown an increased rate of maternal fever in theepidural groups (relative risk 4.0–4.6). (4) Themechanismcurrently is not known, and although there has been nodemonstrated increased risk of neonatal sepsis, there hasbeen an increase in neonatal sepsis evaluations.

Early AssessmentsIn the immediate postpartum period, the newborn careteam (usually a nurse and birth attendant) is responsiblefor attending to any needs for neonatal resuscitation. Ap-proximately 10% of all neonates require some form ofresuscitation. Standard Neonatal Resuscitation Programguidelines are comprehensive and evidence-based stan-dards, which direct any necessary resuscitation. (5) Allbirth attendants should be familiar with neonatal resusci-tation algorithms, equipment, and resources available intheir practice settings. Team simulation-based trainingsand certifications are becoming increasingly commonand help maintain infrequently used skills.

Management of neonates at birth when meconiumis present has changed in the past few years. If an infantis born vigorous, no suction or further exploration ofthe oropharynx or trachea is indicated. In the presenceof meconium and a nonvigorous neonate, an attemptat visualization of the vocal cords with suction shouldbe performed, but should not significantly delay any fur-ther resuscitative needs (such as positive pressureventilation).

Apgar score assignment is a standardized way to com-municate the clinical status of a newborn infant. The scoretraditionally is assigned at 1 and 5 minutes of life, butmay be continued every 5 minutes as dictated by the clin-ical context. The score has five components: heart rate,respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and color.Each component is given a score of 0, 1, or 2 (see Table 1).A 5-minute Apgar score of 7 to 10 is considered normal.Apgar scores can be helpful in assessing an infant’s transi-tion from intrauterine to extrauterine life and may reflectneonatal resuscitation efforts, but should not guide theseefforts. Likewise, Apgar scores should not be used to predictneurologic outcomes or development of infants. Common

Table 1. The Apgar Score

The Apgar Score 0 1 2

Heart rate Absent <100 beats per min >100 beats per minRespiratory effort Absent Weak cry; hypoventilation Good cryMuscle tone Flaccid Some flexion Active motion/Well flexedReflex irritability No response Grimace Cry/Cough/SneezeColor Blue/Pale Acrocyanotic Completely pink

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limitations to Apgar scoring include prematurity, congenitalanomalies, exposure to drugs, and hypovolemia. (6)

Cord blood gas assessments provide more physiologicinformation on the neonate than Apgar scores. The mostobjective assessment of intrapartum hypoxia-ischemia isthe presence of metabolic acidosis in umbilical arterialblood at the time of birth. (7) During normal labor, um-bilical arterial pH drops and base deficit rises. Healthyterm infants have an umbilical arterial pH of 7.27 –0.07 and base deficit of �2.7 – 2.8 mM. A pure respira-tory acidosis can be corrected rapidly by the neonate orby administering positive pressure ventilation at an appro-priate rate. Neonates are unable to correct a metabolic ac-idosis quickly, however; thus, an umbilical arterial pH of<7.0 or base deficit >12 mM suggests increased risk(but not certainty) of neonatal neurologic morbidity.

Every effort should be made to promote skin-to-skincontact with the mother directly after birth for the stableinfant. Newborns have a high surface area–to-body ratio,and thus are prone to heat loss. Infants who are cold be-come stressed and rapidly deplete their stores of fat andglycogen. The infant should be encouraged to breastfeedas soon as possible and within the first hour of birth. Ifskin-to-skin contact is not sufficient for a newborn tomaintain his or her temperature, swaddling and the useof a radiant warmer in the delivery room are additionalresources. The administration of standard newborn medi-cations, such as erythromycin eye ointment and vitamin K,is another priority in the first hours of life.

Vitamin K is an important clotting factor synthesizedby intestinal bacteria. All neonates are born with lowlevels of vitamin K because of the absence of gut florabut also because of low levels of transplacental passageand the inability of the fetal liver to store vitamin K.Vitamin K–deficient bleeding (formerly known as hem-orrhagic disease of the newborn) can occur directly afterbirth or many weeks later, presenting as skin bruising,mucosal bleeding, bleeding at the umbilicus and circumci-sion site, or even fatal intracranial hemorrhage. Large he-matomas at injection sites or on the head after delivery alsomay be presenting signs.

Maternal risk factors for the infant’s development ofvitamin K–deficient bleeding include antiepileptic, antitu-berculin, and vitamin K antagonist medications. Humanmilk is a poor source of vitamin K, and infants with latehemorrhagic disease of the newborn often are those whoare breastfed and did not receive vitamin K at birth. Vita-min K given to all babies after delivery in an intramuscularinjection has been shown to prevent both early and lateforms of bleeding. There is not enough informationabout the efficacy of oral vitamin K to recommend

its routine use, although it is certainly better to use oralvitamin K than none at all when parents refuse the in-tramuscular formulation. There is no proven relation-ship between vitamin K administration and childhoodcancer.

Erythromycin is the most commonly used medicationto prevent ophthalmia neonatorum fromNeisseria gonor-rhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis and is applied to theinfant’s conjunctival sacs immediately after birth. Silvernitrate can be used but is less effective against Chlamydiaand frequently causes a chemical conjunctivitis. Manydeveloping countries use povodone iodine. A recent na-tional shortage of erythromycin in the United Stateshighlighted the need to identify an effective, inexpensivealternative to erythromycin, establish stores, or enhanceproduction capability of erythromycin.

The initial newborn assessment, including a thoroughexamination of the infant for any anomalies and identifi-cation of infant and maternal risk factors necessitatingfurther evaluation, typically is performed by a labor anddelivery nurse or the birth attendant for low-risk deliveries.For higher-risk deliveries, a specialized neonatal resuscita-tion team may be present at the delivery and perform thisassessment.

Assessing Growth and Gestational AgeAt birth and as a child grows and develops, one of themost important things pediatric clinicians do is measure,record, and assess growth. This process starts at birth withbasic measurements, including weight, head circumfer-ence, and length. The infant’s measurements are plottedon a growth curve according to gestational age. Infantswho fall outside the normal weight range qualify as smallfor gestational age (SGA) or large for gestational age(LGA). SGA and LGA sometimes are defined as <10thpercentile and >90th percentile, respectively, for gesta-tional age, but also may be described as less than orgreater than two SDs around the mean. Intrauterinegrowth restriction describes an infant whose growthis limited compared with his or her potential becauseof environmental, genetic, or other factors. All of thesecharacterizations are important because they identifyat-risk newborns.

The measurements for head circumference also requirecareful attention to detail and can indicate micro- ormacrocephaly. The infant who is small but has preservedhead size (asymmetric growth restriction) frequently haspoor growth because of nutritional factors (placental in-sufficiency), whereas genetic conditions, environmentalfactors such as toxins, and congenital infections shouldbe considered when the infant is symmetrically small with

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microcephaly. These birth parameters are important tocommunicate to the follow-up care provider for future com-parisons. There is some evidence that the current growthcurves commonly used in newborn care require updatingwith our contemporary and genetically diverse population.

When the gestational age or due dates are uncer-tain, a gestational age assessment is completed using theDubowitz/Ballard examination. (8)(9)Using such a tool,the clinician assesses the infant’s neuromuscular andphysical maturity using a standardized examination. Neu-romuscular maturity is based on the infant’s neuromus-cular tone and reflexes; physical maturity assessmentsinclude the anterior-posterior progression of plantarcreases and progression from transparency to cracking,the presence or absence and amount of lanugo, the extentof development of breast tissue, eye and ear development,and maturation of the genitalia. Scores are assigned forneuromuscular and physical characteristics. These scoresare then combined to arrive at a maturity rating scoreapproximating the newborn’s gestational age in weeks.This method of estimating gestational age is especiallyimportant for premature infants; however, each clinicianshould formally or informally assess each individual infantand determine whether the stated gestational age is sup-ported by the physical examination.

The definition of the term infant is an infant born be-tween 37 0/7 weeks’ and 42 0/7 weeks’ gestation. Everyweek of maturation is important, however, and many in-fants who qualify as “term” by gestational duration willencounter problems uncharacteristic of newborns deliv-ered at 40 weeks’ gestation. Fetal development duringgestation is a continuum just as it is after birth. In partic-ular, the vulnerability of the late preterm infant (34 0/7to 36 6/7 weeks’ gestation) is being recognized increas-ingly and pediatric clinicians should take special care withthis population of newborns. (10)

Care PathwaysNewborn care in hospitals often is standardized to sup-port those infants at risk for common yet specific condi-tions such as hypoglycemia, group B streptococcal (GBS)exposure, hepatitis B/HIV exposure, and maternal illicitsubstance exposure. Infants born to mothers with diabe-tes mellitus or those who are SGA, preterm, or LGA,as well as infants with birth asphyxia, are at risk for hypo-glycemia. High-quality evidence to support the specificsof protocols for hypoglycemia screening is lacking butis presented here in generalized fashion. These infantsshould be observed closely for changes in level ofconsciousness (irritability, lethargy), apnea spells, poorfeeding, hypothermia, hypotonia, tremors, or seizures.

Symptomatic infants should have a blood glucose leveldrawn immediately and should have feeding or otherintervention as appropriate for their condition. Asymp-tomatic infants at risk for hypoglycemia should have ablood glucose level drawn in the first 30 minutes of lifeand begin frequent feeding (ideally at breast) during thefirst 2 hours of life, with at least one additional bloodglucose evaluation during this time period.

The Centers for Disease Control and Preventionupdated their recommendations for the prevention ofperinatal GBS disease in November 2010. (11) In short,asymptomatic infants born to mothers who do not re-ceive adequate prophylaxis for GBS should at a minimumhave careful clinical observation with consideration of alimited screen (complete blood count with differential,blood culture) in some circumstances and 48 hours ofobservation. If adequate maternal intrapartum antibioticprophylaxis (‡4 hours) has been administered, observa-tion of the newborn in a medical setting may be as shortas 24 hours. Symptomatic infants should have a full eval-uation completed to rule out sepsis, including at mini-mum a complete blood count with differential, bloodculture, and initiation of intravenous antibiotics. This al-gorithm is depicted in Fig 2.

Infants born to HIV- or hepatitis B–positive mothersshould be bathed at birth (before any injections). The in-fant born to an HIV-positive mother should be formula-fed only, and zidovudine should be initiated by 12 hoursof life. Consultation with a pediatric infectious diseasespecialist (either by phone or in person) is encouraged.Finally, infants born with maternal substance exposure,such as opiates, are at risk for neonatal abstinence syn-drome (withdrawal). (12) An abstinence scoring system(Finnegan is one example) should be initiated with vitalsigns recorded at least every 4 hours, as well as the use ofsoothing techniques and frequent feeding (breastfeeding isideal). High abstinence scores or abnormal vital signsshould trigger transfer from a normal newborn nurseryto a higher level of care with consideration for initiationof opiate therapy (eg, morphine). Social work and lactationconsultations can be useful. In these and other instances,care pathways allow for immediate identification and im-plementation of standardizedmonitoring and intervention.

Family-Centered and Team-Based CareThe advantages of rooming-in to promote breastfeedingand family-centered rounds, allowing maximal time forthe newborn to bond with his or her new family, are in-creasingly recognized in family-centered care. Pediatricclinicians should understand the importance of the teamin caring for the child, acknowledging the important role

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various providers play during the birth hospitalization.Nurses, hearing screen specialists, phlebotomists, lacta-tion consultants, obstetric providers, pediatric clinicians,doulas, case managers, social workers, and unit clerks all

contribute to the care of an individual child. The hospitalstay often is standardized for healthy newborns but canrequire a large amount of care coordination for thosenewborns with special medical or social needs. Family-centered care plans should promote the well being ofthe family with streamlined, team-based care, minimizinginterruptions and promoting parent-infant bonding.

If for any reason an infant must be separated from hisor her parents for medical reasons, every effort shouldbe made to maintain parent-infant bonding and promotebreastfeeding. Mothers who are unable to breastfeed theirinfants should have access to high-quality breast pumpsand providers skilled in lactation.

Normal Development in the First Days of LifeThe Newborn Examination

Ideally, a pediatric clinician’s examination is completedin the first 24 hours after birth. Nursing colleagues oftenhave assessed the infant fully before this examination,and their evaluations should be viewed as complemen-tary. The initial examination serves the purpose of iden-tifying anomalies, as well as reassuring parents about thehealth of their new infant. Education, sometimes termed“discharge teaching,” should be regarded as a continuum,ideally initiated long before birth and continuing af-ter birth with the first examination. Education may be re-inforced best within the context of the examination itself,as the clinician identifies and discusses common findings,such as safe sleep positioning, skin and cord care, jaun-dice, and the voiding patterns common to the newborn.

The newborn’s appearance often can raise questionsfrom a new family who might find their infant doesnot appear as typically portrayed in the media. Skin find-ings such as acrocyanosis (a localized blue-purple dis-coloration of the hands and feet caused by sluggishperipheral circulation) and vernix (a white covering thatprotected the infant in utero), as well as vascular birth-marks, often are present. The head often is moldedthrough the delivery process, and the face and eyelidscan appear puffy or bruised. Milia (white keratin inclu-sions), sebaceous gland hyperplasia, slate grey patcheson the back and buttocks, and newborn rashes such as er-ythema toxicum are other common findings.

The post-dates infant (>42 weeks) is often LGA buthas a unique appearance. The skin can be markedlycracked, in particular at the wrists and ankles. If placentalinsufficiency is present, the subcutaneous tissues may ap-pear wasted. LGA infants may have difficulty progressingthrough the birth canal and should be assessed for traumawith evaluation of the Moro reflex and grasp symmetry, aswell as special attention to identify clavicular fractures.

Figure 2. Algorithm for secondary prevention of early-onsetgroup B Streptococcal (GBS) disease among newborns. Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention guidelines/recommendationsfor the prevention of perinatal GBS disease.

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The birth hospitalization providesan important time for education re-garding normal infant behaviorsand development. Parents shouldbe reassured about the normal lossof weight that occurs in the firstdays and educated about the evolu-tion and recognition of jaundice. Inaddition, the early newborn periodis one of great physiologic transitionfor the infant. Care in subsequentexaminations should be taken to ex-amine the infant systematically forsigns of ductal-dependent cardiac le-sions, respiratory difficulties, feedingproblems, and jaundice. Neurode-velopmental milestones, such as thenewborn’s ability to visually fixate,lift his or her head up when prone,and demonstrate reflexes such asthe Moro or startle reflex and graspand rooting reflexes, can be reviewedand demonstrated.

BreastfeedingThe benefits of breastfeeding cannotbe overstated. A recent report con-cluded if 90% of families in theUnited States could comply withmedical recommendations to breast-feed exclusively for 6 months, the United States would savebillions of dollars per year and prevent an excess of 900deaths, nearly all of which would be in infants. (13) Thisanalysis did not include maternal benefits. Clear and unbi-ased information should be given to the family regardingthe benefits of breastfeeding for both mother and infant.Individuals skilled in education and the assessment andmanagement of breastfeeding problems should be readilyavailable in the hospital and after discharge.

Many hospitals have established themselves as “BabyFriendly” according to the initiative by the World HealthOrganization (WHO) and United Nations Children’sFund, launched in 1991 to promote maternity centersas centers of breastfeeding support. The Baby Friendlydesignation requires a process involving application andinstitution of 10 specific steps, as seen in Fig 3. (14)(For a discussion of the views of the American Academyof Pediatrics [AAP] on the 10 steps to successful breast-feeding, refer to Lawrence RM, Lawrence RA. Breast-feeding: more than just good nutrition. Pediatr Rev.2011;32:267–280.)

Increasingly, care delivery involves partners such ascertified lactation consultants, midwives, and others skilledin the evaluation and management of common breast-feeding challenges and problems. The AAP has designeda curriculum for resident education in breastfeeding. (15)Training programs for pediatric, family medicine, andobstetrics and gynecology residents are increasingly in-corporating breastfeeding medicine into standard residentcurricula. At many institutions, pediatric and obstetric pro-viders are experts in breastfeeding medicine.

Although exclusive breastfeeding provides optimalnutrition for the vast majority of infants, supplementalnutrition occasionally is medically indicated. In addition,some families will choose to feed their infants formula;this informed choice should be respected. There are timeswhen, even with ample resources and desire, breastfeedingis unsuccessful. Maternal milk banks are being institutedincreasingly for the benefit of all newborns, including pre-mature infants, and may eventually provide an alternateand superior source of nutrition for those mother-infantdyads in whom breastfeeding is not an option but the

Figure 3. Ten steps to successful breastfeeding. From the WHO and United NationsChildren’s Fund. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/newsline/tenstps.htm. For a discussionof the AAP’s views on the 10 steps to successful breastfeeding, refer to Lawrence RM,Lawrence RA. Breastfeeding: more than just good nutrition. Pediatr Rev. 2011;32:267–280.

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families would prefer not to use formula. Dextrose waterand sterile water are to be avoided because their use mayresult in hyponatremia and other electrolyte disturbances.Ankyloglossia should be detected as part of the standardnewborn evaluation, and any infant with breastfeedingdifficulty should be reassessed for the possibility of thiscondition. Frenotomy is an option for those infants whohave ankyloglossia and are experiencing breastfeedingdifficulty.

The WHO recommends that children breastfeed forat least 2 years. The AAP and American Academy ofFamily Physicians recommend that infants be exclusivelybreastfed for 6 months and continue breastfeeding withappropriate complementary foods for at least 1 year. TheUS Public Health Service’s “Healthy People 2020” setnational goals of w80% of infants breastfeeding at birth,w60% at 6 months, and w35% through 6 months to1 year. (16) The United States fell short of the “HealthyPeople 2010” goals, let alone the “Healthy People 2020”and WHO recommendations. Recent national attentionto breastfeeding through the Surgeon General’s Call toAction to Support Breastfeeding (17) may bolster ourprogress on this front.

A 2007 systematic review of the effects of breastfeed-ing on maternal and infant health found for both mothersand infants in developed countries, many health benefitsand effects of breastfeeding persist beyond the period ofbreastfeeding. (18) It has been established that breast-feeding mothers lose more weight in the immediatepostpartum period and breastfed infants are thoughtto have lower risks of common conditions, such as acuteotitis media, gastroenteritis, and atopic dermatitis. Chil-dren who were not breastfed may be at increased risk forobesity, asthma, diabetes, and childhood leukemia. Sim-ilarly, for mothers, not breastfeeding is associated with in-creased risk of postpartum depression, type 2 diabetes,and development of breast and ovarian cancers.

A 2010 publication further investigated mothers 45to 58 years old who were free of clinical cardiovasculardisease. (19) Each woman underwent an assessment ofmarkers for subclinical cardiovascular disease. Comparedwith mothers who had breastfed children for at least3 months, mothers who had not breastfed were morelikely to have increased risk of vascular changes associatedwith future cardiovascular disease.

One of the most significant barriers to duration ofbreastfeeding in developed countries is early return tothe workforce postpartum. Employers should providea dedicated clean space for women to nurse or expressmilk, flexibility in work schedule, accommodations tostore pumped milk, and a supportive environment to

achieve these goals. Many state and local governmentshave created legislation to support lactating women.

JaundiceThe development of jaundice or hyperbilirubinemia isa common phenomenon in newborn medicine. Mosthealthy newborns will have some degree of visible jaun-dice in the first week of life, but it is important to iden-tify the rare infant who will go on to develop severehyperbilirubinemia with its potential for bilirubin en-cephalopathy. Icterus progresses cephalocaudally, thento the extremities, typically peaking at 3 to 4 days. Visiblejaundice in the first 24 hours always warrants investigation.Several factors contribute to cause hyperbilirubinemia.At birth, newborns have a robust hemoglobin level(14.0–22.5 g/dL) and increased red blood cell destruction.

Erythrocyte turnover results in the production of in-direct bilirubin, which is conjugated in the liver by uri-dine diphosphate glucuronyltransferase. This enzyme isrelatively immature in the healthy newborn, resulting inan indirect or unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. Becauseit takes some time for breastfeeding to be established,the bilirubin that is conjugated can become unconjugatedin the gut and re-presented by the process of enterohe-patic circulation, contributing to indirect hyperbiliru-binemia. Uridine diphosphate glucuronyltransferaseenzymatic activity is deficient or reduced in some condi-tions (Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Gilbert syndrome) andpolymorphisms have been identified in those of East Asiandescent. This enzyme also is less functional in the presenceof glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in peo-ple of East Asian, Greek, and African descent.

The prevention of severe hyperbilirubinemia has beenthe subject of a great deal of attention and controversy.The Joint Commission has identified severe hyperbilir-ubinemia (defined as a bilirubin >30 mg/dL) as a re-viewable sentinel event. (20) A sentinel event is anyunexpected occurrence involving death or serious phys-ical or psychological injury, or the risk thereof. In 2004,the AAP published a practice guideline for managementof hyperbilirubinemia. (21) In this policy statement, theauthors recommended screening by a universal test mea-suring bilirubin or screening based on clinical risk factors.

Since this time, the prevention of bilirubin encepha-lopathy by universal screening has received an “I” ratingby the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)(the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or againstroutinely providing the service). (22) Recently, however,the implementation of universal bilirubin screening wasdemonstrated to reduce the incidence of severe hyperbi-lirubinemia, a surrogate for bilirubin encephalopathy, in

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a large cohort. (23) Phototherapy usage increased withinstitution of universal screening. Universal bilirubin screen-ing with serum or transcutaneous bilirubin measurementsnow is commonplace before hospital discharge. Still, theevaluation and management of hyperbilirubinemia re-quires a high degree of clinical acumen, careful attentionto detail, and a team-based approach to evaluation(Table 2). Clinical estimation of jaundice alone withouthistory and risk stratification is prone to error.

Weight LossWeight loss in newborns is observed frequently, but nor-mative data are not well characterized in the literature.In general, weight loss of >10% to 12% in the first post-natal week is a cause for concern and necessitates a thor-ough evaluation. Families should be reassured about thisprogression and can become preoccupied with a normalprocess because this is a value commonly measured, re-ported, and compared in the course of routine newborncare. Numerical weight loss of concern in the presenceof a progressively improving feeding relationship shouldnot drive supplementation. It is typically taught thatnewborns should regain their birth weight by 2 weeks af-ter the birth, although many newborns reach this valuemuch sooner if feeding is well established. Emphasisshould return to the feeding relationship between motherand infant and the promotion of breastfeeding. A greatdeal of normative data collection and evidence-basedresearch has yet to be completed in newborn care. Aresearch collaborative regarding newborn care (BetterOutcomes through Research for Newborns) is beingdeveloped in affiliation with the Academic Pediatric As-sociation (http://www.ambpeds.org/) and promises toprovide normative newborn data.

Voiding and Stooling PatternsThe infant typically passes a first meconium stool shortlyafter birth, often within the first hours and typically be-fore 24 to 48 hours. These black, tarry, and sticky stoolstransition as the mother’s human milk production in-creases. This transition typically occurs in a pattern, oftenfrom green/brown to a seedy, loose, mustard yellow ap-pearance. It is not rare for an infant to pass stool withnearly every breastfeeding when the mother’s milk is inbecause of the gastrocolic reflex signaling the colon toempty. When the passage of meconium stool is delayed,the provider can carefully recheck the infant’s anus for thenormal characteristic stellate pattern and continue to ob-serve if the infant is feeding well without abdominal con-cerns. Delayed passage of stool beyond 48 hours canindicate serious problems, such as colonic obstructionfrom imperforate anus with or without fistula, meconiumplug syndrome, or Hirschsprung disease. Imaging, in-cluding barium enema, and rectal suction biopsy as thediagnostic gold standard for Hirschsprung should beconsidered.

The infant’s first urination nearly always occurs inthe first 24 hours. Urine can be difficult to detect inthe presence of frequent meconium stool, and the trulyanuric infant is extremely uncommon. The evaluationof the anuric infant should include a reassessment ofthe pregnancy history, with special attention to decreasedamniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) and anomalies of theurinary system on prenatal ultrasound that might indicateurinary obstruction. Feeding adequacy should be assessedand the notes reviewed to determine if the infant voidedat delivery or elsewhere and the voiding was not recorded.One can then repeat the physical examination, paying par-ticular attention to the genitalia and abdomen. If these

Table 2. Key Elements for Reducing Severe Hyperbilirubinemia

• Promote and support successful breastfeeding.• Establish nursery protocols for the identification and evaluation of hyperbilirubinemia.• Measure the total serum bilirubin or transcutaneous bilirubin level of infants jaundiced in the first 24 hours.• Recognize that visual estimation of the degree of jaundice can lead to errors, particularly in darkly pigmented infants.• Interpret all bilirubin levels according to the infant’s age in hours.• Recognize that infants <38 wks’ gestation, particularly those who are breastfed, are at higher risk of developinghyperbilirubinemia and require closer surveillance and monitoring.

• Perform a systematic assessment for the risk of severe hyperbilirubinemia on all infants before discharge.• Provide parents with written and oral information about newborn jaundice.• Provide appropriate follow-up based on the time of discharge and the risk assessment.• Treat newborns, when indicated, with phototherapy or exchange transfusion.

Reprinted with permission from AAP Clinical Practice Guideline, Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborninfant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004;114:297–316.

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findings are all normal, the infant can continue to be ob-served. A cotton ball placed between the labia or a bag maybe applied to collect urine if there is concern that the urinewas simply not observed. If there are continued concernsfor anuria, catheterization, bladder and renal ultrasoundwith urologic consultation, and evaluation of renal functioncan be considered. Commercially available diapers nowcommonly have a stripe that changes color in the presenceof urine, which helps identify small amounts of urine.

Parents often have questions about the appearance ofnewborn urine, which can initially be scant and darklycolored. This inquiry provides a good opportunity to dis-cuss urate crystals (often termed “brick dust”) and vagi-nal discharge. Urate crystals look different from bloodin the newborn’s diaper but can be confused. They tendto sit on the surface of the diaper and are iridescent andcompletely benign. Vaginal discharge can be clear, yellow,or white, and even blood-tinged as the female infant“withdraws” from maternal hormones.

A newborn should not be discharged until the passageof stool and urine can be documented.

Anticipatory Guidance, Screening Tests, andRoutine Health Maintenance and Promotion

Anticipatory GuidanceThe pediatric clinician’s goal should be to perform acomplete assessment of the newborn while providinganticipatory guidance to the family. A sometimes over-whelming amount of information is given to a familyduring this brief hospitalization. Every effort to indi-vidualize, personalize, and teach in the context of theexamination should be encouraged. Preventive healthcare and screening for both infant and mother are im-portant components.

Anticipatory guidance always should include safesleep positioning in which the infant is always placedon his or her back on a firm surface free of quilts, sleeppositioners, or other soft objects, such as stuffed ani-mals. During the hospitalization, safe sleep positioningshould be modeled and promoted. The Back to Sleepcampaign has resulted in a reduction in sudden infantdeath syndrome. (24)(25)

Breastfeeding and lack of exposure to tobacco are im-portant, modifiable behaviors shown to reduce the risk ofsudden infant death syndrome. Room but not bed shar-ing also is encouraged, and a pacifier can be offered oncebreastfeeding is established.

Parents often have questions about skin and cord care.The newborn infant does not require frequent bathing.Cleansers should be mild and the child should havesponge baths until the umbilical cord detaches. In the

past, antibiotic ointments, dyes, and alcohol have all beenapplied to the umbilical cord, but this practice is unnec-essary. Parents should keep the umbilical stump dry andallow it to fall off naturally, generally in 10 to 14 days.Long, flexible but sharp fingernails often are a source ofconcern for the new family. With good lighting and whenthe child is quiet, the nails can be clipped, cut, filed, or torn.

Care of the uncircumcised penis requires little effort.It can be cleansed externally when regular bathing is es-tablished. Retracting the foreskin of an infant is discour-aged because it will likely cause pain, bleeding, and evenadhesions. Over time, the natural separation of the fore-skin from the glans will occur. After puberty, boys canlearn to retract and cleanse under the foreskin in theshower as a part of their daily hygiene. If circumcised,the penis should be kept clean and simple petroleum oint-ment applied to keep the newly exposed glans from ad-hering to adjacent skin or diaper.

Pediatric clinicians have an opportunity during thecourse of newborn care to educate families about thedangers of abusive head trauma and to normalize infantcrying. Hospital-based interventions, such as the Periodof Purple Crying, from which families receive informationon newborn crying and abusive head trauma have proveneffective in educating families (http://www.purplecrying.info/). Techniques to soothe the infant should be taught,but parents should be given realistic information aboutbehavioral expectations.

Fever, hypothermia, poor feeding, lethargy, andtachypnea are nonspecific signs and symptoms but theycan indicate serious bacterial infection during infancy.Knowing whom to call and when and where to seek carein the first months of life is an important part of anti-cipatory guidance provided in the hospital.

Necessary travel from the hospital to home affordsthe opportunity to provide car seat safety informationto families, which can seem confusing and even over-whelming. Recent studies support recommendationsto remain rear-facing for longer periods of time. (26)The AAP recommends that all infants should riderear-facing, starting with their first ride home fromthe hospital. All infants and toddlers should ride ina rear-facing car safety seat until they are 2 years ofage or until they reach the highest weight or height al-lowed by their car safety seat’s manufacturer. Certifiedcar seat safety inspectors at the hospital or in the com-munity provide adjunctive support.

Screening TestsState-mandated screening tests typically include newbornmetabolic screening and hearing screening, the specific

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components of which may differ from state to state. Sup-portive statements have been issued by the Agency forHealth Care Research and Quality for screening for con-genital hypothyroidism, phenylketonuria, and hearingloss. The USPSTF gives an A recommendation (high cer-tainty the net benefit is substantial) for screening for con-genital hypothyroidism and phenylketonuria in allnewborn infants. (27) The USPSTF gives a B recom-mendation (high certainty the net benefit is moderateor there is moderate certainty the net benefit is moderateto substantial) for screening for hearing loss in all new-born infants, citing good-quality evidence that early de-tection improves language outcomes. (28)

In addition to these tests, in 2009, the AAP concludeduniversal pulse oximetry screening at >24 hours incursvery low cost and risk of harm at those birthing sitesthat have on-site pediatric cardiovascular services. (29)Since then, screening for critical congenital heart dis-ease (CCHD) was recommended by the US Healthand Human Services Secretary’s Advisory Committeeon Heritable Disorders in Newborns and Children, butconcerns regarding implementation prevented full sup-port by the Secretary of Health and Human Services.More recently, an AAP work group found sufficient ev-idence supporting universal pulse oximetry screening todetect CCHD in well-infant and intermediate care nurs-eries. (30) To maximize positive predictive value, thescreen should be accomplished at >24 hours, withscreening values <96%, on the foot or >3% differencebetween the right hand and foot indicating the needfor further evaluation. Oximetry should be consideredan essential tool in the evaluation of any infant with aheart murmur, cyanosis, tachypnea, or signs of illnessor poor feeding, as these could be presenting signs ofundiagnosed congenital heart disease.

Some standard screening tests and other proceduresare painful for the neonate. Pharmacologic and nonphar-macologic methods to relieve pain, as well as standardizedassessments to assess pain, should be implemented. Breast-feeding and kangaroo care/skin-to-skin contact, as well asglucose/sucrose solutions, are options for reducing painassociated with routine minor procedures.

VaccinationAll newborns should receive vaccination at birth for hep-atitis B. This vaccine is extremely effective in preventinghepatitis transmission. If the mother is hepatitis B surfaceantigen-positive, the infant should receive hepatitis B vac-cine and hepatitis B immune globulin, administered inseparate thighs, at birth. When the mother’s hepatitisserology results are unknown, the infant should receive

the vaccine as soon as possible and within 12 hoursof birth. The mother’s serology results should be soughtand the clinician has 7 days to administer hepatitis Bimmune globulin if serology results are positive forhepatitis B surface antigen. It is recommended that dis-charge be deferred until the serology results have beendetermined. Some institutions give the hepatitis B vac-cine at the time of vitamin K administration, immedi-ately after delivery.

Efforts should be made to provide influenza and tet-anus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellularpertussis, adsorbed (TdaP) vaccination to postpartummothers and to recommend or provide opportunitiesfor other caregivers to receive these vaccinations. Vacci-nation of caregivers for influenza and pertussis effec-tively cocoons the vulnerable infant until he or she canbe fully vaccinated. Families are often unaware of theserisks and are accepting of adult vaccinations even whenthey have concerns about childhood vaccination.

Vitamin DThe AAP updated its vitamin D recommendations in2008, increasing the minimum daily intake of vitaminD to 400 IU per day, beginning soon after birth. (31)This advice replaces a prior recommendation of 200 IUper day of vitamin D. In practice, all infants, whetherformula fed or breastfed, are unlikely to be able to achievethe recommended intake through feeding and requiresupplementation. Children should continue to receive400 IU per day of vitamin D through adolescence.

Discharge ReadinessDischarge readiness includes the completion of all new-born care tasks and parental education, a well-establishedfeeding plan, and follow-up, in particular for the eval-uation of jaundice and breastfeeding problems. TheAAP defines all discharges before 48 hours as early dis-charge and recommends follow-up for these infants within1 to 2 days, and in 72 hours when an earlier visit is notpossible. (32) Access to care is still a problem and home-based care frequently is unavailable in our current healthcare delivery system. Discharge readiness checklists havebeen developed by the AAP and Bright Futures. (33)

In situations in which the newborn is at high risk fordevelopment of severe hyperbilirubinemia, feeding prob-lems, or problems related to prematurity, or when a safeplan for discharge cannot be formulated, the infantshould not be discharged until proper arrangements aremade. Often there will be pressures related to length-of-stay parameters that have not been formulated with theat-risk infant in mind, but by third party payers. Perinatal

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social workers and case managers may be instrumental infacilitating necessary steps for an unanticipated extendedneonatal hospitalization. Pediatric clinicians must continueto advocate for newborns individually and collectively sothey receive the care they require and deserve.

Quality Indicators in Newborn CareNational quality indicators for newborn care are beingdeveloped. As we move toward the measurement and re-porting of quality care, residents who often are on thefront lines in academic medical centers are becoming in-volved increasingly in the design and implementation ofsystems and processes to deliver quality care. Neonatalmortality, percentage of term infants with Apgar scores<7 or umbilical arterial pH <7.2, and NICU admission,as well as serious bacterial infections commonly are re-ported and tracked. Exclusive breastfeeding at discharge,hepatitis B immunization, and hepatitis B immune glob-ulin (when indicated) are some obstetric and neonatalmeasures proposed by the National Quality Forum andothers. Many hospitals and care systems are measuringand reporting newborn hearing screening referral rates,maternal TdaP administration rates, bilirubin measure-ments, and phototherapy usage.

The Medical Home RevisitedCommunication with outpatient care providers regardingthe events and results of the birth hospitalization and in-formation gathered on the pregnancy and family historyduring the newborn’s stay is the newborn care team’sresponsibility. Inpatient maternal and newborn care pro-viders should see themselves as an extension of the med-ical home. Follow-up needs should be communicatedelectronically (ideally via an integrated electronic healthrecord), and in some cases by direct telephone commu-nication. Families also should receive information aboutthe events of the hospitalization at the time of dischargein a format and language they understand. Informationand documents to be relayed to the primary care providershould be identified clearly.

Postpartum depression affects up to 15% of all moth-ers and is likely underrecognized and undertreated. Sim-ilar to depression in pregnancy, the negative short- andlong-term effects on child development are well estab-lished. Both the maternity care provider and the pediatricprovider (if not the same clinician) have roles in screeningfor and treating postpartum depression. Communicationbetween the two is essential. Treatment options includemedications and psychotherapy. Barriers to successfultreatment include access to mental health care and

mental health care professionals, concerns of breastfeed-ing mothers about exposure of the infant to antidepres-sant medication, knowledge and comfort of primarycare providers in prescribing and monitoring medica-tions, and financial and transportation barriers to care.

Special CircumstancesThe Late Preterm Infant

Late preterm infants (typically defined as 34 0/7 to 36 6/7 weeks) deserve special consideration for their vulnera-bility. When thinking about these infants, it may be bestwhen considering the gestational age to round it down tothe last completed week rather than round it up (eg, a36 5/7 week infant is described as a “36 weeker,” em-phasizing their immaturity). Late preterm infants are athigh risk for respiratory distress, temperature instability,hypoglycemia, jaundice, feeding problems, and readmis-sion after discharge. (10) Transportation of the low birthweight (<2500 g) and preterm infant deserves specialconsideration, and car seat testing for these infants hasbeen proposed. Some institutions have personnel whohave been certified in the evaluation of car seat install-ment available to the newborn nursery.

The preterm infant has higher fluid and caloric re-quirements and often has feeding difficulty. Insensiblelosses are increased with exposure to radiant warmers,during phototherapy, and because of the preterm in-fant’s relative increase in body surface area. Mothersshould begin pumping immediately after birth andlactation consultants are integral to the late preterminfant’s care. Supplemental feeding frequently is neces-sary. Jaundice can present later, and late preterm infantscannot safely tolerate the same levels of bilirubin asa term infant. Careful attention to the feeding patternsand risk factors for jaundice are crucial to prevent path-ologic hyperbilirubinemia.

Integrated Care and Nontraditional BirthsSome infants are born at home or in out-of-hospital birthcenters. Most of these births are term gestations in low-risk pregnancies. When evaluating infants born out-of-hospital for the first time, it is especially important toreview which standard screening tests or medications(newborn metabolic screen, vitamin K, erythromycin,hearing screening) have been offered and completed,and coordinate care for those still needed. The first new-born outpatient visit often can be arranged to meet theneeds of the mother and infant with coordination of careamong obstetric, pediatric, and lactation providers. Homevisits provide an excellent opportunity to provide this carein a family-centered fashion.

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References1. Kellerman R, Kirk L. Principles of the patient-centered medicalhome. Am Fam Physician. 2007;76(6):774–7752. Tita ATN, Landon MB, Spong CY, et al; Eunice KennedyShriver NICHD Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. Timingof elective repeat cesarean delivery at term and neonatal outcomes.N Engl J Med. 2009;360(2):111–1203. Tutdibi E, Gries K, Bücheler M, Misselwitz B, Schlosser RL,Gortner L. Impact of labor on outcomes in transient tachypnea ofthe newborn: population-based study. Pediatrics. 2010;125(3):e577–e5834. ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. ACOG Prac-tice Bulletin. Clinical Management Guidelines for Obstetrician-Gynecologists Number 36, July 2002. Obstetric analgesia andanesthesia. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;100(1):177–1915. American Academy of Pediatrics. Neonatal resuscitation pro-gram. Available at: http://www.aap.org/nrp/nrpmain.html. Ac-cessed September 20, 20116. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus andNewborn; American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologistsand Committee on Obstetric Practice. The Apgar score. Pediatrics.2006;117(4):1444–14477. Graham EM, Ruis KA, Hartman AL, Northington FJ, Fox HE.A systematic review of the role of intrapartum hypoxia-ischemiain the causation of neonatal encephalopathy. Am J Obstet Gynecol.2008;199(6):587–5958. Ballard JL, Khoury JC, Wedig K, Wang L, Eilers-Walsman BL,Lipp R. New Ballard Score, expanded to include extremely pre-mature infants. J Pediatr. 1991;119(3):417–423

9. Dubowitz LM, Dubowitz V, Palmer P, Verghote M. A newapproach to the neurological assessment of the preterm and full-term newborn infant. Brain Dev. 1980;2(1):3–1410. Bird TM, Bronstein JM, Hall RW, Lowery CL, Nugent R,Mays GP. Late preterm infants: birth outcomes and health careutilization in the first year. Pediatrics. 2010;126(2):e311–e31911. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention ofperinatal group B streptococcal disease: revised guidelines fromCDC, 2010. MMWR November 19, 2010;59(RR-10):1–23.Available at: www.cdc.gov/groupbstrep/guidelines/guidelines.html.Accessed September 20, 201112. AAP Committee on Drugs. Neonatal drug withdrawal. Pedi-atrics. 1998;101(6):1079–108813. Bartick M, Reinhold A. The burden of suboptimal breastfeed-ing in the United States. A pediatric cost analysis. Pediatrics. 2010;125(5):e1048–e105614. UNICEF. The baby-friendly hospital initiative. Available at:http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_24806.html. AccessedSeptember 20, 201115. American Academy of Pediatrics. Breastfeeding residency curric-ulum. Available at: http://www.aap.org/breastfeeding/curriculum/.Accessed September 20, 201116. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthypeople 2020. US Stock number 017-001-0547-9. Washington,DC: DHHS, 2000. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/default.aspx. Accessed September 20, 201117. US Department of Health and Human Services. The SurgeonGeneral’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding. Washington,DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of theSurgeon General; 2011

Summary

• The birth of an infant is one of the most memorableexperiences a family shares. Pediatric health careprofessionals are privileged to participate in thisexperience and recognize it as a time to promote thehealth of the newborn and family.

• Ideally, a well-designed care system would bereplete with comprehensive supports duringthe prenatal period, birth, and transition tohome.

• Opportunities exist to improve the care we deliverwith universal screening of all pregnant women;coordinated assessments of family health, includingmental health; and access to coordinated supports andservices for mother and infant.

Parent Resources From the AAP at HealthyChildren.org

The reader is likely to find material to share with parents that is relevant to this article by visiting

this link: http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/pages/default.aspx.

• If 90% of US families could comply with medicalrecommendations to breastfeed exclusively for 6months, it is estimated the United States would savebillions of dollars per year and prevent more than 900deaths, nearly all of which would be in infants.

• All infants, whether breastfed or formula fed, shouldreceive 400 IU supplemental vitamin D.

• Influenza and TdaP vaccination of postpartummothers and other caregivers helps cocoon thevulnerable infant from influenza and pertussis until heor she can be fully vaccinated.

• When children reach the highest weight or lengthallowed by the manufacturer of their infant-only seat,they should continue to ride rear-facing in a convertibleseat. It is best for children to ride rear-facing as long aspossible to the highest weight and height allowed by themanufacturer of their convertible seat.

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18. Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, et al. Breastfeeding and Maternaland Infant Health Outcomes in Developed Countries. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 153. Rockville, MD: Agency for HealthcareResearch and Quality; 2007. AHRQ Publication No. 07-E00719. Schwarz EB, McClure CK, Tepper PG, et al. Lactation andmaternal measures of subclinical cardiovascular disease. ObstetGynecol. 2010;115(1):41–4820. The Joint Commission. Kernicterus threatens healthy new-borns. Sentinel Event Alert. 2001;18:1–421. American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyper-bilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborninfant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004;114(1):297–31622. Calonge N, Petitti DB, DeWitt TG, et al. Screening of infantsfor hyperbilirubinemia to prevent chronic bilirubin encephalopathy:US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement.Pediatrics. 2009;124(4):1172–117723. Kuzniewicz MW, Escobar GJ, Newman TB. Impact of universalbilirubin screening on severe hyperbilirubinemia and phototherapyuse. Pediatrics. 2009;124(4):1031–103924. National Institutes of Health. Back to sleep public informationcampaign. Available at: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/sids/. AccessedSeptember 20, 201125. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Sudden InfantDeath Syndrome. SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths:expansion of recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environ-ment. Pediatrics. 2011;128(5):e1341–e136726. Bull MJ, Durbin DR. Rear-facing car safety seats: getting themessage right. Pediatrics. 2008;121(3):619–620

27. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for phenylke-tonuria (PKU): US Preventive Services Task Force ReaffirmationRecommendation. Ann Fam Med. 2008;6(2):16628. US Preventive Services Task Force. Universal screeningfor hearing loss in newborns: US Preventive Services Task ForceRecommendation Statement. Pediatrics. 2008;122(1):143–14829. Mahle WT, Newburger JW, Matherne GP, et al; AmericanHeart Association Congenital Heart Defects Committee of theCouncil on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Council onCardiovascular Nursing, and Interdisciplinary Council on Qualityof Care and Outcomes Research; American Academy of PediatricsSection on Cardiology and Cardiac Surgery; Committee on Fetusand Newborn. Role of pulse oximetry in examining newborns forcongenital heart disease: a scientific statement from the AHA andAAP. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):823–83630. Kemper A, Mahle W, Martin G, et al. Strategies for imple-menting screening for critical congenital heart disease. Pediatrics.2011;128(5):e1259–e126731. Wagner CL, Greer FR; American Academy of Pediatrics Sectionon Breastfeeding; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee onNutrition. Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants,children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2008;122(5):1142–115232. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Fetus andNewborn. Hospital stay for healthy term newborns. Pediatrics. 2010;125(2):405–40933. American Academy of Pediatrics. Safe and healthy beginningsnewborn discharge: a readiness checklist. Available at: http://practice.aap.org/public/Newborn_Discharge_SAMPLE.pdf. Ac-cessed September 20, 2011

PIR QuizQuiz also available online at http://www.pedsinreview.aappublications.org. NOTE: Beginning with this issue, learnerscan take Pediatrics in Review quizzes and claim credit online only. No paper answer form will be printed in the journal.

New minimum performance level requirementsPer the 2010 revision of the American Medical Association (AMA) Physician’s Recognition Award (PRA) and creditsystem, a minimum performance level must be established on enduring material and journal-based CME activities thatare certified for AMA PRA Category 1 Credit�. In order to successfully complete 2012 Pediatrics in Review articles forAMA PRA Category 1 Credit�, learners must demonstrate a minimum performance level of 60% or higher on thisassessment, which measures achievement of the educational purpose and/or objectives of this activity.

Starting with 2012 Pediatrics in Review, AMA PRA Category 1 Credit� can be claimed only if 60% or more of thequestions are answered correctly. If you score less than 60% on the assessment, you will be given additionalopportunities to answer questions until an overall 60% or greater score is achieved.

1. Which of the following conditions in neonates should prompt an immediate evaluation by a healthcareprovider?

A. Brick-colored crystals in the diaper.B. Failure to pass stool in the first 12 hours of life.C. Jaundice in the first 24 hours of life.D. Weight loss of 5% in the first week.E. White vaginal discharge.

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2. You are counseling new parents on their son’s care before his discharge at 2 days old. His newborn course hasbeen normal except for some mild spitting up after feeds. The parents have opted not to have him circumcisedbefore discharge. Which of the following is the best advice?

A. He may have dextrose water between breastfeeding if he appears hungry.B. He should sleep on his abdomen because he has gastroesophageal reflux.C. They should apply daily antibiotic ointment to his umbilical stump.D. They should retract the foreskin daily to prevent infection.E. They should seek medical care immediately if he has a fever >100.4˚.

3. You are attending the caesarian delivery of a 39 weeks’ gestation boy. Upon delivery, his heart rate is 90 beatsper minute and he is breathing normally. He shows flexion of all extremities and has good muscle tone anda strong cry. His lips are pink but his hands and feet are bluish. What Apgar score would you assign at 1minute?

A. 6.B. 7.C. 8.D. 9.E. 10.

4. Which of the following statements regarding maternal and neonatal care is true?

A. Apgar scores are assigned to predict neurologic development.B. Epidural anesthesia is associated with an increased risk of fetal bradycardia.C. Infants who are born via vaginal delivery have an increased risk of transient tachypnea of the newborn.D. Only infants who are exclusively breastfed require vitamin D supplementation.E. Pediatricians play a role in recognizing postpartum depression in mothers.

5. At a prenatal visit, a mother asks you about the effects breastfeeding might have on her own health. Which ofthe following would be a true consequence if she breastfeeds her baby?

A. She is at higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes.B. She is less likely to develop ovarian cancer.C. She is likely to put on more weight.D. She is more likely to develop breast cancer.E. She will be at higher risk for becoming depressed.

fetus and newborn care of the well newborn

18 Pediatrics in Review Vol.33 No.1 January 2012

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DOI: 10.1542/pir.33-1-42012;33;4Pediatrics in Review 

Johanna B. Warren and Carrie A. PhillipiCare of the Well Newborn

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